Training course of

cane milling of
sugar
Sugar cane grinding training course

Content

1. Introduction to extraction
1.1. General description of the extraction process
1.1.1. Introductory notes
1.1.2. Extraction processes
1.1.3. Description of a grinding train
1.1.4. Description of a diffuser

1.2. Structure of a sugar plant

1.2.1. Introductory Notes
1.2.2. Components of the sugarcane plant
1.2.3. Cross-sectional view: regions of cortex and medulla
1.2.4. Variations in structure along the stem

1.3. Constituents of sugarcane

1.3.1. Introductory Notes
1.3.2. Cane
1.3.3. Fiber
1.3.4. Juice
1.3.5. Brix
1.3.6. Water
1.3.7. Pol
1.3.8. Impurities

2. Performance of the extraction plant

2.1. Measurement of the extraction plant performance
2.2. Measurement techniques
2.3. Importance of good sampling
2.4. Collection and preservation of samples of pulp, bagasse and juice
2.4.1. Introduction
2.4.2. Time elapsed between cutting and sugar plant
2.4.3. Sample preparation cane
2.4.4. First sampling of squeezed juice
2.4.5. Sampling of bagasse
2.4.6. Juice of the bagacera fruit
2.4.7. Preservation of bagasse and cane sample

2.5. Sample preparation

2.5.1. Sample Inspection
2.5.2. Sample mixture

2.6. Sugarcane analysis

2.6.1. Introductory Notes
2.6.2. Analysis of prepared cane
2.6.3. First analysis of squeezed juice
 2.7. Analysis of bagasse
2.7.1. Introductory Notes
2.7.2. Determination of humidity
2.7.3. Determination of pol and brix

2.8. Extraction calculation

2.9. Measurement of cane readiness

2.9.1. Introductory notes
2.9.2. Bulk Density
2.9.3. Average particle thickness
2.9.4. Pole and open cells
2.9.5. Treatment number

3. Preparation of the cane

3.1. Purpose of cane preparation

3.2. Blades
3.2.1. Principles on blades
3.2.2. Blade design and maintenance

3.3. The defibrillator

3.3.1. History of the Defibrillator
3.3.2. Description and functioning
3.3.3. Mechanism of the defibrillator

3.4. Factors that influence preparation

3.4.1. Hammers
3.4.2. Hammer cutting speed
3.4.3. Machine diameter
3.4.4. Feeding Rollers
3.4.5. Grid arrangement
3.4.6. Effects of the varieties

3.5. Power requirements of the defibrillator

3.5.1. Introduction
3.5.2. Effect of defibrillation power on preparation
3.5.3. Simple impact tests
3.5.4. Effects of preparation through the defibrillator

3.6. Capacity of the defibrillator

3.7. Maintenance of the defibrillator
3.7.1. Problems
3.7.2. Hammer scratches
3.8. Detection of iron particles

4. Extraction
4.1. Introduction to the mill setting
4.1.1. Introductory Notes
4.1.2. Fiber rate
 4.1.3. Opening of work
4.1.4. Average diameter of masses
4.1.5. Surface velocity of masses
4.1.6. Contact angles
4.1.7. Volume
4.1.8. Fiber Classification
4.1.9. Mills and volumetric ratios

4.2. Example of mill setup

4.2.1. The problem
4.2.2. Calculation of the fiber ratio
4.2.3. Calculation of work openings
4.2.4. Calculation of the mean diameter of masses
4.2.5. Calculation of the velocity of the masses
4.2.6. Volume calculation
4.2.7. Calculation of compaction and ratios
4.2.8. Calculation of contact angles

4.3. Load on masses and torques

4.3.1. Introduction
4.3.2. Loads on masses
4.3.3. Torque in masses
4.3.4. Loads and torques in mass combinations
4.3.5. Torque distribution among individual masses
4.3.6. Influence of load on masses and torque theory in the setting of mills

4.4. Extraction Theory

4.4.1. Background
4.4.2. Factors that affect extraction
4.4.3. Influence of extraction on mill setting

4.5. Mill Feeding

4.5.1. Importance of mill feed
4.5.2. Development of power supply devices
4.5.3. Theory of Mill Feeding
4.5.4. Influence of the mill feeding on the setting

4.6. Guide for setting up mills

4.6.1. Introduction
4.6.2. Feeding and compaction
4.6.3. Guidelines for trash plates
4.6.4. Pressure feeders

4.7. Mill Control

4.7.1. Introduction
4.7.2. Chute height control and chute sensors
4.7.3. Drop height control N1
4.7.4. Control of defibrillator drop height
4.7.5. Control of height of intermediate and final mill chutes
4.7.6. Mill load control
 4.7.7. General control

4.8. Main engines

4.8.1. Introductory notes
4.8.2. Steam engine
4.8.3. Steam turbine
4.8.4. Hydraulic transmission
4.8.5. Transmission of variable speed

4.9. Gears
4.9.1. Fundamentals in Gears
4.9.2. Gear wheels
4.9.3. Mill Gear
4.9.4. Effects of loading on the life of gears
4.9.5. Wear and importance of lubrication
4.9.6. Gear inspection
4.9.7. Gear Failures
4.9.8. Load inspection
4.9.9. Load distribution
4.9.10. Modes of failure
4.9.11. Gear Design
4.9.12. Inspecting gear tooth accuracy
4.9.13. Gear installation

4.10. Maintenance of mill masses

4.10.1. Introductory notes
4.10.2. Mill Shells
4.10.3. Cash count
4.10.4. Lamination of the dough

4.11. Stationary plates

4.11.1. Introductory notes
4.11.2. Trash plates
List of tables
Table 2.1 Cane mass or bagasse and water required for the disintegrator analysis
Table 3.1 Average results for 1830 mm machine (8 rows)
Table 3.2 Medium preparation levels and powers for a roller crusher
nutrition
Table 3.3 Average results for 1830 mm machine (8 rows)
Table 3.4 Crusher settings used for the test program
Table 3.5 Summary and recommendations for various magnet configurations
Table 4.1 Calculated compactness and filling ratios for the example
Table 4.2 The effect of mill speed on the extraction of powder from the measurements
from factory
Table 4.3 Typical characteristics of sugar mill turbines
Table 4.4. Typical hydraulic applications
Table 4.5 Applications of toothed gears
Table 4.6 Gear tooth failure

List of figures
Figure 1.1 A typical Australian milling unit
Figure 1.2 Counterflow washing system for 4 million train.
Figure 1.3 A diffuser
Figure 1.4 Mature sugarcane stalks
Figure 1.5 Photograph of parenchyma cells in sugar cane (cultivar Q124,
increase x 100
Figure 1.6 Cross section view (A) and longitudinal section (B) of the cells of
parenchyma.
Figure 1.7 Photograph of fibrovascular beam surrounded by parenchyma cells (cultivar
Q124, increase x 100
Figure 1.8 Portion of a cross-sectional view of an internodal segment of a
sugarcane stalk
Figure 1.9 Photograph of the bark showing the epidermis, the hypodermis, several bundles
fibrovascular and the surrounding parenchymal cells (cultivar Q124,
increase x 100
Figure 1.10 Section of the sugar cane stem showing the internode and the
components of the nodal region
Figure 1.11 Longitudinal section of a cane stem
Figure 2.1 Variance components for sugarcane analysis
Figure 2.2 Variance components for the final analysis of the bagasse
Figure 2.3 Fiber machine
Figure 2.4 Jeffco wet disintegrator
Figure 3.1 Strips of very compact fibrovascular bundles, mainly from the dura.
outer bark of the cane stalk
Figure 3.2 Individual fibrovascular packages from the region of the internal medulla of the
stalk of the cane
Figure 3.3 Various groups of parenchyma cells
Figure 3.4 Blade rotor with fixed blades
Figure 3.5 Blade rotor for free rotary blades
Figure 3.6 Free rotating knives
Figure 3.7 Heavy-duty crusher
Figure 3.8 Arrangements of conventional crushers and with reduction
noise
Figure 3.9 Arrangements of conventional hammers and with reduction
noise
Figure 3.10 Arrangement of the feeding rollers
Figure 3.11 Damage to the cane for radial impact orientations (side up) and
axial (end upwards) (in relation to the hammer crushers of
small scale) for two different drop heights
Figure 3.12 Detail of grid profiles
Figure 3.13 Variety effect on preparation
Figure 3.14 Response of the preparation to the energy absorbed by the crusher
Figure 3.15 Response of the preparation to the energy absorbed by the crusher
ton of cane
Figure 3.16 Damage to cane samples after high-speed radial impacts.
The gaps in the cane samples indicate significant damage.
Figure 3.17 Relationships between damage and specific absorbed energy for single impact
radial and axial tests, and for a 1450 mm crusher
Figure 3.18 Slices of a cane billet after it was dropped onto the hammers
high speed of the small scale grinder SRI
Figure 3.19 Results of the preparation of the crusher configurations for the three
varieties of test cane
Figure 3.20 Energy usage results for the crusher configurations for the
three varieties of test cane
Figure 3.21 Comparisons between the relationships of preparation and energy use of the
this research, previous studies on crushers and impact tests
Figure 4.1 Calculation diagram for opening work
Figure 4.2. Lower comb diagram
Figure 4.3. Opening of the upper roller (drum)
Figure 4.4 Diagrams of contact angles
Figure 4.5 Calculation of the chute exit angle
Figure 4.6. Contact angle of comb
Figure 4.7. Discharge volume between a pair of rollers
Figure 4.8 Diagram of a roll pair feeding a ramp
Figure 4.9 Adjustments and outside diameters for example of mill adjustment
Figure 4.10 Work openings and mean diameters for sample calculation
Figure 4.11 Pressurized feed chute: diameters and openings
Figure 4.12. Comb contact angle
Figure 4.13 Change in torque distribution with the speed of the upper roller
Figure 4.14 Change in the pair distribution with the speed of the cane roller
Figure 4.15 Change in the distribution of the pair with the speed of the bagasse roller
Figure 4.16 Volume change in milling
Figure 4.17 Volumes involved in milling
Figure 4.18 Effect of preparation on total extraction
Figure 4.19 The effect of added water on extraction.
Figure 4.20 The effect of mill speed on extraction, from a two laboratory.
rollers, prepared at the Sugar Research Institute in 1992
Figure 4.21 Recommended levels of comb compaction
Figure 4.22 Height sensor electrodes of the ramp installed on the wall of the ramp
Figure 4.23 Adjusted output response curve of the hopper height sensor
Figure 4.24 Height control of the No.1 mill hopper (constant mill speed)
No1)
Figure 4.25 Control of the height of the intermediate and final mill hopper
Figure 4.26 Typical steam turbine curve
Figure 4.27. Steam engine
Figure 4.28 pv diagram of the steam engine
Figure 4.29 Types of steam turbines
Figure 4.30 The steam cycle for a sugar mill
Figure 4.31 Output pair as a function of pressure and bowl nozzle speed
Figure 4.32 Hydraulic drives
Figure 4.33 Terms of toothed gears
Figure 4.34 The effect of lubrication on the durability of gear surfaces.
Figure 4.35 Contact patterns and load distribution. Km is the distribution factor.
of load
Figure 4.36 Typical fatigue cracks in gear teeth
Figure 4.37 Measurement of axial play (a) mounted on a gear with a horizontal shaft and (b)
mounted on a gear with a vertical axis
1. Introduction to extraction
1.1. General description of the extraction process
1.1.1. Introductory notes
For the purpose of the course, extraction covers the factory processes involved in
the extraction of sugar juice from sugarcane. The sugarcane is received in the
factory in the form of whole stems or cuts of 250 mm typical length.
The purposes of extraction are:

Process the cane at the desired speed

Minimizar el contenido de humedad del bagazo final para que las calderas
they can easily burn the bagasse
Maximize sugar extraction.

The extraction process is complemented by the addition of imbibition water that

helps to extract sugar from the bagasse.

1.1.2. Extraction process

The first extraction process, known as cane preparation, has a dual
function of reducing the size of the cane particles and breaking down the cell walls
from the cane so that the sugar can be extracted more easily. When the cane is received
as whole stems, it is first necessary to cut the cane into smaller particles.
This task is generally achieved through one or more sets of rotary blades.
final preparation is generally achieved in a hammer mill known as
shredder. In some factories, only the knives provide the preparation of the cane.
Knives are not necessary when the cane is provided cut, although sometimes
they are still used in this case.

The second extraction process involves the separation of the sugar-rich juice from the
cane particles. This process is usually carried out in a series of mills
rollers, individually referred to as mills and collectively referred to as tandems,
or a diffuser. The main difference between grinding trains and diffusers is that
the grinding trains extract the juice through a squeezing process, while
The diffusers extract the juice through a leaching process.

To help in the extraction of the juice, water is added near the end of the process to
help filter the sugar. The leaching process is called imbibition or commonly
Maceration. A countercurrent washing process is used to concentrate the juice.
towards the beginning of the process. It is the concentrated juice near the start of the process that
extracted from the cane used for sugar production.
The third extraction process consists of the dehydration of the bagasse, the remains
fibrous material from sugarcane. A roller mill is used for this purpose. When
a milling train is used, the final mill of the grinding tandem serves for this
purpose. When a diffuser is used, a dedicated mill is required afterwards.
diffuser for this purpose.
1.1.3. Description of a grinding tandem

In Australian mills, the cane is crushed in a series of up to six units.

crushing, usually called mills (Figure 1.1). A typical mill consists of a
group of three solid cast iron rollers (typically 2100 mm long and 1050
mm in diameter) preceded by a pair of 'pressure feed' rollers.
similar dimensions. A common practice is to add another roller (or mass) of
lower feed

Figure 1.1 A typical Australian milling unit

There are many other carving unit configurations. In many parts of the world,
Four mills are common. In this configuration, there are no feed rollers.
pressure and a lower feed mass is added directly to the three mill
rollers. Other configurations involve only two or three rollers in various
settings.

The cane or prepared bagasse is usually fed from a nearly vertical ramp.
from 2500 mm in height above the pressure feeder rollers. The section
The width of the ramp is as wide as the length of the roller and approximately 500.
mm in thickness.

The surface speed of the rolls is approximately 250 mm/s. The mill
it is generally powered by a steam turbine of approximately 700 to 1200 kW
which spins at approximately 4000 rpm. A significant gear reduction is required.
(let's say 900 to 1) between the turbine and the mill. This reduction is achieved by using a gearbox.
high-speed reducer of two pairs with a ratio of approximately 35 to 1, and
two more pairs of gears in a low-speed gearbox.
Helical and double helical gears are standard in high-speed gearboxes.
but they are less common in low-speed reductions. Many low pairs
speed are straight gears.

The final transmission in the low-speed gear train, the chainring or crown, usually
having a diameter of 4 to 6 meters and teeth 40 mm high (circular pitch of 126 mm).

The mill rollers are usually loaded hydraulically with loads of up to

2600 kN per meter of length. A first large mill will extract juice that contains
up to 80 percent of the sucrose from the cane. This mill will also reduce the content
of bagasse moisture to approximately 52 percent.

The remaining grinding units extract most of the remaining sucrose.

using a countercurrent washing system (Figure 1.2). Hot water is added to
bagasse in the delivery of the penultimate mill at a rate of 160 - 300 percent fiber.

Figure 1.2 Counterflow washing system for 4 million train.

The extracted juice is then circulated countercurrent to the bagasse. This circulation
continues until the delivery of the first mill. The undiluted juice from the first mill and the juice
(diluted) extracted from the second mill are mixed. This mixture contains
approximately 96 percent of the sucrose from the cane is called mixed juice.

The remaining juice is lost in the final bagasse, which contains approximately 2% of
sucrose and 48% moisture. This final bagasse is used as fuel in the
boilers of the mill.

1.1.4. Description of a diffuser

For many years, a method of extraction by diffusion or leaching has been used.
in the sugar beet industry. Beets are too soft to
to extract them crushed. The main characteristic of a diffusion process is leaching.
against the current of the cane with very large amounts of hot water (Figure 1.3). The
cane or the prepared bagasse is transported along the diffuser by
through a distributor. The imbibition is distributed through the upper part of the bed,
It drains through it and the conveyor and is collected in tanks beneath the conveyor.
to recycle it to the bed in the countercurrent of the movement of the bed. A
'Dehydration' mill final to reduce the moisture content in the bagasse.

Figure 1.3 A diffuser

The main reasons for installing a cane diffuser are the lower
maintenance and energy requirements. The initial cost is also lower than a tandem
of equivalent mills.

The additional length of a diffuser required to process the prepared cane instead of the
Mill waste No. 1 is quite small. It is reported that the diffusion with cane is more
more economical than diffusion with bagasse.

High extraction performance can be achieved with diffusers, particularly those

with a fiber residence time of approximately 40 minutes. The facilities
cane diffusers from South Africa consistently record higher extractions than
97 percent.

The large volumes of juices, pulp, and fresh water (water extracted from the mill of
Dehydration) in the process causes some operational problems when they occur.
interruptions in the supply of cane and factory shutdowns. Some diffusers have
pH control of the recirculated fresh waters to the bed. It is considered necessary the
clarification of these juices.

The percolation rate of the juices is influenced by the degree of preparation of the
cane. A high degree of preparation (to achieve good leaching efficiency)
it can cause percolation problems.

Most diffuser designs now incorporate large rollers at the end of the bed.
to reduce the moisture load in the final dehydration mills and reduce the
feeding problems to these mills.
A problem with the diffusers is the performance of the dehydration mills.
Generally, the final moisture content of the bagasse is 50 percent or more because the bagasse of
The diffuser is more difficult to feed to the dehydration mill.

This food problem has forced South African factories to invest more.
capital and final mills of what would be considered normal in a milling train. By
For example, a typical installation in South Africa could use two mills of 2.13 meters.
(seven feet) to drain 400 tons of sugar cane per hour. A milling train that
By processing a similar rate of cane, it would use a single mill to achieve the same yield.

1.2. Structure of a sugar plant

1.2.1. Introductory Notes
To understand the process of preparing the cane and the energy required to break it
the cane stalk, it is important to be familiar with the structure of the sugarcane plant
sugar.

Sugarcane belongs to the grass family, genus Saccharum. The plant

Mature cane grows from 3 to 4 m in height (Figure 1.4), where the aerial parts of the plant
de caña consisten en un tallo, hojas e inflorescencia (racimo de flores). El tallo contiene
the parenchyma cells carrying sucrose, which means it is the mature stem that
harvest and process in the sugar factory. The cylindrical stem (radius 25 - 40 mm) consists of
a series of nodes and internodes, the internodal distance varies from 50 mm to 250 mm; the
distance according to the variety of cane and the conditions in which the plant was cultivated. The
The nodal region has a leaf sheath, root primordia, and a growth bud. To
Along the mature stem, the lower leaves are usually dead, while towards the
the upper part of the stem, the green leaves surround the apical bud (growth point). In
the growth region, the stem diameter, and the internodal distance decrease and there is
few storage parenchyma cells. Ideally, the cultivation area or the
The upper part of the cane should be removed from the stalk during the harvest operation.

Figure 1.4 Typical mature sugarcane stalks

 Support for the leaves and floral parts.
Conduction of water and nutrients to the leaves.
Transfer of the prepared food to other parts of the plant where the food is
necessary for cell growth, and
Storage of sugar and other materials.

The stem has two main components: parenchyma or storage cells

of juice and the fibrovascular tissues in which food, water, and the
nutrients of the plant.

1.2.2. Components of the cane stem

In section 1.2, the main components of the stem of the sugarcane were identified as
the parenchyma cells and the fibrovascular bundles. These components will be discussed.
now successively.

Parenchyma cells

Parenchyma cell is a generic description of the thin-walled cells that are

the most common cells in plants. In sugarcane, the parenchyma cells
they are the storage cells in which the synthesized sucrose is stored in the
leaves.

The parenchyma cell of sugar cane is a cell with thin walls, where
the cell structure is dominated by the vacuole that contains the sucrose solution,
as shown in Figure 1.5.

Figure 1.5 Photograph of parenchyma cells in sugar cane ( cultivar

Q124, increase x 100
The shape of the parenchyma cell varies from cylindrical to polygonal multifaceted. The axis
The longitudinal axis of the cell is parallel to the longitudinal axis of the stem. The large cells of the
the parenchyma has a length twice its diameter (Figure 1.6), while
that the smallest cells near the fibrovascular bundles tend to be so long
as wide.

Figure 1.6 Cross section view (A) and longitudinal section (B) of the
parenchyma cells.

The diameters of the large parenchyma cells range from 0.16 mm to 0.19 mm.
while the smaller cells decrease in diameter to 0.035 mm.

fibrovascular package

The cross section view of an internodal section of the cane (Figure 1.7) shows the cells
of the parenchyma that surrounds a vascular bundle.
 Figure 1.7 Photograph of fibrovascular beam surrounded by cells of
parenchyma (cultivar Q124, magnification x 100)

The role of the fibrovascular bundles in the stem of the sugar cane is the transport of
foods, water, and sugars, and the provision of structural resistance for the stem.

The diameter of the fibrovascular bundle is on the order of 0.4 mm. The fibrovascular bundles are
parallel to the longitudinal axis of the stem in the internodal section of the stem. Each
The fibrovascular tissue is continuous along the internode.

The fibrovascular bundle is composed of three groups of tissues: sclerenchyma or tissue of

support, phloem (tube for transporting food and sugars) and xylem (tube for conducting
water and minerals). The sclerenchyma tissue surrounds the phloem and the xylem, supporting and
protecting the groups of tissues. The sheath of the sclerenchyma is made up of cells
of small diameter with important secondary walls. The cell walls are
very lignified, thus creating a rigid and firm sheath that surrounds the phloem and the xylem.

1.2.3. Cross-sectional view: regions of cortex and medulla

In a cross section of an internodal segment of the sugarcane stem, there
they can identify two distinct regions, the crust or outer region and the inner region
medulla call (Figure 1.8). The boundary between the cortex and the medulla is not clearly defined.
outlined, but the differences between the regions are easily visible.
 Figure 1.8 Portion of a cross-sectional view of a segment
internode of a sugarcane stem

Cortex region
The bark is the region that extends from 1 mm to 3 mm radially in the stem from the
outer surface. The cortex is hard and strong, which gives the stem strength and rigidity, and
acts to protect the parenchyma cells with thin and relatively walls
blands that store sucrose juice.

The outer layer of the skin is the epidermis. The epidermis is only one layer thick,
but it is made up of long and short cells. Some of the short cells are known
as silica cells because silica (SiO2) is stored within the cells.
Characteristics of the stem that can be visually identified are embedded in the
epidermis. These are the color of the stem, the wax content, and small cracks.
longitudinal. Below the epidermis is the hypodermis, which is made up of three or
four layers of highly lignified cells with secondary walls. The cells of the
Hypodermis are the same as the cells that form the sclerenchyma tissue of the bundle.
fibrovascular.

The hypodermis layer is followed by the fibrovascular bundles and the parenchyma cells.
The fibrovascular bundles of the cortex have poorly developed phloem and xylem, since
the xylem vessels are smaller and the sieve tubes of the phloem are fewer and thinner
smaller diameter than the components of the phloem and xylem of the vascular bundles in
the region of the medulla (Figure 1.9). The important aspect of the structure of the cortex
the fibrovascular bundles are surrounded by parenchyma cells. While
The cortex mainly consists of vascular bundles, the bundles are separated.
of each one by several layers of parenchymal cells of the cortex. This arrangement
Structural is important for the mechanical behavior of the cane stem under load
of impact.
Figure 1.9 Photograph of the bark showing the epidermis, the hypodermis,
various fibrovascular bundles and the surrounding parenchymal cells (cultivar
Q124, increase x 100

While the tissues of the phloem and xylem are less developed, the sheaths of the
the sclerenchyma of the fibrovascular bundles of the cortex is much larger, which
results in a stronger fibrovascular bundle in the cortex than in the medulla. The
parenchyma cells surrounding the fibrovascular bundles in the cortex tend to
mainly to be the smaller parenchyma cells, that is, around
0.03 mm in diameter. The important characteristic of the parenchyma cells of the
Cortex is that the cell walls are highly lignified. These parenchyma cells
they are no longer just thin-walled storage cells, but high cells
resistance, which contributes to the hardness and stiffness of the crust region.

Spinal region
Progressing from the cortex region to the medulla region, the bundles
fibrovascular structures adopt their normal configuration as described in section 1.2.2.
The vascular tissues enlarge and the sclerenchyma sheath reduces to two or three.
cell layers, except near the xylem vessels, where there are four to six
caps to hold the relatively large xylem vessels. The cells of the
the parenchyma surrounding the fibrovascular bundles enlarge and lignification
it disappears from its cell walls, leaving wall storage cells
thin.

The spatial density of the fibrovascular bundles is significantly lower in the

region of the medulla that is in the cortex. Normally there are 90 to 180 fibrovascular bundles.
per square centimeter in the medulla, while in the cortex, the spatial density of
The fibrovascular bundles are on the order of 1000 bundles / cm2.

1.2.4. Variations in the structure along the stem.

The description of the structure of the peduncle in sections 1.2.2 and 1.2.3 referred to the
internodal section of the peduncle. The structure of the cane in the internode of the stem is
reasonably regular, that is to say, the fibrovascular bundles are continuous and parallel
between each other along the nodes with parenchyma cells surrounding the bundles
fibrovascular. The number of fibrovascular bundles per unit area increases towards the
cortex, and in the cortex the cell walls of the fibrovascular components and the
parenchyma cells are generally thickened and highly lignified.
While the stem structure in the internodal region is relatively uniform, the
structure changes significantly in the nodal region.
The entanglement and the nodal region are shown in Figure 1.10.

Figure 1.10 Section of the sugarcane stem showing the internode

and the components of the nodal region

The node extends from beneath the intercalary meristem to the top of the
next entanglement. On the surface of the stem, the node includes the root primordia,
the sheath of the leaf and the bud. The growth of the primordial buds and the root as well
it is governed by the auxins produced in the apical region. If the stem is removed from the influence
from the auxins, the bud will germinate and the roots will develop from the primordia
from the root to support the growing plant. The leaf sheath is the remnant of the
union of the leaf when the node was part of the plant's growth section.
Through the leaf sheath, food, nutrients, sugars, and water were passed between the
stem and the green leaf.

The key structural difference between the node and the internode is the orientation of the bundles.
fibrovascular. In the internode, the fibrovascular bundles are basically parallel
between each other and the longitudinal axis of the stem. In the nodule, some of the fibrovascular bundles
they branch out up to 90° to service the primordia of the root, the bud, and the sheath of
the sheet, as shown in Figure 1.11.

Figure 1.11 Longitudinal section of a sugarcane stem

Obviously, where the green leaves are attached to the stem, the vascular bundles
connected to the leaf sheath are alive and active, while in the leaf section
dead stem, the fibrovascular bundles connected to the leaf sheath are redundant. Others
fibrovascular bundles continue in the adjacent internode, thus forming a link
I continue from the roots of the plant to the upper growth section. The pods
of the sclerenchyma that surrounds the fibrovascular bundles of the node tend to be more
larger than the pods of the internode. The number of fibrous vascular bundles per unit of
the area is larger in the node than in the internode. It is important to highlight that the cells of the
parenchyma throughout the nodule tends to be small and has lignified walls, which
nuevamente dificulta la preparación de las células del parénquima en el nódulo que en la
region of the medulla.

The node represents a change in the structure along the length of the stem. The nodule
it is structurally stronger than the node due to the greater number of beams
fibrovascular, the intertwining of fibrovascular bundles, the increased size of
sclerenchyma tissue that surrounds the fibrovascular bundles and the presence of
lignified parenchyma throughout the ganglion.

1.3. Constituents of sugarcane

1.3.1. Introductory notes
To measure the performance of the extraction processes, measurements are made of the
constituents of sugarcane. This section defines the components of sugarcane.

1.3.2. Cane
The cane is the raw material supplied to the mill, composed of clean cane.
trash and any other foreign material.
1.3.3. Fiber
Fiber is the dry and water-insoluble matter of the cane. Just as it is delivered to the mill,
fiber can include soil and other water-insoluble substances. The fiber content varies
depending on the variety of sugarcane, the district, and the harvesting conditions. The typical values
they range between 11 and 16 percent.

Juice
The juice is the non-fibrous component of the cane. It is equivalent to all soluble solids.
and sugarcane water.

1.3.5. Brix
Brix represents the soluble solids in the cane (in contrast to the fiber which represents
the insoluble solids) and is a component of the juice. Brix is obtained from the measurement
of the density or refractive index of the sample.

Brix is expressed as the mass percentage of sucrose in a sucrose solution that

tiene la misma gravedad específica (Brix) o índice de refracción (Refractómetro Brix)
that the sample.

1.3.6. Water
Water, or moisture, is the non-brix component of juice. Water is found in the cane.
in three different regions:

in the parenchyma cells, rich in sugar

in the fibrovascular bundles; the liquid of the fibrovascular bundles is

relatively low in soluble solids compared to the cells of
storage. These bundles are located in the outer fibrous layer of the cortex.
There is also a difference between the nature and the concentration of the
soluble components found in the center of the stem and those that
they are found in the bark.

sustained by capillary attraction in the pores or micro-capillaries of fibers

individuals. This water is called "hygroscopic water" and it has been found that
approaches 25 percent by mass of the fiber.
Hygroscopic water is not removed from the fiber by milling methods.
ordinary and, therefore, it must be taken into account in some analysis calculations
from cane and bagasse.

1.3.7. Pol
Pol is a component of brix and is an approximate measure of the sucrose content of
a solution obtained through the measurement of optical rotation. Pol is expressed in
grams of sucrose per 100 grams of solution, having the same optical rotation at the
same temperature.

Optical rotation is the change in the angle of polarized light caused by the solution.
It is sampled and measured with a polarimeter or saccharimeter.
Sucrose is the main component that affects polarization and, in juices, the pol
is very close to the sucrose content. When other substances are present
optically active, such as reducing sugars or oligosaccharides, the pol can
deviate significantly from the actual content of sucrose. For example, sucrose can be
four units higher than pol in a final molasses.

[Link]
It is usually considered as all substances other than sucrose present in the
total soluble solids (brix) contained in a sample. For most of the
purposes, it can be considered that it is the part of brix that is not pol.
2. YIELD OF THE EXTRACTION PLANT
2.1. Measurement of the extraction plant performance

There are many potential performance measures for the extraction plant. The measures
most common are:

Grinding rate. Crushing statistics are generally

available to the community and are a visible means through which the community
judge the performance of the factory. The crushing rate also affects the duration.
of the season and, therefore, has a significant impact on the operating cost
from the factory.

Final moisture content of the bagasse. The bagasse from the extraction plant is
typically burns in the boilers of the sugar mill to generate steam for
the process and electricity for the factory and for export. If the humidity of
the bagasse is too high, the boilers cannot generate satisfactorily a
constant supply of steam, which causes interruptions in the factory. Where
there is the potential for electricity export, the high humidity of the bagasse
leads to loss of income from electricity.

Total extraction of sugar. The amount of sugar extracted from the cane is the key measure.
of performance in terms of sugar production.

There are also other measures that may deserve consideration, such as total consumption.
of energy from the extraction plant or the amount of water added, which impact
in the total energy consumption of the factory.

Please note that two of the performance measures, the final moisture content
from the bagasse and the total extraction of pol, are determined from the components of the
cane or the bagasse. This section focuses on the measurement of these components.

2.2. Measurement Techniques

The components of the cane, the bagasse, and the juice have traditionally been determined at
starting from samples of each product. This method remains the most widely used and
this is the main topic of this section.

In recent years, alternative techniques such as near infrared have been used.
(NIR) and microwaves for taking measurements. These techniques take more measurements.
or less continuous and, therefore, provide a more representative measurement than the
sampling systems that require a lot of manpower. However, the measurements themselves
they have been accepted to various degrees.

The most used and accepted system in Australia is the Cane Analysis System (CAS)
developed by BSES that is used for cane analysis. The system is based on
NIR measures the sugarcane flow in the feed line of mill # 1. The use of
CAS for fiber measurement in cane is now well accepted. Several plants have also
started using CAS for the direct measurement of CCS.
CAS technology has also been applied to the bagasse, but it has not yet gained acceptance.
Cheaper filter-type NIR and microwave devices have also been used.
to measure the moisture content of the bagasse. It is believed that these instruments
respond appropriately to changes in the moisture of the bagasse, but the magnitude
The absolute measurement of humidity is not well defined.

2.3. Importance of Good Sampling

A typical factory processes between 3000 and 4000 tons of sugarcane in each shift. A typical sample
It weighs about 10 kg. The size of the sample is infinitesimal compared to the
amount of product. For this reason, it is important that the sample is taken in such a way
that it is as representative as possible of the total product.

To understand the importance of sampling in measuring factory performance,

It is useful to consider the inherent variation associated with each component of a measurement.
Variation can be divided into five components:

variation due to changes in the plant,

2. variation in the supply of cane between cane harvesters,
3. variation in the supply of cane within the cane harrows,
4. errors due to sampling, and
5. errors due to analysis.

Only the variation due to changes in the grinding plant is of interest to the engineer.
from the factory and reflects a change in the extraction process.

The variation between cane rakes takes into account varietal differences and the
differences within the varieties of different blocks. The variation within the
sugarcane rakes reflect differences in the supply of cane within a block.

Sampling and analysis errors are measurement errors. The definition of

the sampling error used here is the sampling error due to the collection of a
sample directly from the milling machine into a suitable container.

An experiment has been conducted in an attempt to measure the size of the components of
variation. The experiment measured the variance of three sources:

1. rakes - variation in the supply of cane among cane rakes,

2. samples: variation in the supply of cane within the cane rakes and
errors due to sampling
3. analysis: errors due to analysis.

It was assumed that the variation due to changes in the grinding plant was relatively
small within the time period of the experiment.

Figures 2.1 and 2.2 show the proportions of the components of variance.
for each of the components of rake, sampling, and analysis for the prepared cane
and the final bagasse, respectively. It is particularly noteworthy that, for all
the measurements except pol in open cells (POC), the analysis component is
typically 10% of the total variance. The analysis component is the only component
which can be reduced through laboratory techniques. The remaining 90% of the variance only
it can be reduced through sampling methods and sampling frequency. In
consequence, sampling is an extremely important part of the process of
measurement.

Figure 2.1 Variance components for the cane analysis

Figure 2.2 Components of variance for the final analysis of bagasse

2.4. Collection and preservation of samples of cane, bagasse, and juice

2.4.1. Introduction
Method 5 of the Australian laboratory manual describes two types of approaches.
sampling defined as short and long period tests. The short period test is
typically carried out for a single sugarcane rake. The short period test is only
appropriate when the residence time (from when a sugarcane sample enters the
extraction plant until it comes out as bagasse) is small compared to the
test period. This is usually true for a milling train, but not for a diffuser.
In most sugar factories, the extraction yield is evaluated during
a shift (the long-term test). This approach produces an average estimate of
performance of the extraction station.

The procedure for collecting and preserving prepared cane or bagasse samples is
basically similar for both short and long period tests, although with
short-term tests require care to ensure that the samples are taken from
the same cane plot as it moves along the train. With testing periods.
prolonged, conservation is important. A short period test should last until
minus 15 and preferably 30 minutes. There should be no stops of the mill during a test
of short period.

2.4.2. Time elapsed between the tip and the extraction plant
For the short period test, it is important to know the time it takes for a plot of land
cane to travel from the tip to each of the extraction units for sampling.
In a milling train, a color dye can be used (for example, ICI Edicol Poinceau)
4R) as a marker to measure travel time. The plastic bags of
a handful of dye is easy to throw in the rod. Generally, the dye
you will need to 'boost' with another bag after two mills. The dye is a coloring agent
strong and can get very dirty if handled carelessly.

2.4.3. Prepared cane sample

The prepared cane samples are mainly taken to measure the content of
fiber. It is common to take several samples a day with representatives of the main
varieties. Some factories divide their varieties into 'major' varieties and
"minors" and take samples of each one. The prepared cane is also typically taken.
a sample once a day to measure pol in open cells.

The prepared cane sample is generally taken from the prepared cane elevator.
using the already installed sampling equipment. In some cases, it may be necessary
take a manual sample directly from a belt. Care must be taken to
ensure that the entire depth of the prepared cane bed is sampled across its entire width
from the opening of the sample hatch. The sample must be spread evenly over
the collection tray and take representative samples from the tray throughout the
full thickness and over the entire area of the layer to obtain the sample size
required. Depending on the sampling frequency, the size of the subsample is
calibrate so that a composite sample weight of 15-20 kg has been accumulated at
end of the probationary period.

2.4.4. First sampling of expressed juice

In Australia, the cane analysis is based on the first expressed juice analysis. The
juice samples are automatically taken from the pressure feeder and the bites of
feeding of mill # 1 (first juice squeezed) for each cane rake.

2.4.5. Sampling of bagasse

The sampling frequency of bagasse varies widely between factories. In Australia,
It is customary to take the first and last sample of bagasse in each shift and the samples.
intermediate bagasse less frequently (usually once a day or twice a
week).
In the turn period test that is usually conducted, the samples must
take at intervals not exceeding one hour. The samples per hour are then made up of
to form a shift sample at the end of a shift.

For the short period grinding tandem test, the elapsed times
obtained from the dye test are used to determine when the should be taken
first sample of bagasse from each mill after the test has started. It
They must take up to ten samples from each point evenly distributed during the
test. Samples should be taken from each mill in sequence, as close as possible.
from the same parcel of cane as it moves along the train.

All possible efforts must be made to obtain representative samples of bagasse.

from the total. Therefore, the bagasse must be collected alternately from the side
left, the center and the right side of the bagasse layer and the tweezers used for the
Sampling must penetrate the layer of bagasse down to the bottom plate.

The sizes of the subsamples should be around 1.5 kg for the cane and graded.
up to approximately 1.0 kg for the final bagasse. It may be necessary to perform a
subsampling on site to achieve these weights. A total composite sample will weigh between
10 and 15 kg, depending on its origin.

2.4.6. Rear roller juices

If a Brix percentage of bagasse is required and a refractometer is not available
accuracy for the analysis of disintegrated bagasse extracts can be obtained
estimation of the purity of the bagasse extract from the juice of the rear roller. This
analysis is carried out by some factories. Although it is not strictly correct, this value of
purity can be taken as an approximate estimate of the purity of the residual juice
from the bagasse in subsequent calculations (Section 2.7.3).

2.4.7. Preservation of bagasse or cane samples

Samples should be stored in a sealed container to prevent loss of
humidity. Unless the samples are going to be analyzed in about an hour
after collection, measures must be taken to preserve the sample to avoid
the degradation of the pol by microbiological action. Conservation is generally achieved
refrigerating the samples below 4°C. Alternatively, the sample must
freeze quickly below -20°C inside a sealed plastic, sized
so that the thickness of the bagasse does not exceed about 80 mm. The samples in bags
thick overfilled items take too long to freeze and thaw and may suffer a
localized deterioration. Sample bags should not be placed one on top of the other
until they freeze.

In some mills, it has been observed that composite containers are left along
of the grinding tandem under conditions of humidity and heat for more than four hours
and no preservative is added. The results of the analysis of these compounds do not
they can be satisfactory due to the effect of deterioration. Results can only be obtained
satisfactory by immediately preserving each subsample.

The composite sample will not be obtained until all have been collected.
subsamples during the required period. Special care must be taken to ensure that the
sealed sub-samples return quickly to room temperature before mixing them
to obtain the composite sample; otherwise, deterioration and condensation may
affect the analysis. It will be necessary to manipulate the sample inside the sealed bag
at regular intervals during the thawing period to break up the lumps and
help with heat transfer. Care must be taken with the samples.
frozen to prevent additional moisture from condensing on the bagasse and therefore
affect the analysis.

For a composite sample of shift, the only method that has been established
rigorously to yield an accurate result involves taking each sample back to a
refrigerator or freezer. It is suspicious to place each sample in a container at
ambient temperature during the shift due to the probability of degradation
microbial, especially in warm and humid conditions.

2.5. Sample Preparation

2.5.1. Sample Inspection
One must recognize the possibility of obtaining some separation of large particles or
small during the collection or mixing and appropriate techniques should be employed to
avoid any bias.

The broken cane is often well shattered and divided enough as

to require little additional attention, but any long fibrous piece (or portions
Sugarcane stalks, if they are produced, can be cut with a cane knife. Some
varieties of long fiber cane will not disintegrate satisfactorily if presented
long pieces to the machine. These tend to wrap around the blades or the shaft.
in the first seconds after startup. The long and thick parts
they also cause errors in moisture measurement. The full bar sections
those that have passed uninterrupted through the shredder may be rejected if they do not represent
more than five percent of the total weight of the sample.
The samples of bagasse should not require further preparation before disintegration.

2.5.2. Sample Mix

The following method ensures a good mix and keeps evaporation to a minimum. It
two people are required to carry out the operation efficiently. It must be done
quickly on a clean non-absorbent surface in a sheltered area and without
air currents.

The sample piles up in a cone on the surface and then the two people break it up.
half leaving a space free to mix between the halves. Then, each person
spread its half into uniformly sized portions over the cone of a new pile that is
The breakage of lumpy portions of the bagasse is achieved during the mixing.
with a rubbing motion. This pile is turned approximately 90 degrees and
then it is divided in half again.

The piling and rotation of the mound are carried out once again, followed by
a final division and piling. This third mixed pile is then transferred to
Weigh it in an appropriate container and close it with a lid. It is important to avoid handling
too much material, as this can cause evaporation or separation of fines
unnecessary. The subsamples for analysis can be taken randomly from the sample.
mixed with special care to ensure that there is no bias towards the selection of fine particles
or thick.
2.6. Sugarcane Analysis

2.6.1. Introductory notes

The analysis of the cane is primarily conducted for the purpose of payment for the cane, although the
information is also beneficial for determining the performance of the extraction.

2.6.2. Prepared cane analysis

The first stage of fiber analysis is to fibrillate it (cut it into very small pieces)
using a cutter-shredder. This step is designed to open all the cells
allowing the brix to be eliminated in a later step.

Fiber measurements in Australia are usually conducted on a fiber machine.

from a can (Figure 2.3). This method replaced the bag method that was used
previously. Both the bag method and the tin fiber machine method
they have similar approaches for the determination of fiber. Considering that the
cane is composed of fiber, brix, and water, there is a two-stage process to remove it
first place the brix through a washing process and in second place the water of the
shows through a drying process, leaving only the fiber. The fiber (F) is
determined by the relationship between the mass of remaining fiber and the mass of the original cane. The
the calculation is as follows:

(2.1)

where m1 is the mass of wet fibrous cane, m2 is the mass of dry sample and can, and m3
it is the mass of the empty can.

Figure 2.3. Fiber machine

2.6.3. First analysis of extracted juice
The first samples of pressed juice are analyzed for brix and pol.
brix juice content (b) and pol (p) are converted into cane brix content (B) and pol
(P) through the following:

2.7. Analysis of bagasse

2.7.1. Introductory Notes
The analysis of the bagasse is usually a two-stage process. The first stage involves the
determination of moisture content. The second stage involves the determination of
content of pol and brix.

2.7.2. Moisture Determinations

There are many different types of drying ovens used in the industry. They are usually
Spencer type drying ovens with samples containing between 100 g and 1000 g of bagasse
wet or prepared cane. Reducing the sample size reduces precision.
available from the determination. The drying is done with air at 105 °C to 115 °C until
constant weight. The drying time depends on the type of envelope, the temperature, the flow of
air and the number of samples in the oven. The drying time is usually three hours.
When the sample must be dry, the weight should be measured. Then, the control weights
they must be done at intervals of 15 to 30 minutes from then on until two weighings
successive ones match within 1 g. Insufficient drying not only results in a
incorrect determination of the moisture level, but also increases the level of
fiber calculated if the fiber content is determined by an indirect method (is
to say

To calculate the moisture content in the cane or the bagasse, the following must be used.
equation:

Where
Moisture in cane or bagasse (%)
M1: Masa de muestra de bagazo húmedo (g)
M2: Masa de la muestra seca y contenedor (g)
M3: Weight of the empty container (g)
2.7.3. Determination of pol and brix

Disintegration
Pol (or sometimes brix) is measured after a disintegration process. The sample of
bagasse and a quantity of water are added to the disintegrator that is used to crush the
pulp and open all the cells (similar in function to the cutter-crusher but using
water). Figure 2.4 shows a modern Jeffco disintegrator.

Figure 2.4 Jeffco wet disintegrator

The sample of bagasse (or cane) is introduced into the disintegrating can, followed by a
heavy amount of water. Then the mixture is disintegrated for 30 minutes for the bagasse
and for 40 minutes for the prepared cane. The typical quantities are shown in the
Table 2.1. The quantities should be increased or decreased according to the size of the can
disintegrator. The amounts shown are for the SRI disintegrator with capacity
for 6 kg of water.

Table 2.1 Mass of cane or bagasse and water needed for the analysis of the
disintegrator
Sample Disintegrator
Defibrated cane 2000 g of water is 6 kg
Milling bagasse No. 1 1000 g 6 kg of water
Bagasse from mills 2 and 3 800 grams of water is 6 kg
Bagasse numbers 4, 5, and 6 mills 600 g of water is 6 kg

The amount of water used is constant. The amount of cane or bagasse used is
intended to supply a constant amount of fiber to each disintegrator sample.
This approach results in a finer suspension for the cane (with its greater
natural humidity) and a heavier suspension for the final bagasse (lower humidity).
The highest fiber / total moisture ratio for the final bagasse is desirable so that it can
obtain a reasonable POL reading. It is not advisable to exceed this load due to the
excessive heating and lack of mobility of the slurry.
It is important to note that most destructors are cooled with water.
through a water shirt around the disintegrator can to reduce the
evaporation and heat degradation of the sample. Given that the objective of the
Disintegrator is to open all the cells to access all the brix and pol, the blades.
The disintegrator blades must be sharp and require regular inspection and care.
the blades. Visual checks of the grout must be carried out, and if fibers appear
greats in the grout, it may be necessary to repeat it. They can be carried out
performance checks of the disintegrator taking small sub-samples 10 and
5 minutes before the standard times of the disintegrator, at the standard hour and 5 minutes.
after standard time.

Certain models of disintegrators require a lower total mass but the same.
sample proportion to water.

Once the disintegration is complete, a quantity of the suspension is removed and filtered.
through a fine metal mesh. A funnel made from gauze C leak (openings
A 0.5 mm one works quite well. About 250 ml of this extract is collected.
poured into a flask with a stopper and cooled rapidly to room temperature. Pol and Brix
they are determined in this solution.

Brix determination

Brix degrees in the bagasse are not commonly measured from extracts of the
disintegrator because the refractometers used are not precise enough
the low brix concentrations of the final bagasse. If a refractometer is available
sufficient accuracy, the following method can be used to determine the
Brix concentration in the extract.

Approximately 100 ml of the filtered disintegrating extract is shaken in a covered flask.

with two heaping teaspoons of Super-cel powder (six to seven grams). Next,
it filters through a paper of 11 cm in a funnel with a diameter of 65 mm into a flask
100 ml Erlenmeyer. After discarding the first 10 ml of filtrate, it can be
It is necessary to return the cloudy filtering to the paper until the drips are clear. When it
15 to 20 ml of the transparent filtrate have been collected, the Brix can be determined.
refractometer. The precision immersion refractometer Bellingham and Stanley or Zeiss,
each with a coated prism, is satisfactory for this purpose. They can also be
use more modern digital refractometers. Periodic checks must be carried out
the standardization, whether with distilled water or with the supplied calibration plates.

Corrected extract Brix = Measured extract Brix - Water Brix

Recent model refractometers carry out this correction internally and

they provide a reading for the corrected brix.

If a suitable precision refractometer is not available, Brix can be inferred from

of pole using the purity of the rear roller juice. This approach assumes that the purity
The bagasse is approximately equal to the purity of the juice from the rear roller.

Determination of pol
Approximately 150 mL of the filtered disintegrating extract is clarified with a
minimum amount of dry lead and it is filtered. Usual precautions are observed.
cover the filtration funnel and discard the first 15 to 20 mL of filtrate. Then,
use a polarimeter to obtain the pol reading for the extract. Given that the tubes of
Polarimeters typically have a length of 200 mm in automatic polarimeters and 400 mm.
In manual polarimeters, this difference must be taken into account in the calculations.
subsequent.

Calculation of pol, brix, and fiber level

This first calculation method assumes that the brix degrees of the disintegrating extract are
they have measured directly.

Define
B = Brix% cane (or bagasse)
P = Cane molasses (or bagasse)
M = % De humedad caña (o bagazo)
F = % cane fiber (or bagasse)
b = Brix of disintegrating extract (° Bx)
Y = Sugarcane mass (or bagasse) for analysis (g)
Z = Added water mass (g)
d = Apparent density of the disintegrator extract (g mL-1)
Q = Purity of the juice from the rear roller (it is assumed to be equal to the purity of the extract of
bagasse
R = Reading of Pol from the extract in a 200 mm tube (° Z).

If a 400 mm tube is used, R = reading / 2

It is assumed that the fiber contains 25% hygroscopic moisture. Then:

If the exact Brix degrees of the extract for the final spent grain cannot be measured, it can be
use an alternative formula that is based on the assumption that the specific weight of the
the extract is 1.000 and the purity of the residual juice in the bagasse is equivalent to that of the
rear roller.
2.8. Extraction calculation
To calculate the extraction of pol (Epags) obtained in an extraction unit or in a
series of extraction units, it is conventional to assume that all the fiber of the cane passes
through the system. Since no fiber is lost through the system, changes in other
parameters can be determined from changes in their relationship with the fiber in the
sampling positions in question. Therefore:

where Pm (pol in) and Fin (fiber input) are respectively pol and fiber percentage
from cane or bagasse that enters the mill and Pout (pol out) and Fout (fiber) are the pol and the fiber
of the delivery bagasse.

2.9. Measurement of cane preparation

2.9.1. Introductory notes

The prepared cane contains several particles of different shapes and sizes, and has a
important liquid component. The complex nature of the prepared cane makes it that
it is difficult for a measure to describe all its properties. The preparation measures
the sugarcanes described in this section were not developed to fully describe the
properties of prepared cane, but rather to evaluate the differences in the grades
of preparation.

2.9.2. Bulk Density

A box or rectangular cylinder with a movable upper plate is used to measure the
apparent density of a prepared cane sample. Typical container sizes
that have been used are a box with dimensions of 457 mm in length, 229 mm in width
and 127 mm in depth and a cylinder with a diameter of 345 mm and a height of about
300 mm. A known mass of prepared cane is compressed for 20 s using a
pressure of 50 kPa. (The compression pressure of 50 kPa was chosen because it had been)
found that at 50 kPa, the liquid component was not expelled from the prepared cane.
The measured volume of the compressed cane is used to calculate the apparent density.
The apparent density provides a reasonable measure of the degree of ripeness of the cane.
crumbled, meaning that as the level of preparation increased, so did
the apparent density of the prepared cane was increasing.
The apparent density does not directly measure the composition of the prepared cane, but rather
that the condition of the prepared cane can be inferred from the measured apparent density.
For example, if a certain preparation results in a distribution
particular of cells, fibrovascular bundles and strips of cortex, and an apparent density of
65 kg / m3, so if the following preparation resulted in an apparent density of 73
kg / m3, the prepared cane would have more exposed cells and fibrovascular bundles, and strips
of narrower bark.

Two cane samples with significantly different fiber levels subjected to

the same crushing regime would be prepared differently, therefore, they would give
as a result markedly different apparent densities. Consequently, although
apparent density is a reasonable indicator of the state of the prepared cane, it is not useful
as an indicator of the crusher's performance, because varietal effects confuse
the measurements of apparent density.

A commonly chosen solution to the fiber problem is to use compaction.

instead of the apparent density as a measure of preparation. Compaction is used
widely in grinding (section 4.1.8) and involves the mass of fiber instead of the
total mass in the apparent density equation.

2.9.3. Average particle thickness

The determination of the 'average particle thickness' is carried out using a dry sample
prepared cane. The prepared dry cane is sifted through a series of screens
standard, where each screen shakes horizontally 75 times. The proportion of is weighed
the sample that remains on each sieve is collected and weighed, as well as the material that falls into
through the smallest sieve. The average particle thickness (Tmetro) is a sum
weighted of the proportions on each screen and the proportion that came out of the screen
final as indicated in equation (2.12).

Where:

W1 = percentage of the total mass of the sample retained on the 12 mm mesh sieve,
W2 = percentage of the total mass of the sample retained on the 7 mm mesh sieve,
W3 = porcentaje de la masa total de la muestra retenida en el tamiz de malla de 4 mm, y
W4 = percentage of the total mass of the sample that passes through the 4 mesh sieve
mm.

The constants 12, 9, 5, and 2 are the nominal particle sizes (in millimeters) for
each fraction. Consequently, the average thickness of the particles is measured in millimeters.

The measure referred to as 'mean particle thickness' is misleading because the measure is
more an indication of the distribution of the fiber length in the prepared cane than
of the thickness of the particles. Finer preparations result in lengths
smaller fibers and, consequently, lower average particle thickness values
low. In other words, the correlation between the average particle thickness and the
preparation is that smaller average particle thickness values imply
finer preparations.
The measurement of the average thickness of the particles, like the apparent density, is confused.
with the fiber level of the cane. For example, samples from a cane with high content
fiber (Q108) prepared in a crusher for fine preparation resulted in a thickness
particle medium of 6.5 mm, while the samples from a low-fiber cane
(Q87) were put through the same grinder but prepared for coarse preparation.
as a result an average particle thickness of 4.5 mm.

2.9.4. Pole in open cells

Pol in Open Cells (POC) has become the most common measure of readiness for the
cane in the Australian sugar industry and is used worldwide in some way
another (for example, the readiness index).

The measure consists of adding cold water to a prepared sample of cane, turning it over.
gently mix for 10 minutes and then take a reading of pol
an extract of the mixture. Another sample of the prepared cane is added to the water and processed
in a grinder for 40 minutes, where the grinder completely breaks down
the pieces of the stems of the cane. A pol reading is taken from an extract of the
disintegrator after the 40-minute period. The percentage of pol in open cells
en la caña preparada se calcula usando la ecuación (2.13).

where
WT = added water mass in the glass (g)
Wre = added water mass in the disintegrator (g),
CT = prepared cane mass in a glass (g)
Cre = sugar cane mass prepared in the disintegrator (g), and
F = percentage of fiber in the prepared cane.

As the cane undergoes a finer preparation, the POC measure increases.

The POC technique makes three assumptions:

1. all the juice from the broken cells can be easily washed away with cold water,
2. nothing from the juice of the undamaged cells is extracted by washing with cold water,
3. All cells that contain sucrose contain the same amount of sucrose.

The POC measures the damage to sucrose-carrying cells, but it gives no indication.
of the condition of the fibers. Over time, experience with the crushers has shown
that a high POC implies both significant cellular damage and a greater reduction
of the size of the sugarcane particles. Therefore, in the factories 87 POC is empirically
linked to a certain condition or fineness or preparation, while technically 87
POC refers to the percentage of cell breakage. It is possible to have the same level of
Preparation measured by POC, but fiber conditions significantly different.
For example, each fibrovascular bundle could be extracted longitudinally from the stem and
breaking the surrounding storage cells, thus resulting in a very high POC and a
excellent length of the fibrovascular bundle.
Alternatively, the stem could be cut very finely across, which would give the
same high level of POC but practically zero length of the fibrovascular beam.

Regarding the measures of bulk density and the average particle thickness value,
Pol in open cells is also confused with the percentage fiber level of the cane.
when using pol in open cells to measure the performance of a crusher. The
previous work at the SRI tested 11 varieties of cane in a model A crusher
constant cane rate, and reported a decrease in the POC from 89 to 85 as the
The fiber percentage of cane increased from 10 to 16 percent. Therefore, please take note.
that the F factor in the definition of POC (equation (2.13)) does not fully explain the
effect of fiber content on preparation.

The repeatability of a measurement (such as POC) is the range within which one can expect
that the absolute difference between two individual test results, obtained using
the same method, with identical test material and under the same conditions, is
find within a specified probability. Given this definition of repeatability,
95% of the time, two measurements of POC from the same prepared batch must be
within 3.2 units of each other.

2.9.5. Treatment number

The treatment number is obtained using the compression ratio (C0) and the level.
of cane fiber and it is an attempt to eliminate the influence of the fiber content of the
apparent density measure. The compression ratio of a sample of cane
the prepared is calculated by dividing the mass of the sample by the gapless density of the
prepared cane and the volume of the sample compressed to 50 kPa. For a preparation
In particular, there is a linear relationship between the inverse of the compression ratio and the
fiber level of the cane. As the preparation or treatment varies,
the slope of the linear relationship remains reasonably constant, but the intercept
Change. It is supposed that the slope is a constant value of 0.063 and the intersection is
denotes treatment number, as shown in equation (2.14).

where C0 = compression ratio at 50 kPa, and

F = percentage of fiber in the cane.

It is found that higher levels of preparation correspond to treatment numbers.

smaller, for example, a treatment number of 0.4 would indicate finely cane
prepared, while a very rough preparation would correspond to a number of
treatment of 1,1.

The treatment number is only minimally affected by the variety of cane. For
a crusher that operates under certain conditions, the same number of treatment
it will emerge for the prepared cane regardless of the fiber level of the cane.
difference from other preparation measures such as bulk density, average thickness
of particles and pol in open cells, which would yield different results for various fibers.
from cane in the same crusher. Consequently, the treatment number is useful for
evaluate the functioning of a crusher, but it is not a good indicator of the condition of
the prepared cane sample. For example, a crusher may have a number of
treatment of 0.5, which implies a reasonably fine preparation. A sample of
high fiber cane and a sample of low fiber cane through the shredder will have
both the same treatment number, but they will have markedly different conditions.
different, as it would be indicated if measured pol in open cells for the samples. For
be fair with the treatment number, it was designed to evaluate the crusher and not the
prepared real cane, therefore, the limitations of the number of treatments when describing
the condition of the prepared cane is understandable.
3. PREPARATION OF THE CANE
3.1. Purpose of cane preparation
The sugar mill aims to extract the maximum possible amount of sucrose from
the cane through roller mills or diffusers. The success of the extraction methods
is based on the correct preparation of the cane before its processing. The preparation
From the sugarcane billets involves the reduction in size of the billets.
The preparation of the sugarcane billets aims to separate the cells from
parenchyma of the fibrovascular network and still maintain the maximum length of the bundle
fibrovascular. The preparation must break the walls of the cells of the parenchyma,
making the sucrose solutions contained in the plasma membranes inside
make the cells much more accessible. Figure 3.1, Figure 3.2, and Figure 3.3
they show the components of sugarcane whose preparation seeks to achieve.

Figure 3.1 Strips of very compact fibrovascular bundles, mainly

from the hard outer bark of the cane stem

Figure 3.2 Individual fibrovascular bundles from the region of the medulla
internal stem of the cane
 Figure 3.3 Various groups of parenchyma cells

The roller mills subject the prepared cane to high compression pressures to
force the exit of the sucrose solution from the parenchyma cells. The preparation
From the cane before the mills allows the surfaces of the rollers to access the
storage cells and, subsequently, high extraction levels can be achieved
of juice. The structure of the cane stalk protects the cells of the parenchyma with walls.
thin. If the intact billets are subjected to crushing in roller mills,
Even under high pressure, crushing would not be sufficient to achieve a high extraction.
A large part of the pressure applied would be used to break the hard structure.

The goal of the roller mill is to remove as much liquid as possible from the
cane mass. For the same compression load, the apparent density of the cane
The prepared one can be increased much more than that of the cane billets. Thus, the
the grinding train capacity is greater for prepared cane than for billets
from cane. The energy necessary to crush the structure of the cane stem has been applied
in other parts of the factory for the prepared cane, so the energy of the train of
grinding can be dedicated to the extraction of juice. The preparation of the cane thus ensures
that roller mills can operate more efficiently in terms of
extraction.

Regarding the output efficiency of the roller mill, a preparation is desirable.

that the smallest cane particle size is reached. Unfortunately, the adjustments
Routine operations of the roller mill imply that the mill requires a minimum length
of fibrous vascular to ensure the operation of the mill. The roller mill
grab the fibrovascular bundles and force the prepared cane bed through the mill,
against the force generated by the expelled juice that flows in the opposite direction. If the
the length of the fibrovascular bundles shortens too much, the roller mills do not
they can force the prepared cane through the rollers. The prepared cane accumulates
quickly in front of the mill and the factory must be closed until the cane is removed
problematic.

The diffusion of the cane factory is a countercurrent washing process, where the cane
The preparation is washed with a flow of hot water. The leaching process has as
Objective to wash the sucrose from the broken parenchyma cells. The diffusion of the cane.
it requires a large fibrovacular length to create a permeable bed, so that the
water can wash through the prepared cane mass. If the fiber vascular bundles are
finely prepared, the small beams seal the bed and prevent water from passing through
through the prepared cane.

The proper preparation of the cane is essential to achieve a high extraction and
performance in the factory. The ideal preparation of sugar cane must:

Break the structure of the stem and expose and break as many parenchyma cells as possible
as possible,

Inflict minimal damage to the fibrovascular bundles to preserve their length and
strength, and

Facilitate an increase in the apparent density of the cane mass.

3.2. Cuchillas
3.2.1. Blade Principle
Knives are generally the first (and sometimes the only) method of preparation
the cane in the raw sugar factories that process whole cane. It has become much
less common where the entire harvest is piled up before processing.

The blades are generally mounted on a steel belt conveyor. A

rotor equipped with housings for individual blades spins at high speed to
provide the necessary energy for the preparation of the cane. Depending on the design,
the blades can be fixed to the rotor housings or rotate freely around one
pivot bar. Figure 3.4 shows a rotor with fixed blades. Figure 3.5 shows
a rotor designed for freely rotating blades. Figure 3.6 shows the blades.
rotating associated with the rotor in Figure 3.5.

Figure 3.4 Blade rotor with fixed blades

 Figure 3.5 Blade rotor for free rotary blades

Figure 3.6 Free rotating knives

3.2.2. Knife design and maintenance

There are many different knife designs used throughout the sugar industry.
Figure 3.4 and Figure 3.6 show two of these designs.

The knife is generally made of steel sheet. The cutting edge and the edge
The upper part of the blade is usually beveled to provide a surface for
cut.

As a general rule, knives are high-maintenance items.

to reduce wear, the leading edge and the top edge of each blade
they generally have a hard coating with a carbide welding consumable
iron or chromium carbide.
3.3. The shredder
In the Australian sugar industry, the preparation of cane billets is carried out
using a high-strength oscillating hammer mill.

3.3.1. History of the crusher

Before the arrival of mechanical sugarcane harvesters, everything was delivered.

stalk to the mill. The sugarcane preparation device used to be a set of knives
designed to reduce the size of the cane stem. The crushing roller was able to
reduce the size and extract some juice. Already in 1929, the members of the Society
Australian Sugar Technologists had recognized the potential of the
pivoting hammer crusher as a preparatory device. The crusher was adopted
because I could break the stem of the cane into smaller pieces, exposing the cells
of the parenchyma while at the same time preserving the length of the fibrovascular bundle. The
The crusher was placed after the initial preparation with the knife of all the stems. In
In the 1970s, all of Australia's sugar cane harvest was delivered as billet.
cut off from the factories. The initial preparation of the knife was discarded and the grinder was
became the only preparation device. The first grinder was a unit of
light work; the weight of the hammer was 2-3 kg and the unit typically absorbed 1.5
kW.h / ton of cane. The modern heavy-duty crusher is equipped with hammers
from 15-25 kg and has an energy consumption typically in the range of 8-10 kW.h / t of
cane.

3.3.2. Description and operation

The crusher consists of rotating hammers connected to a rotor with a diameter of 1.8-2.1 m.
which normally rotates at 1000 r/min, resulting in a tip speed
from the hammer of 100 m/s. Figure 3.7 shows a heavy-duty crusher.

Figure 3.7 Heavy-duty crusher

The hammers are fixed to the rotor by means of pins, allowing the hammers to swing;
the hammers are kept in radial orientations due to their accelerations
centrifuges during the operation of the crusher. The arrangement of the pin
allows an individual hammer to swing back if it encounters an excessive load
hard strange objects, thus avoiding damage to the crusher. The crusher has 6 or 8
rows of hammers, with 8 to 10 hammers per meter in width per row of the crusher.

Hammers vary in shape and size but the largest do not exceed 400 x 100 x
150 mm.

The crusher has a grille bar that covers an arc of approximately 90°, and its
the game is adjusted to clear the hammer tips. The control devices vary
automatically the power of the crusher drive to ensure a
constant rotor rotation speed.

The operation of the crusher is relatively simple: the cane billets are
they pour by gravity or the feeders drop onto the path of the hammers. The cane
the rotor flows through the front wall of the crusher towards the grid bar section,
after which the prepared cane comes out of the crusher.

SRI conducted research on crushers using a pilot plant crusher,

460 mm wide, with total diameters ranging from 1320 mm to 1780 mm. The work
found that the crushing process has two distinct parts: the impact section and
the grid bar section. The high-speed photography showed that the billets
they burst when struck by the hammers in the impact section
the entrance to the shredder. The chamber had been placed very low in the section of
impact, and most of the images were of passing sugar cane particles. A large part
The disintegration of the cane occurred at the initial contact of the cane and the hammers.
The structures of the billets disintegrated, but the fibrovascular bundles
they maintained their length. On the section of the grid bar, the particles of the
Cane blocks were introduced into the hammer paths. The impacts
they further reduced the size of the cane particles. It was originally thought that the
crushed cane particles broke between the tips of the hammers and the rods
the grid. The photographic analysis showed that the cane particles flowed into the pockets
from the grid bar, they climbed up the face of the grid bar and entered the trajectory
of the hammer. The crushing process was a series of impacts, rather than a process
of crushing or grinding.

3.3.3. Mechanics of defibrillation

Crawford at the end of the 1960s examined the dynamics of the hammer mill.
hinged. He identified three sections in the crusher through which the
hammer: impact, grid bar, and air. In one revolution of the crusher, work is done in
the hammer. In the sections of the impact bar and the grid, the hammer is forced
receding from its radial position. To solve the hammer work equation,
it assumed a trigonometric relationship between the moments in the hammer and the angle of rotation
backward. Assuming that the backward swinging angle during the bar phase
the grid was constant, he calculated the power transferred from the crusher to the cane,
using equation (3.1).
where
H = power transferred from the crusher to the cane (kW),
W = mass of the hammer (kg),
R = radius of the rotor at the hammer pivot (m),
N = speed of the crusher (r/min),
n = number of hammers,
h = distance from the pivot to the center of gravity of the hammer (m),
swept angle from the initial contact with the rod to the grid bar (rad),
= swept angle over the grid bar (rad), and
2backward swing angle of the hammer (rad).

Equation (3.1) relates the parameters of the crusher to the energy applied to it.
the rod. For example, the power transferred to the rod is directly proportional to the
backward swinging angle. For constant crusher conditions, the angle
Back turn can be controlled by adjusting the distance between the tips of the
hammers and the grid bar. The greater the distance of separation, the smaller it will be
backward turning angle. The speed of the grinder has the greatest effect on the
power transfer of the crusher, which is as expected given that the crusher
it is an impact machine, and a higher speed of the crusher implies speeds
of higher impact. Please note that:

where S is the speed of the hammer tip (m/s), D is the diameter of the crusher
(m) is the speed of the crusher (r/min).

Rod Cullen and Jim McGinn conducted experiments during the 1970s to
determine the response of the crusher to various operating conditions. The
the shredder was treated as a black box, that is, the input conditions were altered
and the effect on the crusher output was recorded. The crushing mechanism was
ignored. The input parameters considered were:

operating speed,
mass and type of the hammer,
disposition of the hammer
grid bar configuration,
addition of feeding rollers to improve the feeding of the cane in the
shredder
rotor diameter of the crusher,
variety of cane,
use of knives before crushing,
use of two crushers in series and
pouring speed of the cane into the crusher.
As a point of interest, the South African Tongaat crusher is similar to the crushers.
heavy-duty used in the Australian sugar industry but with a
Different rotor arrangement. The rotor of the Australian grinder consists of discs.
circular separated by spacers, where each row of hammers has coverage
complete through the crusher. The Tongaat crusher has profiled plates that
they form the rotor. The width of the crusher is covered by alternating rows of hammers. The
preparation levels above 90 PI can be consistently achieved with the
Tongaat crusher. (PI refers to the preparation index. PI is calculated similarly
a POC; PI and POC are within 2% of each other in the PI range of 90-100.

3.4. Factors that influence preparation

Section 3.2 showed that the impact was the main load experienced by the
cane and the pieces of cane (along the grid bar) in the crusher. The load of
Impact on the crusher is optimized by ensuring maximum coverage of the billets.
with the hammers and using the highest and most practical impact speed. The
maximum coverage of the billets means that the largest possible part of each
the small pulley makes contact with the entire face of the hammers, which reduces cutting or
slicing the billet. Slicing or cutting the billets reduces the effectiveness of
impact event. The benefits of high-speed impact events and good
coverage is evident in the following factors that affect performance of the
shredder.

3.4.1. Hammers

Type and mass of hammer

The initial tests showed that there was a significant difference between the
performance of the 15 kg hammers and the 6.4 kg ones (Figure 3.8). After the tests
for high-speed photography, the 6.4 kg hammer was modified as shown in the
Figure 3.8 to eliminate the 'plowing' effect from the leading edge. The resulting hammer
The 5.8 kg showed significantly improved performance compared to the original.
Preparation levels increased by about five POC units.

Figure 3.8 Conventional and with hammer crusher arrangements

noise reduction
Then, the analysis showed that the difference between the performance of the 5.8 kg hammers
and the 15 kg hammer could be fully explained by the difference in the effect of
peripheral speed (due to the difference in hammer length) and the percentage of
coverage across the entire row. It was concluded that the coverage of the hammer of the width of the
the crusher and not the hammer mass is the basic criterion for performance of the
Crusher. (At least for hammers weighing more than 5.8 kg).

Subsequent tests investigated the difference between the 10 kg hammers and the hammers
of 15 kg with the same coverage and confirmed that the mass of the hammer had no effect
Measurable; the impact velocity was the significant factor that governed the preparation.
achieved.

Hammer arrangements
The important variables here are the number of rows and the number and position of the
hammers.

It was found that the number of rows has a marginal effect on the level of preparedness.
achieved. No differences were found in the performance between the crushers that
They operate with six and eight rows. A slight improvement was achieved in the level of preparation to
Operate with 12 rows (around 1.3 units of POC) but asphyxia was more frequent.
A configuration of 12 rows in line cannot be recommended.

There is a very significant effect when changing from a full row of hammers to a
hammer-space configuration-hammer-space (full media row). Run with
Partially filled rows reduced the level of preparation achieved by approximately four.
POC units.

Several potential configurations of noise-reducing hammers were investigated.

through stepped hammers to evaluate their effect on preparation, the capacity
of feeding and noise. Combinations of hammers were tested in 24 rows. The
Details of the arrangement of the hammers are shown in Figure 3.9. It was not observed
no difference in performance between spiral and conventional arrays. The
diamond disposition yielded inferior performance at preparation levels and
imposed severe dietary restrictions. The spiral arrangement did not affect the
power supply in no way and gave a noise reduction of 5 dB (A).

Figure 3.9 Configurations of conventional and with shredder hammers

noise reduction
3.4.2. Hammer tip speed
The effect of tip speed was the most significant of all the effects.
investigated in the series of tests. For a machine with a diameter of 1450 mm, the change
at the operating speed of 960 r/min to 1200 r/min, the level of preparation increased
achievable in almost six POC units. Later it will be seen that the operating speed
it affects the power required for a certain level of preparation.

A note on the condition of the hammer head: as the hammer heads

they wear out, the preparation generally does not decrease significantly, but the use of
energy increases just like the problems with the feed of the crusher. The
preparation remains relatively constant because the impact speed is more or
less the same for hammers with new or worn tips, and the speed of
impact controls the level of preparation. The use of energy increases because it is wasted.
energy pushing the cane out of the crusher instead of feeding it into the machine.
This change occurs due to the rounded shape of the worn hammer tip.

3.4.3. Machine diameter

The initial tests covered two crusher diameters: 1320 mm and 1450 mm.
Subsequently, a crusher with a tip diameter of 1830 mm was built.
two reasons:

For a train of five mills, it was considered that the preparation level was 85 POC
it was a minimum requirement. A 1500 mm machine cannot reach this level of
constant way at 960 r/min; a speed of 1200 r/min would be needed. If
it uses a turbine drive, the operating speed of 1200 rpm
it's not an important problem; however, for a motor drive it should
provide a gearbox at a considerable cost. A much better alternative
The less expensive option is to increase the diameter of the crusher.
2. Investigate the achievable upper limit of crushing.

The tests were conducted with a conventional feed machine with a grid of
90 degrees. The results obtained with the 1830 mm machine are described in the table.
3.1. It can be seen that the 1830 mm machine at 1200 r/min must be a machine
powerful. With an adjustment of 22 mm, the average preparation was 89 POC and the demand
Energy was 8 kWh per ton of sugarcane.

Table 3.1 Average results for 1830 mm machine (8 rows)

Diameter Speed Adjustment Preparation Energy
(kWh /
(mm) (r / min) (mm) POC Level ton
1830 1200 0 92.3 13.77
10 90.6 11.29
22 89,0 7.92
* 1830 960 0 91.0 9.11
10 90.2 7.40
22 86.2 6.34
1450 1200 0 88.7 7.08
Please note that these conditions have the same peak speed.
The 1450 mm machine at 1200 r/min and the 1830 machine at 960 r/min have the
same top speed. The comparison of the results shows that the machine of
1830 mm reaches a higher average preparation level (maximum of 91.0 in
comparison with 88.7 POC). This may contribute to the longer grid bar.

3.4.4. Feeding rollers

The arrangement of the feeding rollers investigated is shown schematically.
In Figure 3.10. Two steel rollers with diameters of 610 mm and 760 mm were used.
respectively for the feeding rollers. The small roller was placed as
working face roller. Chevron ribs (19 mm x 12 mm bar) were welded to
large roll as food aid. The test results are shown in
Table 3.2. The adjustment change from 0 to 22 mm had a greater effect on performance
from the shredder for 90-degree wrapping than for 160-degree wrapping. The
feeder rollers with a 160-degree grid showed a marked increase in
the level of preparation. An important factor is the minimum power requirement for a
reasonable performance with that system. It was found that for configurations of more
Of 28 mm, the large cane particles could pass through the crusher and the preparation.
the result was not uniform and was unacceptable. This setting required a high level of power
to achieve an acceptable level of preparation. For the 160-degree grid, the requirement
minimum energy is in the range of 5.25 to 6.0 (kWh / ton of cane) for a
machine of 1450 mm, 1200 r/min. Therefore, the use of feed rollers is
can summarize as a means to:

expand the preparation potential of small diameter machines or of

low speed.
allow the feeding of hammer configurations that reduce noise but
they have feeding difficulties if they eat in a conventional way.
allow achieving very high levels of preparedness when used together with a
160-degree grid bar.

Figure 3.10 Arrangement of the feed rollers

 Table 3.2 Average levels and powers of preparation for a crusher
with feeding rollers
Length of the
grid Adjustment Level of preparation Energy
(degrees) (mm) (POC) (kWh / ton)
90 0 88.5 7.82
22 80.4 4.58
160 0 91.6 10.09
22 87.6 6.04
28 81.7 5.25
35 81.1 4.61
45 75.6 4.94
(1450 mm machine operating at 1200 r/min)

One of the possible reasons why feed rollers improve the

preparation in the crusher is that the rollers give the cane more vertical speed
the one that would occur when the cane is poured through the duct. This vertical speed increases
the possibilities that the cane experiences a total coverage impact. This effect
It was confirmed using the small-scale grinder at SRI (Figure 3.11).

Figure 3.11 Damage to the cane for radial impact orientations (side towards
upper) and axial (end upwards) (in relation to the crusher hammers
small scale) for two different drop heights

3.4.5. Bar arrangement in the grid

The important variables here are:

grid adjustment
length of the grid and
type of grid.
Usando martillos de 15 kg, un cambio de ajuste de 0 a 22 mm dio como resultado una
reduction in the preparation of approximately 3.3 units of POC.

The limited tests conducted with 70 and 90 degree wraparound grids did not show
significant effects on the level of preparation. (The wrap grids of 160
degrees are described later in this section.

The types of grids that were investigated are shown in Figure 3.12. Based on
limited tests, it has been observed that the grids with cavities of 150 mm of
depth (Figure 3.12 (b, d, e)) provided a higher level of preparedness (around
1.7 units of POC) that the grid is 25 mm deep. The comb-shaped grid.
Figure 3.12 (c) yielded the same results as the deep grid.

Figure 3.12 Detail of grid profiles

High-speed photographic tests showed that the basic mechanism of

Preparation on the grid section was for the grid to direct the material.
towards the trajectory of the hammer, as shown in Figure 3.12 (f). Figure 3.12 (d)
and Figure 3.12 (e) were developed from the detailed analysis of the results
of the movement of cane particles in high-speed photographic tests.
The results of the tests conducted on these special grids showed that the
grilles with large spacing (Figure 3.12 (b) and Figure 3.12 (d)) provided a better
preparation that the grid with smaller spacing Figure 3.12 (c). However, not
there were significant differences between the results with grids (b) and (d). Therefore,
it is concluded that the special profile of (d) offers no specific advantage.

The impact area at the entrance of the crusher means that the hammers collide with
the chopped sugarcane. The pieces of cane have a reasonable mass (on average a mass of
approximately 0.12 kg) and, therefore, the inertia of the pieces helps the process of
impact. That is to say, the block withstands the applied acceleration of the hammers and contributes to
the impact load and the level of subsequent damage. The crushed cane pieces have
a low mass and relatively low inertia, so in order to prepare even more the
crushed cane pieces in the grid bar section, the load must be optimized
of impact. Impact events can be optimized by ensuring that the pieces of
crushed sugarcane should have a minimum speed in the same direction as the hammers, already
that speed reduces the impact speed. The deep groves in the bar
the grid acts to accentuate the wavy movement of the broken cane,

3.4.6. Varietal Effects

The variety of cane has a significant effect on the preparation achieved with a
private shredder. For example, for simple shredding, the average preparation
with Q63 it was 3.81 POC units lower than for NCo310. The energy absorbed by the
The shredder per ton of cane was the same for both varieties, which indicates that the
Q63 is a "harder" cane to crush. A more recent job in a crusher at
small scale (tip diameter of 900 mm operating at a speed of the
tip of approximately 100 m / and nominally zero free space in the bar of the
grid) indicates that the varietal effect on crushing in terms of POC levels
fiber among varieties. Figure 3.13 shows the results for 11 varieties of cane.
The midpoint of each variety is designated with an asterisk. Overlaid in the graph
there are confidence ellipses, whose major and minor axes represent two standard deviations
de la variable medida para la variedad en particular. La línea de regresión para todos los
Data is given by the straight line. All varieties nominally absorbed the
same crushing energy per ton of cane, although the results showed a
considerable dispersion. The effect of the variety on the preparation of the crusher is
comprehensible given the structure of the cane stem, that is, a taller fiber cane
it involves more structural components, which makes the stem stronger than a
cane stalk with little fiber.

Figure 3.13 Varietal effect on preparation

3.5. Energy requirements of the crusher

3.5.1. Introduction

The energy requirements for crushing are important when determining the size of the
primary motor for a new installation or the more effective use of a primary motor
installed. The main factors that affect power are analyzed below.

3.5.2. Effect of the absorbed power of the crusher in the preparation

Introductory notes
The relationship between energy consumption and preparation was experimentally investigated.
in the 1970s. The analysis of the results in the NCo310 variety showed that
there was a significant difference in the relationship between the level of preparation and power
for the tests carried out at 960 rpm and 1200 rpm for the 1450 mm machine
sweep diameter. Therefore, the results are discussed separately.

(i) Results at 960 r/min - 1450 mm diameter machine - 15 kg hammers

The response of the preparation to the energy absorbed by the crusher per ton of
The cane is shown in Figure 3.14. The results show a significant difference.
between the relationship for the conditions of simple and double passage.

Figure 3.14 Response of the preparation to the energy absorbed by the crusher

Rotation speed: 960 r/min;

Hammer weight: 15 kg;
Machine diameter: 1450 mm.

(ii) Results at 1200 r/min - machine with a diameter of 1450 mm - hammers of 15 kg

Figure 3.15 shows a similar response. Regarding the results of 960 r/
In the case of one and two pasts, the relationships are significantly different.
Figure 3.15 Response of the preparation to the energy absorbed by the crusher
per ton of cane

Rotation speed: 1200 r/min;

Hammer weight: 15 kg;
Machine diameter: 1450 mm.

(iii) Results for 1830 mm diameter machine

The energy requirements per ton of cane for a machine with a diameter of 1830 mm
They are shown in table 3.3.

Table 3.3 Average results for 1830 mm machine (8 rows)

Level of
Diameter Speed Adjustment Energy
preparation
(kWh / ton)
(mm) (r / min) (mm) POC of sugar cane
1830 1200 0 92.3 13.77
10 90.6 11.29
22 89.0 7.92
1830 960 0 91.0 9.11
10 90.2 7.4
22 86.2 6.34

It seems that this machine with a diameter can absorb up to about 14 kW.h per ton of
cane and reach high levels of preparation.

Discussion
It has been found that the preparation versus power relationship mainly depends on
the speed, the fiber level, and whether the preparation is done in one or two passes. It has been
it has been demonstrated that factors such as grid configuration, hammer configuration,
the use of feeding rollers and the adjustments do not affect the relationship in any way
significant.
When considering the preparation versus power relationships, a characteristic that can be
It can be seen easily in both Figure 3.14 and Figure 3.15 that after a
a certain amount of energy, significant additional energy is required to produce
just a small increase in the level of preparedness. Increases in preparedness are
they become more difficult as the region of the stronger crust dominates progress
from the preparation, as shown in Figure 3.16.

Figure 3.16 Damage in cane samples after high radial impacts

speed. The gaps in the cane samples imply significant damage

3.5.3. Single impact tests

While the previous work examined energy consumption in a crusher
small scale, the work at SRI in the late 1990s measured the energy used
to prepare the cane in very controlled single impact tests. In these tests of
unique impact, the cane samples were organized to optimize the impact event,
the results are presented in Figure 3.17 (note that 1 kW h / t of cane = 3600 J /
kg).
 Figure 3.17 Relationships between damage and specific absorbed energy for impact
unique radial and axial tests, and for a crusher of 1450 mm

The power required to prepare the cane both in the crusher and in the tests of
unique impact followed the same trend, which is understandable given that each step
The preparation additionally requires breaking the stronger components of the stem.
Interestingly, the unique impact was able to achieve higher levels of damage measured by POC.
for any given specific absorbed energy (or absorbed power), that the
crusher. For example, a single impact gave a conservative POC of 80 to
approximately 7000 J / kg (1.9 kW h / ton of cane) energy absorbed, while
that the crusher required 12480 J / kg (3.5 kW h / ton of sugarcane) to achieve the same
preparation. The results show the highest efficiency of the single impact to achieve
damage levels compared to the crusher, where the cane is subjected to multiple
impacts. Let us also remember that in the crusher the kinetic energy given to the
cane pieces are partially recovered because the broken pieces are projected onto the front wall
de la trituradora, donde la desaceleración puede causar más daño.

The substantially lower energy absorbed in a single impact on the cane indicates that the
The grinder could be improved to provide the same preparation with less energy.
When comparing the crusher with the reported single impact tests in this
From the document, one can infer the importance of the total coverage of the cane. In the tests
of unique impact, the sample size did not exceed the diameter dimension of the
projectile, in other words, the projectile did not cut or slice the sample. In the grinder,
Many of the billets that fall on the path of the hammers are cut or trimmed.
through the hammers. Figure 3.18 presents an example of cuts through a billet.
of sugarcane.
 Figure 3.18 Slices of a cane stick after it was dropped in the
high-speed hammers of the small-scale SRI crusher

Cutting or cutting through the stalk of the cane involves breaking the fibrovascular bundles. Such
Tear of the fibrovascular bundles requires energy, which is not required in the tests.
of unique impact. Therefore, it is reasonable to suggest that the techniques to ensure a
higher percentage of pure impact interactions between the hammer crushers and the
small blocks would result in the same level of preparation with less energy
used.

For the results of 960 r/min (crusher diameter 1450 mm), it can be observed
it is difficult to obtain an absorbed energy greater than approximately 6.0 kWh /
ton of cane. The crusher is virtually incapable of processing the cane any further in a
last year and the effectiveness of the additional power installed above this level is
questionable. There is a similar situation for the results of 1200 r/min for
small diameter machines, except for the power input to which the power
additional will only produce marginal increases in the preparation increases to
approximately 8.0 kWh / ton of cane. The reason for the limits on power
absorbed (and consequently the preparation, that is, see Figure 3.14, Figure
3.15 and table 3.3 that relate absorbed power to preparation) is that the
preparation is controlled by the impact speed. For example, a machine with
1450 mm operating at 960 r/min will result in a tangential speed of 73 m/s, but
operating at 1200 rpm, the tangential speed is 91 m/s, these speeds will determine
the preparation and therefore the power that can be applied to the cane.

3.5.4. Preparation effects through the crusher

In 2002, a series of tests were conducted on the small-scale SRI grinder to

evaluate the progression of the preparation through a grinder. Three were evaluated.
crusher conditions as shown in table 3.4.
Table 3.4 Configurations of defibrillators used for the program
test
State of the crusher Description
The front wall and the section of the grating bar were removed.
Hammers
The crusher consisted solely of the hammers.
Front panel installed, without grid bar. Leading edge
Front wall from the front wall (anvil bar) placed
approximately 45 mm from the hammers.
Front panel and grid bar installed, that is, crusher
Grid bar
standard
configuration. Grid bar fixed at 0 mm.

The results for three varieties of cane are presented in Figure 3.19 and Figure 3.20.
for the preparation and specific consumption of energy, respectively. The crusher
with the hammer-only configuration produced a relatively low damage level (POC
73%) with low energy consumption. The addition of the front wall / anvil bar
he introduced the reprocessing of the broken cane by directing the pieces of the cane from the wall
frontal towards the anvil bar and the hammers. This additional processing increased
energy use by 35% and added 7.5 units to the POC measurement. The installation of
the mesh bar meant that the broken rod was exposed to the hammers five times
more due to the action of the grilles. The preparation compared to the hammers only
improved with a POC of 16.4 units, but with more than double the energy consumption.

Figure 3.19 Results of the crusher configuration preparation for

the three varieties of test cane
Figure 3.20 Energy use results for the crusher configurations
for the three varieties of test cane

Figure 3.21 places these results in context with the previous tests of
small-scale crushers (section 3.5.2) and single impact tests (section
3.5.3). The relationship between preparation and specific energy consumption is quite
consistent in these measurements. The method to achieve the preparation seems to have little
effect on the results. In other words, as long as the rod consumes energy, the
The resulting preparation can be reasonably well estimated.

Figure 3.21 Comparisons between preparation and energy use relationships

from this research, previous studies of crushers and impact tests
3.6. Defibrating capacity
The capacity limits of the crushing facilities have not been established.
existing, however, it is interesting to extrapolate the rates achieved using the
pilot plant. For a conventional feed crusher with a diameter of 1450 mm,
speeds equivalent to 376 t/h were reached for a machine 2.13 m wide
At 960 r/min. At 1200 r/min, the maximum test speed was equivalent to 400 t/h.
With the feeding rollers and the billet cane feeding, the rates
equivalent maxima were 427 t/h and 478 t/ha at both speeds, respectively.

As a design guide, it is suggested that the 'design' rate for a 1200 r/min machine
of 1530 mm in diameter is in the range of 210 to 230 t / h / m in width. Still
It has not been determined to what extent this design rate can be increased. The rollers
Presumably, feeding can enable greater capabilities.

3.7. Maintenance of crushers

3.7.1. Problems

Introductory Notes
The performance of the crusher is generally monitored in terms of frequency.
asphyxia, vibration, bearing temperatures, turbine speed, inspection
visual of the state of the hammer tip and POC results.

Varieties
The different varieties of cane are prepared at different grades when processed.
with the same grinder. The varieties of hard cane have a "viscous" appearance or
"fibrous" when finely prepared. The long fibers aid in feeding in the
milling process. The varieties of soft cane are prepared with a size of
very small particle and have the appearance of sawdust. This material is often difficult
to feed the mills and can produce bagasse with a high level of moisture.

To avoid problems of excessive preparation with soft varieties, some factories

They ensure that a mix of hard and soft varieties is processed at the same time.
When this is not possible, the rotation speed is reduced or the grid adjustment is
relax while soft varieties are processed. There may be an associated reduction in
the extraction yield, but this can be considered preferable to a shutdown of the
factory due to the inability of the extraction station equipment to supply the
material or a reduction in vapor pressure due to high moisture bagasse.

Vibration
Due to the high rotation speeds used, attention must be paid to
balanced rotor. When preparing new or refurbished hammers, each
hammer must meet acceptable tolerances of dimension and weight. Each row of
hammers must also have the same collective weight as their opposite row in the rotor. This
requires that the hammers be classified in pairs of rows of equal total weight before
to place them.

The damage caused by foreign objects in the sugar cane supply is always a reason for
concern with the shredders. Some factories have magnets placed in front of
the crusher to capture metallic objects of a magnetic nature, but others
large materials and objects, even if they are magnetic, may not be captured and
They can enter the shredder. These strange objects can cause breakage.
grid hammers and anvils during their passage through the crusher. The broken hammers
can cause a condition of 'imbalance' that results in severe vibration of the
rotor.

In extreme cases, large foreign objects can cause a strong swaying.

behind the hammers, forcing some hammers to return to the space between the
discs where they get stuck. This will also cause severe vibrations in the rotor.

Noise
The noise levels near a crusher are usually high. The measures
which are used to reduce noise include:

Use of acoustic insulation in the body of the crusher and conveyors

contiguous ducts.
Completely enclose the shredder and the unit in a soundproof enclosure.
Make use of more rows on the rotor without increasing the number of hammers. (That is,
using staggered pattern hammer arrays).

Despite these noise control measures, the noise levels near the crushers
Such that the personnel who must enter an area near the crusher generally
You will need to use ear protection.

Atoros
Anvils in the crushers are often an indication of a problem in the area of
feeding of the crusher. Any object that is projected in the path of the cane
cut over the grid area should be regarded with suspicion. Even a
The grid that has the first anvil sticking out can cause a blockage. The problem of
The clogs can be serious when the crusher processes high rates of sugarcane in relation.
with its physical size.

While the performance in terms of cell breakage is not necessarily affected

due to hammer wear, very worn hammers can cause problems with
feeding. When the hammers are newly installed, the sharp corners of the
tips make contact with the rod, imparting blows that direct the rod towards the entrance
of the grid. As the leading edge of the hammer becomes rounded due to wear, the
the resultant force from the contact with this surface will direct part of the cane upwards.
This delays the entry of the cane into the grid until bridging finally occurs.
from the entry.

Variaciones en POC
POC is not a very accurate measurement. The repeatability of a POC measurement (the range
within which 95% of the repeated measurements in prepared cane will fall that is known
which has the same POC) is 3.2 POC units. Furthermore, the POC is affected
significantly by the sugarcane that is processed at the time the sample is taken
of the POC. For these reasons, care should be taken when interpreting and acting on the
POC results reported by the factory laboratory.
Dirt
The dirt content of the cane increases dramatically when harvested in
wet conditions. High levels of dirt in the cane supply can
drastically increase the wear of the crusher.

3.7.2. Hammer crusher tips

A series of tests were conducted on hammer crusher strike materials in
together with the Tribophysics Division of CSIRO. The resistance to the
breakage and wear rates of tungsten carbide/cobalt inserts
sintered and various grades of white cast iron.

It was shown that the wear rate of the hammer tip decreases significantly.
as the hardness of the tip increases. The grains of quartz sand that are
Introducing with the cane is the main cause of wear at the tip. If the hardness of the
The hammer's tip can rise above the hardness of quartz (that is, above
at approximately 1100 Hv), the wear rates should decrease significantly.
Currently, the hardest tip material in use is tungsten carbide (hardness
of approximately 1100 Hv). This wears out one fourth to one fifth of the rate of the
the hardest materials in use, which are white cast irons. The white cast irons
They are used as hard coatings applied to the arc or as hardened cast pieces.
There are much harder grades of tungsten carbides available. They are generally
too fragile for use today, but if the problem of breakage can
to improve oneself, its wear index should be extremely low.

Tests on an experimental crusher showed that the trapped iron was the
main cause of breakage due to tip breakage and not stones or rocks.

Tungsten carbide tips can be strengthened against breakage by having

bevels on all exposed edges of tungsten carbide and incorporate a wedge of
copper in the brazing under the carbide insert. This measure alone does not
it will prevent the failure of the tip due to the impact with the trapped iron. However, if it
use along with a magnetic separator in the supply of cane, the incidence of failures in
the tungsten carbide tip should decrease significantly. This leads to
possibility of using a harder grade of tungsten carbide.

An economic analysis indicated that the use of tungsten carbide tips without the
protection of a magnetic separator could not be justified.

The costs associated with non-tungsten carbide tips depend on

large measure of the amount of abrasive material transported with the cane. The costs are
they quickly decrease as the abrasiveness of the supply decreases.

3.8. Detection of iron vapors

This section describes the work to evaluate the use of electromagnetic separators for
the collection of iron particles. Tests showed that the separators
magnets could work effectively if presented with the rod in the form
Correct. Table 3.5 provides a summary and recommendations for various configurations.
of magnets. It was found that both the eddy current detectors and the use of
mechanical shocks from knives and shredders lack sufficient discrimination from the
mass of trapped iron to be useful for detecting all types of trapped iron and
It was recommended that its use be limited to the detection of very large cast iron pieces.
that would cause significant damage to the crusher and the mills.

An important point: the magnetic 'size' of a magnet is much smaller than its
physical size. The magnet does not produce complete magnetic power across its entire width.
magnet.

Table 3.5 Summary and recommendations for various magnet configurations

4. GRINDING
4.1. Introduction to mill adjustment
4.1.1. Introductory notes
The purpose of this section is to establish the calculations associated with geometry and the
operation of a milling unit.

4.1.2. Fiber rate

The fiber rate, QF (kg / s) is determined from the crushing rate of the cane, QC
(t / h), and the percentage of cane fiber, f, by:

For example, at a crushing rate of 400 t/h and 13.5% fiber in the cane

4.1.3. Opening of work

Basic definition
The work gap (W) defines the distance that separates a pair of rollers. The gap of
work is calculated from the opening or configured setting (Ws) that defines the
distance between the outer diameters of the rollers and a margin for the grooves
(Figure 4.1).

Figure 4.1 Work opening calculation diagram

The definition of the work opening becomes complicated with the raising of the roll. When it
allows to lift a roll, a component of that lifting must be taken into account in
the definition of job opening (see below). The elevation is not taken into account
account in the established opening definition. Therefore, a generic formula for the
job opening is:

Work opening (W) = Established opening (Ws) + depth tolerance

slot + roller elevation tolerance

Slot depth margin

The definition of the work opening generally includes half of the depth.
from the slot of each roll.
For rollers that are nominally flat, such as pressure feeder rollers.
notched, it is generally assumed that the groove depth is zero, so that
the established opening and the working opening are equal.

It is also common to ignore the depth of the groove in insufficient feeding.

setting it to zero. This convention is justified because the low pressures in the line of
insufficient power contact is not enough to allow a large
penetration of the bagasse in the grooves.

Hair comb work opening

In the case of the brin of a mill, the working opening is calculated in the middle of the comb.
(Figure 4.2).

Figure 4.2. Lower comb diagram

Since the comb has no slots, the working opening should only take into account the
effect of the upper roller groove. That is, instead of taking into account two averages
slot depths, only half of the slot depth is required.

Effect of roll elevation on working openings

When hydraulic-loaded rolls are installed, their elevation can affect the
job openings in food, delivery, and styling. Therefore, when they are carried out
Calculations must obtain and take into account the elevation value.

If the upper roller is raised by an amount ε, as shown in Figure 4.3, the opening of
the styling plate work will increase in ε. The feed openings will increase.
each one in a quantity .cos ( /2) where it is the vertex angle of the mill. Values
Typical of this angle is 80° and 90°, precise enough to add opening of
0.8 .

Figure 4.3. Opening of upper roller (drum)

In cases where the elevation of the upper roller is not vertical, it must be taken into account
calculate the angle of inclination.
When the delivery roller (fourth roller) is loaded hydraulically, the 'opening' of
Delivery should be added directly to the work opening.
In the case of mills with upper rollers and hydraulically loaded discharge,
Both tolerances must be made.

4.1.4. Average diameter of the drum

Similar to the definition of work opening, an average roller diameter is defined.
to take into account the presence of grooves. The average diameter of the roll, D, is defined
by

D = outer diameter - groove depth

4.1.5. Surface speed of the roller (drum)

The average diameter is used to calculate the surface speed of the roller,
so that

where
S= surface speed of the roller, m/s
D = average diameter of the roller, m
N = speed of the roller shaft, r/min

4.1.6. Contact angles

General comments
The contact angles of the chutes on the rollers are used in the calculations of the
described volume (section 4.1.7). Some contact angles are used as a criterion
for the mill configuration. The contact angle is always defined as the angle
between a radial line to the point of contact on the circumference and the line that connects the
centers of the two corresponding rollers (Figure 4.4).

Figure 4.4 Contact angle diagrams

Contact angle between a chute and a pair of rollers (drums)

From figure 4.5 it can be shown that:

This is

Figure 4.5 Calculation of the exit angle of the chute

For all cases involving the calculation of the described volume (escribed volume),
the diameter used is the mean diameter. The contact angles used as
setting criteria of the mill are also based on the average diameter, except for the angle
contact at the entrance of the feeder chute, where the root diameter is used
the rollers of the chute. In this case, the root diameter is used, since the angles of
Entry contact indicates whether the scraping on the root diameter will be effective.

Contact angle of the comb

The contact angle of the comb in the bagasse roller can be calculated using the rule of
cosine in the triangle with sides A, B, C (Figure 4.6) that gives:
 Figure 4.6. Contact angle of comb

Keep in mind that:

Comb opening = nominal working opening + half (comb divergence)

Please also note that the divergence of the plate is equal to the difference between the
openings of the heel and the tip of the trash plate.

The substitution of these values allows the calculation of the contact angle. Consider the
next case:

Average diameter of upper drum 1020 mm

Average diameter of bagasse roller 990 mm
Opening of work 30 mm
Comb opening 150 mm
Comb divergence 20 mm

4.1.7. Discharge volume (described volume)

Discharge volume between a pair of rollers
The discharge volume (Ve) is the volume that passes through a certain section of a
mill in unit of time. This volume is better illustrated by considering a pair of rolls
that unroll a thin film of material from each roll. The contained volume
Among the movies after the unit of time is the indicated volume (see Figure
4.7).

Figure 4.7. Discharge volume between a pair of rollers

where
A = Opening between the mazes
B = Length of the mace
C = distance traveled by the surface of the roller in unit of time
Ve = surface speed of the roller

Download volume in terms of mills

In the event that the material moves from a chute to a pair of rollers or vice versa, the
the considered speed is the component of the roll speed in the direction
perpendicular to a line between the center of the roll and the contact point of the chute at the
roll. (Figure 4.8). This would be the speed of the blanket if there were no slipping between
the blanket and the roll.

Figure 4.8 Diagram of roll pairs feeding a ramp

The speed component in a drop is given by
S x cos

Where it is the contact angle between the chute on the roller as shown (section 4.1.6)

In this situation, the discharge volume is calculated as:

This formula applies whether the material enters or exits the chute.

Final observations
When calculating the discharge volume, it is generally assumed that the surface velocity of the
Feeder roller is the appropriate speed of the roller from the output of the feeder chute.
up to the entrance of the chute. The surface speed of the upper roller is usually used
from the feeder chute outlet to the discharge.

4.1.8. Fiber classification

Compaction
The most common way to measure the fiber classification at a point in a mill is as
compaction The compaction is the apparent density of the fiber at that point, disregarding
the juice.

where
compaction, kg of fiber per m3
Qffiber mass flow rate, kg / s
Vevolume written, m3/s.

The compaction at any point in the mill can be calculated with equation 4.12
Filling ratio
A non-dimensional classification measure of the fiber is obtained from the compaction.
comparing it with the gap-free density of the fiber that has been measured at 1530 kg/m3. This
the measure is called filling ratio (filling ratio), CFThis measure is not commonly used in the
factories, but it is a useful number as it measures the proportion of the opening that is completely
full of solid material.
4.1.9. Grinding and volumetric ratios
The grinding ratio is the ratio between the input flow and the output. This is the same.
that the relationship between compaction at the delivery contact line and compaction at the
contact line of feeding. Given that the surface speed in the two nips is
nominally the same, with the roller speed being higher, then the relationship of the mill
It is also the relationship between the feed opening and the delivery opening. The relationship of
mill gives an idea of the distribution of work between the feeding line and the output line.
A grinding ratio of one indicates that the feed is working as hard as the
delivery. A grinding ratio of 1.7 indicates that the output line is working 1.7 times
harder than the supply line.
The volumetric ratio is the ratio between the feed volume at pressure and the volume
indicated in the power line. This is equivalent to the relationship between the compaction in the
feed line and pressure feeding. In this case, the superficial velocities do not
they are the same and a simple comparison of the work openings cannot be made for
Indicate the relationship of compactions.

4.2. An example of mill configuration

4.2.1. The problem

The compressions must be calculated for the five-roll mill shown in the figure.
4.9 in the pressure feeder line, the inlet of the pressure feeder chute, the outlet of the
pressure feeder chute, the feed line, the comb, and the output line. The mill has
a roll length of 2.134 m. The outer diameters of the rollers and the adjustments of the mill
They are shown in Figure 4.9. All dimensions are in mm

Figure 4.9 Adjustments and outer diameters for the example of the mill adjustment

The depths of the slots are 54 mm for the pressure feeder and 38 mm for the
mill rollers.

Other details are as follows:

Crushing rate = 400 t/h of sugarcane with 13.6% fiber

Turbine speed = 3865 r/min
 Transmission relationship
oTurbina: molino = 916,0
oPF: molino = 1,45
Upper roll elevation = 3 mm
Comb divergence = 19 mm

4.2.2. Calculation of fiber ratio

4.2.3. Work opening calculation

Work opening PF = setting + groove depth

73 + 54 = 127mm

For feeding and unloading, the lifting component must be added, 0.8 × 3,
let's say 2 mm
Opening for feeding work = 49 + 38 + 2 = 89 mm
Working opening for unloading = 6 + 38 + 2 = 46 mm

For the comb, all the elevation plus the depth of the slot must be added.
Comb opening = 124 + 38/2 + 3 = 146 mm

4.2.4. Calculation of average roller diameter

Average diameter = outer diameter - groove depth

For the pressure feeder, DP= 837 - 54 = 783mm. The other average diameters of
the rollers are 918, 895, and 982 mm for the top roller, can roller, and bagasse roller,
respectively.
These figures, along with the job openings calculated in section 4.2.3, are shown
in Figure 4.10.

Figure 4.10 Working openings and average diameters for sample calculation
Download chute PF Ve = 2.134 x 0.319 x 0.203 x 0.7461 = 0.1031 m3/s

4.2.7. Calculation of compactions and filling ratios

Each compaction =f = Ve = 15.11 / Ve

Filling ratio Cf = / 1530

The results are summarized in table 4.1.

Table 4.1 Calculated compactions and filling proportions for the

example

Ve(m3/ s) (kg / m3) CF

PF nip 0.068 222 0.145
Hopper inlet PF 0.0999 151 0.099
Exit of channel PF 0.1031 147 0.096
Feeding nipple 0.0386 391 0.256
Garbage plate 0.0632 239 0.156
Delivery tip 0.0199 759 0.496

4.2.8. Calculation of contact angles

Contact root angle at the entrance of the chute

Root diameter PF = OD - 2 x groove depth = 837 - 2 x 54 = 729 mm

Discharge chute angle (section 4.2.6) = 41.7°

Calculation of contact angle of comb (Figure 4.1.2)

Figure 4.12. Contact angle of comb

4.3. Loads and torques on rollers (drums)
4.3.1. Introduction
The purpose of the mill adjustment is to maintain torques and loads in the tandem of
grinding at levels that the grinding unit can withstand; therefore, in any
mill adjustment exercise, the relationship between the adjustments must be taken into account
mill and the loads. This relationship is described in the following sections.
4.3.2. Loads on the mill rolls
The theory suggests that the loads of the masses must be proportional both in length.
as to the diameter of the wheel. Experimentation in a two-roll mill in the
The University of Queensland suggested that the load is also proportional to the relationship of
less than 0.1. It was found that the dependence of the load of the mass on the speed
she was small. Consequently, the prediction of the load of the hammer is done using
the empirical equation:

where

R is the load of the roller (drum) (MN),

PRit is a constant of proportionality (MPa),
L is the length of the rod (m),
D is the average diameter of the mace (m), and
CFit is the filling ratio in the line of the two hammers.

4.3.3. Torque on mill bearings

The theory suggests that the roller's twist must be proportional to the load on the roller.
relationship between the work opening and the diameter and a weak relationship with respect to
filling. The remaining constant of proportionality is the northward par factor Pnorte. The equation
The empirical relationship between the roller load and the torque is given below.
where

G is the pair of masses (MN.m),

PNit is the torque factor of hubs (m),
W is the opening of work (m),
D is the mean diameter of the hub (m),
CFit is the filling ratio, and
R is the load of the mass (MN)

4.3.4. Loads and torques for hub combinations

Equations (4.14) and (4.15) can be combined with empirical relationships to
loads on the combs to produce load estimates on the upper roll of a set of 3
mills and torque estimates at the rear of the mill.

4.3.5. Torque distribution among individual discs

In recent years, mills with drives have been installed in factories
independent. To properly size these drives, it is necessary
estimate the distribution of the pair between the individual rollers.

Although no rigorous experiments have been conducted, the measurements of the distribution
of the pair indicates that the distribution is relatively independent of the configuration of the
mill. Of the power consumed in the cane rollers, the upper and bagasse rollers, the upper roller
approximately consumes 46% of the pair, the bagasse roller consumes
approximately 28% and the cane roller consumes the remaining 27%.
Although it has not been demonstrated that the mill adjustments affect the torque distribution, the
surface speed differences between individual rollers have an effect
important. Figure 4.13, Figure 4.14, and Figure 4.15 show the effect of performing a
change in the speed of the upper rollers, cane roller, and bagasse roller, respectively.

Figure 4.13 Change in torque distribution with roller speed

superior
 Figure 4.14 Change in pair distribution with roller speed
caner

Figure 4.15 Change in the pair distribution with the speed of the mass
thug

4.3.6. Influence of roller load and torque theory in mill adjustment

The purpose of adjusting the mill is to obtain loads and torques on the rolls that are
acceptable for the operation of the mill. The relationship between the must be known
mill adjustment variables that can be changed by the mill engineer, and
the loads of the rollers and torques, which cannot be changed. From the previous theory it
You can see that the main parameter linking the loads of the rollers and the pairs with
the adjustments of the mill is the compaction of the bagasse. Other variables such as speed
are less important. The diameter and length are also important, but the
Changes in the diameter or length of the roll are not a common occurrence.

Since compaction affects the loads of the rollers more than any other
variable, one goal of the mill configuration is to maintain the compactness at
the levels that are known to result in acceptable loads. Some
Compactions are more important than others. For example, delivery compaction.
it is the largest and produces the greatest forces; therefore, it is more important
maintain delivery compaction at safe operational levels that the compaction
of food.

When selecting pinions, it is important to ensure that the surface speed

the differential between roller pairs should be small. As shown in Figure 4.13, Figure
4.14 and Figure 4.15, even a small difference in surface speed can
to cause a considerable difference in the distribution of the pair. The speed differences
they must certainly be kept below 10%.

4.4. Extraction Theory

4.4.1. Background
Juice separation
The theory of extraction yield performance in milling tandems was developed in
University of Queensland during the 1950s and 1960s. Here is a brief
background of the theory.
The core of the theory is known as 'volumetric theory', because the capacity of
The separation of a mill is determined based on relative volumes. A volume of
juice and fiber that enter, a volume of juice is extracted and a volume of juice remains
bagasse. This is shown in the form of a diagram in Figure 4.16 and Figure 4.17. The theory
volumetric compares the volume of juice and pomace that come out of the mill (see section
4.1.7). It would be advisable for both volumes to be equal, but this is not the case and
the relationship between the volume of bagasse and the described volume is called factor of
reabsorption.

Figure 4.16 Volume change in milling

 Figure 4.17 Volumes involved in the milling

The mechanism or process by which the volume of bagasse is greater than the volume
described is still open to debate. The use of the word 'reabsorption' implies that the juice
It is extracted, but then finds its way back to the output pulp. This can
be the case if the juice finds its way from the feed side to the outlet side
through the rolling slots. This is a possible explanation of reabsorption.
Another mechanism for the volumes to be different could be the juice that travels more.
quickly through the surface of the roll over the bagasse. In this case, the juice would be coming out.
in jets from the high-pressure feed side to the low-supply side
pressure. Another mechanism could be that the entire layer of bagasse/juice is extruded or
slips through the contact line at a faster speed than the surface of
the mace.
Whatever the mechanism, it is known that for milling setups
existing, reabsorption increases with the speed of the roller and the compaction and it
reduce with the fineness of the material. The moisture, or more strictly the proportions of
juice to fiber, improve in a grinding train as fineness improves, and worsen
if the grinding speed increases.
Brix extraction
The reabsorption factor is the empirical factor that relates the separation capacity.
from the juice with easily calculable volumes, however, the reabsorption factor
It does not describe the relative proportion of brix and water that is extracted in the juice. More is required.
information to determine these proportions.
The University of Queensland model used the imbibition coefficient to
describe the relative amounts of brix and water expressed. The imbibition coefficient
it is the relationship between the actual brix extraction of the mill and the theoretical brix extraction that is
it would have succeeded if the juice in the bagasse and the juice in the imbibition had been mixed
perfectly. Part of the reason for the imperfect mixture is that some of the juice from the pomace...
it is relatively inaccessible in closed cells. To extract the juice in cells
Closed, more preparation is required. Alternatively, heat and time can be used.
to slowly diffuse the juice from the closed cells into the maceration liquid.
4.4.2. Factors that affect extraction
Packing of the starting line
Probably, the most important factor affecting the extraction performance is the
compaction during discharge. If the compaction in all the mills is not maintained at
a satisfactory level, the extraction will be affected.
Preparation
More than thirty years ago, experiments were conducted in a three-roller experimental mill in
Pleystowe demonstrated that preparation improved milling performance.
Graphical results for a milling tandem wine from Mossman, where a was installed.
heavy defibrillator for the 1975 season. The experiments were conducted in the
tandem before the new defibrillator was installed, when it was in operation
a lightweight Searby defibrillator (1270 mm in diameter and 960 r/min) and during
the first year of operation of the new shredder. With the new defibrator,
the opportunity was also taken to test the effect of the preparation in a tandem
of milling with a variable number of mills. This was achieved by avoiding some mills.
Figure 4.18 shows the results for the entire train. For the general extraction, the
the effect of POC varied according to the number of mills; generally, every five units of
POC (percentage of open cells) provided an additional extraction of 0.5 units.

Figure 4.18 Effect of preparation on total extraction

Figure 4.18 also suggests that the higher the initial POC, the lower it will be.
additional extraction that will obtain an additional mill.
Imbibition
The amount of clean water added to a milling train influences extraction. Several
Plants have analyzed their performance during the season and have graphed the extraction.
against imbibition. Generally, the extraction data with low maceration is
they are collected at the beginning of the season, when the fiber levels are low and the bagasse
scarce, and the high maceration data is collected at the end of the season, when the
fiber levels are higher and the bagasse is more abundant. Therefore, the results in
high and low maceration are not directly comparable, as they come from tests in
different rods. To be strictly correct, the tests would have to be carried out
both in high and low maceration within the same week.
Figure 4.19 shows the influence of added water on extraction. The results
they come from tests in an experimental mill, used to simulate a tandem of
complete grinding. As expected, the extraction increases as the
imbibition. There is diminishing return in the sense that the greater the
imbibition, lesser benefit in additional extraction.

Figure 4.19 The effect of added water on the extraction.

Mill speed
Many series of experiments with two and three cylinder laboratory mills,
carried out in Australia since the 1950s, have shown a reduction in the
extraction as the speed of the mill increases. In 1992, the Institute of
Sugar Research conducted a thorough investigation on the effect of the
speed of the mill in the extraction of juice for the crushing of prepared cane. The
investigation was conducted at a mill speed range from 200 mm/s to 600
mm/s. Figure 4.20 summarizes the results of that research. The results show
the loss of approximately one extraction unit for every increase of 100 mm/s
in the speed of the mill.
 Figure 4.20 The effect of mill speed on extraction, of a
two-roll laboratory, prepared at the Research Institute of
Sugar in 1992

It is difficult to extrapolate the results from the two-roll experimental mill to predict
the effect of mill speed on the extraction yield of a unit of
six roller milling. It is even more difficult to use the results from the two mill
rodillos para predecir el efecto de la velocidad del molino en el rendimiento de extracción
of a whole milling train. In recent years, the Sugar Research Institute
has carried out two important investigations to experimentally determine the
effect of mill speed on the extraction of a grinding train.
The first investigation was carried out in the two tandems of four mills in Victoria.
Mill in 1992 and 1993. Two sugarcane carts were produced from a single agricultural block. It
processed a cart at a nominal speed of the mill of 200 mm/s. The other cart
processed at a nominal mill speed of 240 mm/s, nominally 20% higher
high. Each load took about 25 minutes to process. In total, 50 carts were processed.
of cane (25 pairs). The extraction of pol was measured for each cart for mill # 1 and the
grinding train in general.
The second investigation was carried out in a tandem of five mills at Victoria Mill.
in 1997 and 1998. The tests were conducted over periods of four hours. The
Half of the tests were conducted at a nominal mill speed of 170 mm/s. The
The other half of the tests were conducted at a nominal mill speed of 200 mm /
about 20% more. A total of 28 tests were conducted. Once again,
the extraction of pol was measured for each test for mill # 1 and the grinding line
in general.
Table 4.2 summarizes the results of both investigations. The error estimates
In the table are standard deviations. The results of the extraction from the first mill
for both studies show that the average pol extraction for the first
mill was greater than the lower speed of the mill. However, the size of the
the difference in extraction was small compared to the experimental error and a
The analysis of variance indicated that the difference was not significant. The results of the
total extraction for the first investigation showed that the average extraction of
The pole was 0.8 units higher than the lowest speed of the mill. An analysis of variance.
it showed that the result was significant at the 6% level. However, the added water
for the low-speed experiments it was approximately 20% higher in fiber
that for high-speed experiments. It is believed, based on an analysis of
regression of the results, that the extra water added may have contributed around
de 0.3 unidades a la diferencia, dejando una diferencia de 0.5 unidades debido al efecto
of the speed of the mill. The second investigation showed no difference in the
total extraction of pol.

Table 4.2 The effect of mill speed on the extraction of pulp from the
factory measurements

Series Decrease in the extraction of pol

with a 20% increase in the mill
speed
(%)
1 mill Total
1992-1993 1.1 ± 3.9 0.8 ± 1.3
1997-1998 0.4 ± 1.7 0.0 ± 0.4

Number of mills
The effect of the number of mills on extraction can be seen in Figure 4.18, and
it was also seen in experiments in Inkerman. Several 'accidents' over the years,
in which a mill has been overlooked due to a breakdown, they have allowed for the collection
data on the effect of an additional mill. A simple answer cannot be provided to the
question of what the effect of an additional mill will be. If a train of four mills is
achieving an extraction of 97, this is obviously different from a train of four mills
which achieves an extraction of 94%. For the experiments of Inkerman and Mossman,
Omitted mills were the weak intermediate mills. The increase in extraction
due to the additional mill, it was 0.5 units from 5 to 6 mills in Inkerman, and between 1 and
1.5 units for the two mills added in Mossman, depending on the level of
initial preparation.
The best way to find out what the loss of a mill will mean for a train of
Milling in particular is to overlook that mill for a series of tests and measure it.
What happens. Otherwise, one is left with an estimate of around 0.8
units of difference between four and five mills, and 0.6 units of difference between
five and six windmills.
The compaction and the speed of the mill are the main considerations for
establish the setting of the mill. Section 4.4.2 discusses the importance of the
compaction (fill ratio) and the speed of the mill in the determination of
extraction yield.
In general, compaction should be maximized, subject to the constraints caused by
the loads of the rollers and the torques (section 4.3) and the speed of the mill must
minimize within the constraints of the mill drives.
4.5. Mill Feeding
4.5.1. The importance of the mill feed
Ensure that the mills of an extraction train are fed continuously and without
problems at the required speed is a matter of great importance in the factory of
raw sugar. It is surprising, therefore, that it receives so little attention in other references.
sugar mills. On the other hand, the Queensland industry has realized the importance
from feeding and tested various devices, including the use of pushers
alternatives, both horizontal and vertical. Approximately in 1938, Colonial
Sugar Refining Company developed the continuous pressure feeder that was used in
the final mills to improve both the feeding of the mill and the performance of
extraction. The results of these developments can be seen in the grinding practice.
actual, where the extraction performance of the factories in Queensland is very low.
in front of the accepted standards.
4.5.2. The development of feeding devices.
Pushers
The first device that was widely used in Queensland was the pusher.
reciprocating. At first, only the upper or vertical pusher was used and the action
it seemed to be to avoid the 'bridge' of food between the upper roller and the plate of
inclined feeding. Subsequent developments led to the horizontal pusher or
inferior that pushed the material to the feed line of the mill.
The push system was widely adopted in the factories of Queensland and gave
rate increases from 10 to 15 percent in the extraction rate. However, your action
it produced a somewhat uneven feeding effect and, as the
speeds, the mechanical equipment in the feed hopper became an obstacle
for feeding and the use of pushers was gradually discontinued. The
pushers have now disappeared from the factories of Queensland.
The continuous pressure feeder
In 1939, Colonial Sugar Refining Company patented the continuous pressure feeder.
The device consists of two grooved rollers, similar to the rollers of the mill, that are
they feed into a slightly divergent closed duct that directs the bagasse to the mouth
of the mill. In operation, these feeder rollers extract a volume
considerable amount of juice and in this way a continuous flow of dry bagasse enters the mill.
Initially, the device was applied only to the finishing mills where they were located.
the greatest difficulties in feeding, but its use has been gradually extending
to the other bagasse mills up to the first mill of the tandem.
In the last 35 years, the use of continuous pressure feeders has spread.
enormously and has proven its value in increasing extraction and yield of
the speed of the crushing trains in Queensland. The pressure feeder
It is commonly known as a heavy-duty service pressure feeder.
Feed rollers
Although the continuous pressure feeder is an expensive piece of equipment, in Queensland there have been
many other lighter devices have been applied. Lightweight rollers have been installed,
generally driven at speeds somewhat higher than the peripheral speed of the
mill, to operate underneath or above the feed (Aguirre rollers). The latter
they have been applied both in a regular feed hopper and in combination with
platform supports. These devices have had varying degrees of success but, in
general, they have proven to be more satisfying than the pushers as
they increased the extraction rates; their application follows the practices used in others
sugar producing countries.
Gravity feed chutes
After observing the milling practices in the Caribbean, an interest arose.
considerable in gravity feed chutes to eliminate mechanical equipment
and the associated maintenance costs of the feed rollers and the
platform feeders mentioned above. This interest led to the development
from Donnelly chute, a closed and very steep ramp without any mechanical device
of food. These conduits provided good service with maintenance costs
insignificant.
The lightweight dual roller feeder
Los desarrollos descritos anteriormente llevaron directamente al diseño y la aplicación de
a light-duty two-roller feeder. This device consists of two rollers
cast iron grooves similar to the rollers of the mill and
driven by chains and gears. These rollers are used to compress
slightly the sugarcane fiber without squeezing juice, and a closed ramp of lightweight construction
It presents the compressed mat to the mill. Some feed force is available.
like in the continuous pressure feeder but the device being of construction
light without squeezing juice, is much cheaper and simpler than the pressure feeder.
Toothed feeders
In the 1970s, CSR developed a toothed feeder. The toothed feeder
it did not have slots like the pressure feeders for heavy and light work, but
which had tooth rings, generally spaced about 100 mm apart, welded to a drum.
Although they are not specifically designed to extract juice, most of the
toothed feeders were set up to extract juice and were configured to operate at
midway between the extremes of heavy-duty pressure feeders and
light. Most of the toothed feeders were powered by a rear bar, in
place operated by chain.
4.5.3. Mill Feed Theory
Feeding of the milling unit
The ultimate measure of a grinding mill's capacity is its maximum grinding rate.
(milled cane rate). However, when considering the capacity of a single unit of
milling, it is more convenient to use the fiber rate (crushed fiber rate) as a measure
of capacity. While the total mass of cane or bagasse that enters a unit of
Grinding is influenced by the amount of juice extracted in the grinding unit.
previous and the amount of added imbibition, the amount of fiber that passes through each
The grinding unit is essentially constant throughout the grinding train. In this
section, the fiber rate is used as a measure of the grinding unit's capacity.
A grinding unit is unable to grind more cane or bagasse than it can.
feed. Consequently, the maximum feeding speed of the mill is a limit
strict in the capacity of the grinding unit. While it is possible that a unit of
grinding feeds more than it can crush, the real limit of capacity of
crushing remains open to speculation. Guidelines are available for the
safe operation of grinding units to define capacity of
grinding; however, many Australian milling units operate in a
quite satisfactory outside of the guidelines. The maximum feed rate of the
mill and the capacity of the grinding unit are essentially considered the same
in this section.
The feeding theory of the mill that was developed for the six-roller mill
It is based on a two-roll mill model and is defined in terms of fiber rate.
The theoretical capacity of a two-roll mill (Q* fin kg fiber/s) can be defined
like:

where

withit is the compaction at the outlet of the feeding channel (kg fiber / m3),

L is the length of the rolls (m),

D is the average diameter of the roll (m),
W is the work opening (m), and
S is the surface speed of the rollers (m/s).

If the actual feed rate achieved by a milling unit is QF, the relationship between
the actual feed rate and the theoretical capacity of a two-roll mill can be
define as:
where E is a factor that has been defined as the efficiency of the feeding process.
Efficacy is a measure of the feeding performance of a milling unit.
Since the dimensions of the mill are considered based on theoretical capacity, the
efficacy is independent of the size of the mill. Consequently, efficacy can be
use to compare the feeding performance of any grinding unit
with two roller pressure feeders.
Substituting equation (4.16) into equation (4.17) and rearranging, the effectiveness is
can calculate from:

Of all the parameters in equation 4.5.3, the only parameter that is not measured
easily it is cothe compaction at the output of the feed channel. This
compaction can be estimated using the theory developed for the movement of
bagasse in long chutes.
Effectiveness
Based on the effectiveness measurements made in the factories at the end of the decade
from 1970, an empirical relationship was developed:

Where
what is the adjustment of the discharge chute,
Dp is the outer diameter of the upper pressure feeding roller,
What is the adjustment of the lower feed nip?
h*coit is the optimal setting for an imaginary shot that feeds the rollers of the feeder to
pressure.

y
Dp is the average diameter of the upper and lower feed rollers.
Wp is the working opening of the pressure feeder nip.
Optimal feeding conditions
Based on the theory presented earlier in this section, one can define a
feed chute configuration and a feed nip configuration for
achieve maximum performance.
The optimal feed nip adjustment W*onis given by:

The optimal adjustment of the feed channel is half the distance between the centers of
lower feed roller and the upper pressure feed roller.

4.5.4. Influence of feed to the mill in the setting of mills

While the loads/torques on the hubs and the extraction influence the choice of
compactions in the grinding unit, the mill feed influences the
selection of the settings from the feed chute to the pressure feeder.
The relationship between the grinding rate and feeder settings is defined by considerations.
of the mill feeding.

4.6. Guidelines for mill adjustment

4.6.1. Introduction
Over the years, SRI has developed a set of guidelines through which
they can make adjustments to mills and ensure safe operation. This does not mean
to say that the plants will not operate safely outside these guidelines: they can and they
they do, but the recommendations are intentionally conservative. There is little theory
contained in them, derive from operational practice within the industry.

4.6.2. Feeding and discharge compactions

In the download
The compaction during unloading must be adjusted to the level that results in proper functioning.
mill insurance in relation to the load of the upper roller and the torque of
actuation. This level of secure compaction is more easily calculated by analyzing
What compactions were achieved previously when the mill was operating in
conditions close to the desired load of the upper roller or to the torque of the mill.

If the mill is new or is in a new location for which there is no available

operational experience, so the target compaction for discharge should be
the compaction that will result in a load of the upper roller that corresponds
to the resistance of the upper roller with a service factor of 1.15 (provided that the
transmission is appropriate). Alternatively, the compactors 600, 680, 770, 830 and
880 kg/m3 should be used for mills one to five respectively, and 880 for
the rear mills as a first estimate for the discharge compaction.
In the diet
The feed nip should be established considering the ratio of the mill.
compaction affects the load of the upper roller; however, this is generally a
minor consideration as long as reasonable grinding ratios are used. It
You should select a grinding ratio in the range of 1.3 to 1.9, with 1.7 being an option.
common. The low mill proportions reduce the amount of drainage required
in the input line, which can improve performance. On the other hand, the proportions
The mill drops reduce the load that can be transported by the nip during discharge.
since the load of the upper roller must be shared between the feed nip and the
download and any increase in the power nip load must be accompanied by
a decrease in the discharge nip load. Low compactness in the discharge
it usually results in high humidity. Definitive tests have never been conducted to
determine the optimal grinding ratio.
Generally, the relationship of the mill should be established to distribute the
compactions through the mill so that there is an even progression of
compactions from the feed hopper to the discharge line.
4.6.3. Guidelines for combs
The contact configuration of the comb is as critical as any other configuration
in the mill. The most important thing is the angle that the comb forms with the bagasse hammer.
don't be too large, since the larger the angle, the less likely it is that the
material is fed on the starting line. The recommended values are less than 33
degrees for all the mills except the final mill and less than 30 degrees for it
final mill.
The contraction angle in the comb can be "exchanged" against the compaction of
comb. If the comb is placed closer to the upper anvil, the compaction will increase and
the contact angle will decrease. It is preferable not to have the comb compaction
too high, as this will increase its wear. The maximum values
Suggested for the compaction of the comb are given in Figure 4.21.
 Figure 4.21 Recommended levels of comb compaction

As the grinding rates increase, you will find that both limits are
they will approach and, in some cases, they will be surpassed. This cannot be avoided unless one
increase the speed of the mill.
The divergence of the comb is usually between 16 and 20 mm.

4.6.4. Pressure feeders

Introduction
Configuring pressure feeders is not a science, but over the years it has been
developed a set of guidelines that reduce the incidence of failures in the chute of
pressure feeding. These guidelines relate to the opening of work
pressure feeding, either indicating what it should be or specifying a relationship
volumetric. There are also guidelines on the divergence of the feed chute to
pressure, the compaction levels in the chute both at the entrance and at the exit, and
the contact angles both at the entrance and at the exit.
Divergence of the pressure feed hopper
The divergence of the chute must be greater than 3.5 degrees, or 60 mm in depth of the
ramp of m length of the same.
Entry contact angle of the pressure feed chute
Regardless of the type of pressure feed chute, it is essential that the angle
at the entrance to the hopper, allow for effective scraping on the rollers. Historically, it
it was suggested for heavy-duty press feeders that the adjustment of the scrapers
51 mm wider than the distance between the bottom of the grooves on the two
Rollers. This is reasonable for most mills, but a more comprehensive rule
it is to ensure that the contact angle of the scrapers at the root of the groove is at
minus 15 degrees, and preferably 18 degrees. The probable effectiveness of the scrapers
It can be better seen by drawing the rollers and scrapers at full size and making sure
that scrapers do not have to be too long to scrape effectively.
Exit contact angle of the feed chute
The recommended contact angles for the discharge of the feeding chute to
pressure at the top and the feed rollers are: 40 degrees for
heavy-duty feeders and 45 degrees for light-duty feeders.
Toothed feeders are commonly configured with an outlet contact angle.
between the two values, generally because the output setting is fixed and the angle
contact depends on the power settings.

Compactions in feeder chute

It is believed that if the output compaction is greater than the input compaction
(called "reverse compaction"), it is more likely that the chute will fail. Therefore, it
it is recommended that in a heavy-duty service pressure feed chute the compaction of
output should be between 4 and 16 kg/m3 less than the input compaction, the reduction
desired is 8 kg / m3. For lightweight work feeders, some is acceptable
reverse compaction and an increase of up to 15 kg / m3 is possible, although a drop of the
input to output compacting of 8 kg/m3 remains desirable. It is assumed that the
the level of reverse compaction in light service feeders does not lead to failures
due to the slight feeding force and the protective aspects of chain breakage
in contrast to the break of the chute.
The toothed feeders are the other category of feeders. The compaction
inversion in these ducts can be substantial and it is assumed that the chute failures are
they are avoided through the resistance of the chute and the limited feeding power provided
a toothed feeder. Compactions in a chute with a toothed feeder are
establishes through the depth dimensions of the hopper, which are usually
an input of 230 mm and an output of 320 mm or 350 mm.
While the previous guidelines are maintained, large reverse compactions (some
of more than 50 kg/m3) have become more common due to higher yields.

Set up power drop

A heavy-duty feeder is generally configured by specifying a ratio
volumetric, which for a heavy-duty feeder, should be between 1.1 and 1.5. The
the most common proportions are 1.3 and 1.4.
For a light duty feeder and a toothed feeder, the feed adjustment
It is usually 178 mm (seven inches) and should be between 150 and 210 mm. There are several
service 'intermediate' feeders in the industry where adjustments are less than
178 mm but the corresponding volumetric ratios are higher than those
recommended for heavy-duty feeders. The compacting can
allow themselves to be larger for the pressure feeders with shafts of 175 or 200 mm that
for feeders equipped with 150 mm shafts.
Again, these guidelines remain, but a more detailed approach is often required.
flexible to configure the pressure feeders. If the speed of a mill is higher
higher than desired, generally a greater adjustment of the pressure feeder is required.
for the mill speed to return to a satisfactory level. As it increases
The adjustment of the pressure feeder also increases the volumetric ratio. In some
In some cases, the volumetric relationship in a heavy-duty pressure feeder can be
2.0 or higher, just to process the required speed.

Conclusion
There are several considerations regarding the adjustments of feed chutes to
pressure and some conflicts may arise. For example, when trying to reduce the level
of reverse compaction, one action is to reduce the entry angle and increase the angle
of exit. Therefore, one is compelled to reach a compromise and must be established
a priority for each 'directive'. It is suggested that the ramp divergence is the guideline
more important. The entry and exit contact angles are as follows in
importance. The reverse compaction level should be the final requirement. Often,
It is not possible to find configurations that satisfy all the guidelines and it must be accepted.
some commitment.

4.7. Mill control

4.7.1. Introduction
The control of the mill is essential to achieve the two objectives of an engineer.
milling, one with good performance and few equipment failures.
There are two main aspects of mill control, the control of an individual mill and
the control related to the milling tandem as a whole and how it fits in
the factory operations. The following sections discuss the height control of the
bagasse in the feed duct, control of the load in a mill, and some
aspects of the control of the grinding tandem.

4.7.2. Hopper height control and hopper height sensor

The control of the hopper height is essential for the control of the mill. Good control
the height of the hopper allows for a constant operation of the mill, maintaining the
output compaction of the feed hopper, which facilitates the adjustment of the mill and
maintains the grinding rate of the mill at maximum, as the hopper is full throughout
moment. This ensures that the maximum possible extraction is maintained and a humidity
bagasse constant. A good control of the hopper height is also necessary before
that the adjustable chute flaps can be successfully implemented (for control of
the load).
The control of the height of the bagasse in the chute uses the same three components that are
they are found in most control systems, namely:
A sensor
A controller
A control agent
The sensor indicates the level of the amount to be controlled, in this case the height of the bagasse.
inside the feed chute. The controller decides what to do with the height level
from the chute. The control agent is the actuator or speed transmission that can be
manipulate to change the height of the chute.
In the case of the chute height control, the sensor is usually a 'height sensor for
chutes' produced by the Sugar Research Institute. The controller can be a controller
independent electronic or being incorporated into the distributed control system of the
mill. The control agent depends on the drive system of the mill.
One of the most important facts to consider is that there is very little capacity for
compensation in a feeder chute. A feeder chute can be emptied into
cuestión de segundos. También se puede llenar en segundos. La reacción del sensor de
the height of the chute and the control agent (either the mill control or the operator) must
be quick to prevent the hopper from overflowing.
The height sensor of the original hopper was developed in the late 1960s by
the Sugar Research Institute and has gone through several phases of development since then.
the principle of operation is that there are usually eight or more steel electrodes
stainless steel installed on the chute wall. The electrodes are usually installed in a
panel that contains plastic sheets that insulate the electrodes from the wall of the duct,
as shown in Figure 4.22. Each electrode is connected to a circuit of
resistance measurement is taken between the electrode and the structure of the chute.
This resistance changes depending on whether the electrode is covered with bagasse or not.

Figure 4.22 Height sensor electrodes of the ramp installed on the wall of the
ramp
The hopper height sensor has a series of features that control the signal of
output that is used as a process variable to control the speed of the mill or
of the carrier. A characteristic of the original sensor was that the effect of each electrode
The output signal could be changed as shown in Figure 4.23. It could be
fix that the change in the output signal for the middle electrodes was small. For
thus, the speed of the mill or the driver would change little for small changes
around half of the hopper. The original card could also be arranged in such a way
that when the highest electrode is covered, the change in the output signal is large. For
Therefore, when the final chute is full, the speed of the mill will be high.

Figure 4.23 Adjusted response curve of the height sensor output of the hopper

Currently, the height sensor of the discharge chute is linear and any manipulation of
the response of the ramp height signal is performed in the controller itself in a
characterizer or function generator. Another characteristic is that the output signal is
you can set it to clamp all the electrodes together, so that one electrode that
it indicates that it is covered with bagasse and will be ignored unless all the electrodes below
indicate that they are also covered in bagasse. This reduces the incidence of false
indications caused by the pulp hanging in the chute. The sensitivities of everyone
the electrodes can also be varied together to adapt to the different
conductivities of the material, from the prepared cane to the final bagasse. It also
the response speed for the full scale indication for each may vary
electrode.
4.7.3. Control of the height of the hopper of mill No. 1

In most Australian factories, the control of the height of the first chute
the mill is maintained by varying the speed of the conveyors and elevators that feed it
the first mill. Mill No. 1 itself operates at a constant speed, essentially
setting the grinding rate for the tandem as illustrated in Figure 4.24. The system
the control compares the height of the chute with the setpoint and if the height is above the
Similarly, the speeds of drivers and elevators are reduced to decrease the amount.
of prepared cane entering the chute of mill No. 1. A variation of this system
uses an ultrasonic sensor on the sugarcane entry conveyor to mills, controlling
regardless of its speed to maintain a constant height of the cane in the
conductor.

Figure 4.24 Height control of the No1 mill hopper (constant speed of the
Mill No. 1

4.7.4. Control of the height of the crusher hopper

Some mills have installed feed rollers above the defibrator.
In some of these cases, the control of the height of the defibrillator chute has been introduced.
The height of the cut cane in the chute is measured with capacitive proximity sensors.
where there is an opening available through the feed on both sides
The laser level sensors have been installed correctly with the conduit.
implementation of the height control of the defibrillator chute, the height controller
from the hopper of the defibrillator controls the speeds of the cane conveyors that
they feed the defibrillator. In this system, the height controller of the mill chute
No.1 varies the speed of the prepared sugar cane elevator and the speed of the rollers of
feeding of the crusher, and can reduce the speed of the cane conveyor. In
Other installations, the feed rollers of the defibrillator operate at speed
constant and the mill # 1 works like all the others (section 4.7.5).
4.7.5. Control of hopper height of intermediate and final mills
For the second and subsequent mills, the control of chute height is achieved by varying
the speed of the mill with the controller to maintain the chute height, whether
adjusting the turbine speed as shown in Figure 4.25, or in the case that they are used
hydraulic or electric motors, the speed of the motors varies for
maintain a constant height of the chute. The system compares the height of the chute with the
setpoint y, if the height is above it, the speed of the mill is increased
to bring the bagasse height to the setpoint value. If the chute height is low, the speed
The mill is reduced to increase the height of the bagasse in the chute.

Figure 4.25 Height control of the intermediate and final mill hopper

4.7.6. Mill load control

Introduction
The load control of the mill must be an essential part of the operation of the plant.
Just like with all equipment, the mill engineer must understand the loads of
secure jobs that can be applied to rollers and gears and ensure that they do not
those loads are exceeded. It is the function of the load control system to ensure that they do not
exceed the limits established by the mill engineer

Just like with any form of control, load control requires a sensor to
measure the interest load, a controller, and a control agent that can be manipulated
to change the load. The choice of controller usually does not affect the quality of the control
and is no longer considered.
Sensors
There are many places in a mill where a load can be measured, but the choice of
The place is made considering what needs to be protected. In the case of a mill, the
the most likely places of breakage are the gears, the pressure feed chutes
and the upper rollers. The torque control systems or pressure measurement systems
/ speed is available for gears.
The simplest chest pressure systems use pressure
thoracic directly as a control signal. While this approach provides a measure
of torque control, ignores the impact that speed has on the relationship
torque/chest pressure as shown in Figure 4.26.

Figure 4.26 Typical steam turbine curve

A better chest pressure detection system requires a measurement of the signal

pressure and a measurement of the turbine speed. They must also be available
'turbine curves' for the turbine (Figure 4.26). Pressure and speed are combined
in a control algorithm based on the turbine curve to estimate torque. If a turbine
has had important modifications or the turbine curves are not available, it
It would require a calibration to ensure that the correct torque is indicated.
To obtain a true measure of torque in steam-driven mills, one can
use the SRI torque monitoring system. This short-range telemetry system
uses gauges connected to the axis to measure torque directly. This approach has the
advantage of being able to measure torque on any axis (maximum speed 150 r/min) at the point
of interest.
The Sugar Research Institute found that the feeding pair reflected the load well.
in the feed chute. If protection is required in the chute, the torque of
Feeding is the logical thing to measure. This can be achieved by measuring the torque on the tail shaft.
from the chute with a pair monitoring system in turbine-driven mills or, if
the mill is equipped with hydraulic or electric drives, the pressure of
The hydraulic motor system is measured to indicate the torque. To measure the load on the roller.
Superior, you can use the hydraulic pressure of the hydraulic cylinders if the roller
the superior is floating or load cells can be placed on the lids to measure the load.
When a roller is floating, the elevation measurement can produce a measurement.
of satisfactory load control.
Control agent
For the control agent, there are three main options. The most common option is wall.
adjustable in the feed chute. This is economical and protects the mill against
overloads. Another option is an independent drive for the rollers of
feeding. If there are no other options, the height of the hopper can be reduced by accelerating
the rollers, thus reducing the torque.
The introduction of independent pressure feeders in the industry has allowed
greater flexibility in load control systems. The control system more
It is common for the mill pair to control the relationship between the pressure feeder and the
Mill. The torque of the pressure feeder is used to control the position.
from the channel fin.
The mills powered entirely by hydraulic drives on each roller have
the unique ability to control the speed and torque of each roller. This has allowed
implement a wide variety of control strategies. Initially, the systems
conservatives operated along the lines of the turbine-driven mills
with variable speed feeders, with all the rollers of the mill driven at the
same speeds and the pressure feeder to mill relationships maintained
within strict limits. With familiarity and research, systems have been developed
that match the pairs on the mill rollers, allowing the speeds of the
rollers vary within the limits. Most systems still use the torque of the
mill to vary the relationship between the pressure feeder and the mill and the torque of the
Pressure feeder to vary the position of the flap.

4.7.7. General Control

The overall control of the grinding train may involve the control of the mashing,
control of the speed of mill one to alter the grinding speed of the tandem
milling and the sequence of milling operations to ensure that the
starts and stops occur in a predefined sequence that should cause a
minimum of problems. The selection of the grinding rate and the operations involved
The start and shutdown are not addressed here. The topic of mash control is about
interest of the grinding operators.
The extraction in a milling tandem generally improves if more water is applied to it.
last mill. Therefore, the factory benefits from using as much water as possible. A
a factor that determines the amount of water that can be transported is the capacity of the
evaporators and the availability of steam. The availability of steam, in turn, depends
from the stock of bagasse. If bagasse is scarce, the water added is generally
reduce to ensure that no foreign fuel is used, such as oil. However, if
the bagasse and steam are abundant, the added water can be increased to the limit of
evaporation of the evaporators. Another reason to change the added water in the train of
Milling can be operational issues that may arise when processing soft canes.
It may happen that the soft canes are difficult to feed and reduce the maceration.
relieves the feeding problem. Here, there is a case to reduce maceration in the
final mill in an attempt to ensure that the final moisture levels are adequate for the
operation of the boiler. Care must be taken that the added water does not
stay at a low level when high fiber cane appears or the
milling loads can become dangerously high. Systems are also installed
in the event that the high fiber cane enters the mill and causes high conditions
load, so that emergency water can be added to each mill.

4.8. Primary engines

4.8.1. Introductory notes
Most of the driving force required for a sugar mill is found in
the generation of electricity, preparation of sugarcane, and the extraction stage. The equipment
originally used to provide this energy were alternative steam engines,
but these have been almost completely replaced by steam turbines and in times
most recent, hydraulic motors and electric drives with variable speed.
4.8.2. Steam engines
Steam engines are low-speed and high-efficiency drives (in sizes
small ones) that provide a high starting torque. These features made it so that
the units were ideal for driving crushing mills. The motor consists of a
large horizontal cylinder with a piston connected to a sliding mechanism
(crosspiece) and a crank that turns and moves a crushing mill through a train of
gears (approximately 100:1 ratio). A huge flywheel is incorporated into the
crank to provide smooth rotary operation. Figure 4.27 shows
a simplified schematic design of a steam engine.

Figure 4.27. Steam engine

The engine shown in Figure 4.27 is a double-acting unit: it can accept

vapor in the cylinder on each side of the piston to push the piston in any direction.
The mechanism that controls the inlet and outlet valves is not shown in this diagram.
simplified.
The steam turbine is a form of thermal engine in which two changes take place.
different types of energy. The available thermal energy from the steam is converted into energy
kinetics through the expansion of steam in a properly shaped duct or nozzle,
from which it emerges like a jet. A part of this kinetic energy is then converted into
mechanical energy directing the jet, at an appropriate angle, against the curved blades
mounted on a rotating disk or cylinder and by the reaction of the jet itself when it exits
of the curved passage.

The pressure on the blades, which causes the rotational movement, is due solely to the
change of momentum of the steam jet during its passage through these blades.
There are two basic types of turbines: impulse and reaction (Figure 4.29). The impulse turbine
impulse contains stationary nozzles followed by a row (or rows) of moving blades
mounted on the periphery of a wheel (or wheels). The reaction turbines contain
mobile nozzles. The blades or buckets are arranged in a ring around the
drum so that the passages between adjacent buckets contain a section of
throat for fluid acceleration. Both impulse and reaction turbines
They have stationary nozzles to bring the fluid to the movable blades.

Figure 4.29 Types of steam turbines

A total circumferential steam admission in the reaction turbines is required due to

to the drop in pressure in the moving cubes. Therefore, the principle of reaction is
limits to large turbines.
The losses due to radiation and condensation in the turbines are small. The losses due to
Leaks occur through free spaces at the ends of the reaction cubes and to
through labyrinths and glands. The friction of high-speed steam jets at
through the passages of the nozzles and through the buckets, along with the losses
due to friction from the high-speed rotating disks and the inactive buckets in the
Steam-filled chambers have a considerable effect on turbine efficiency.
The turbines in the machine house operate with the supply of superheated steam.
that comes directly from the boilers, while the grinders and the turbines of
mills operate at the outlet of the turbines in the machine house.
Turbine steam supply
In the Australian sugar mills, the steam power plant converts energy
thermal combustion of bagasse into steam and then into mechanical energy and finally
it uses latent heat to heat the liquids of the process. The plant operates in cycles
thermodynamic, that is, a closed circuit of processes that occur in such a way
that the working fluid of steam and water continuously repeats cycles.
The design of a steam power plant for a given purpose is determined in
largely due to considerations of capital cost and operating expenses. If only you
requires electricity from the steam power plant, the turbines are operated to
condense the vapor. However, as in sugar mills, where it is required
both steam and energy, it is economical to pass the steam at high pressure directly from
boilers through non-condensing turbines to obtain exhaust steam for the
warming and evaporation process.
In a sugar mill, two stages of non-condensing turbines are generally used,
the first for the generation of electrical energy and the second for mechanical energy
in the operations of preparation and extraction of the cane.
The basic steam cycle for a sugar mill is best represented in the diagram of
temperature / entropy (T / S) shown in Figure 4.30. Basically, the water is
evaporates into steam in the boiler, passes to the turbines, and completely condenses in the
heating units of the process and is returned to the boiler.

Figure 4.30 The steam cycle for a sugar mill

The steps of the thermodynamic cycle 1-2-3-4-1 shown in the T/S graph of the
Figure 4.30 is described as:
Heat is added to raise the temperature of the water at high pressure until the
saturation condition (process 1 to A). Next, the water evaporates at temperature
and constant pressure. (process A to B). Both processes occur within the boiler, but
not all the heat supplied is at the maximum temperature of the cycle. Therefore, the
the average temperature at which heat is supplied is lower than the theoretical (Carnot) cycle
and the thermal efficiency of the basic steam cycle is inherently low. If the steam
saturated (B) overheats (B to 2) before entering the turbines, the efficiency
the thermal cycle will be considerably improved. It not only increases thermal efficiency,
but the specific steam consumption also decreases significantly. The
introduction of overheating results in several advantages that compensate for the
capital cost of the superheater.
2 to 3: Superheated steam at high pressure expands through the stages of the
turbine. The ideal expansion would occur with constant entropy. However, the effects of
the friction in the vapor flow through the turbines causes the expansion to be of
increasing entropy.
3 to 4: The low-pressure humid steam is completely condensed into saturated water.
4 to 1: The saturated water at low pressure is pumped back to the boiler pressure and, when
do it, it becomes sub-saturated. The water re-enters the boiler. and begins a
new cycle.
If the enthalpy of the steam entering the turbines of the power plant (point 2) is h2 and
that coming out of the turbine of the mill (point 3) is h3, then:

where is the efficiency of the turbine It is the difference in isentropic enthalpy. The power
The primary motor (P) is given by the product of the steam flow (S) and the difference.
of enthalpy (h2 - h3). Therefore:

The typical energy and turbine efficiencies for a typical sugar mill are listed
in table 4.3.

Table 4.3 Typical characteristics of sugar mill turbines

Specific power (kWh /
Turbine Eficiencia (%)
t)
power plant 13 55
defibrillator 7 55
grinding mill 6 30
boiler auxiliaries 2.5 35

Australian sugar mills contain a product from nearly all manufacturers.

of turbines from the United Kingdom and the U.S., as well as from various parts of Europe and Asia. Two years ago
For decades, there have been at least 20 different brands of turbines in use in many sizes.
different and the range is even greater now. While this diversity has likely
pleased the manufacturers, it has sometimes caused problems for the engineer
the factory concerning services and the exchange of spare parts.
Applications of steam turbines
There are two basic steam turbines used in sugar factories:
multistage turbines and
single-stage turbines.
The important differences between the two are described below.
Multi-stage turbines
The steam turbines used for electricity generation in factories
sugar and to power the crusher have a capacity of approximately 3 to
approximately 10 MW. The steam turbines used for these two applications
they are usually multi-stage turbines, the additional stages provide a more efficient use
efficient steam.
A multi-stage turbine must be carefully heated during startup to
ensure that your rotor does not deform due to high stresses and heating
unequal. This problem is avoided by turning at a very slow speed with steam to
allow the rotor to heat evenly. When the temperature has risen
sufficient in this way, the turbine can be quickly brought to speed
operation.
If the heating is done with the rotor stopped, or if not enough time is allowed for it
Heating, the rotor can deform. This can result in severe vibration.
when the turbine accelerates and, due to the small spaces between the fixed blades and
rotating, cause damage to these components.
Single-stage turbines
In mill drives and boiler accessories, turbines are often
single stage units with a operating speed of up to 5000 RPM and
a nominal power of 500 to 1000 kW, although in very large mills it can be
use larger turbines. Being single-stage turbines, they have a shaft length
relatively short between bearings and can tolerate rapid starts and stops, once
that the unit has undergone an initial heating. This feature is very useful
from an operational point of view, as it allows stopping and restarting the units from
a remote position with just the push of a button.
Steam turbine operation
Steam turbines have an autonomous lubrication system that includes a pump.
of oil driven from the turbine shaft. The same pump also supplies oil to
pressure on the governor for control purposes and to a latch mechanism, that triggers and
Close the steam valve if low oil pressure is experienced. The latch does not
It will reset until the oil pressure is restored. An auxiliary pump is activated.
electrically supplies oil for the turning on and off.
Excessive speed can cause a turbine to disintegrate under the influence of
the centrifugal force. For this reason, all turbines are equipped with a trigger for
speeding, which works to turn off the turbine if the governor fails. This
shooting speed is generally set to 10% above the speed
operating maximum. If a trip occurs due to overspeed, the turbine must
manually restart.
It is a good practice to check the operation of the oil pressure latch and the
shot for speeding at regular intervals to ensure they continue
working.
The water in the steam can damage the blades and the covering that forms the steam ducts.
in the turbine rotor. For this reason, superheated steam is used in turbines to
prevent damage from water droplet impact on the steam. Damage can also occur
serious if the boiler priming occurs, which causes 'pieces' of water to pass to
through the turbine.
Estimation of steam turbine load
The torque produced by a steam turbine is calculated from a set of curves of
turbine that is provided with each turbine. The turbine curves give the torque of
twist of the turbine as a function of turbine speed and box pressure
nozzle or the turbine chest, according to the number of manual steam valves that
They are open. For each number of manual valves that are open, there is a curve.
separated. For the control of the mill load, the pressure of the nozzle bowl is
It measures with a pressure transducer and the speed of the turbine is measured with a type of
electronic tachometer. These two signals are generally combined in an algorithm of
control to calculate the torque produced by the turbine. Figure 4.31 shows a curve of
representative turbine.

Figure 4.31 Output pair as a function of pressure and bowl velocity

nozzle
4.8.4. Hydraulic drive systems
Overview
Hydraulic energy has been used in sugar mills for some time.
considerable. However, only in the last decade has a range of been available
high torque low speed industrial hydraulic motors for heavy work.
These motors can provide up to 840 kN.m of continuous torque.
The drive system basically consists of a pump that provides fluid.
hydraulic, generally a light oil (low viscosity), at high pressure to drive
hydraulic motors (rotary motion) or hydraulic cylinders (linear motion).
The pump is generally driven by an appropriately sized electric motor or a
steam turbine that can be used to drive one or a series of pumps.
Figure 4.32 shows the design of typical hydraulic circuits for movement.
rotary and linear and table 4.4 lists some of the applications. The hydraulic motor
presents a pair that is practically constant throughout the range of speeds. The units are
they can be stopped to maintain the pair at full load for extended periods. Another
The advantage of hydraulic drive is its ability to respond immediately to
download the drive shaft if a sudden blockage occurs.

Figure 4.32 Hydraulic drives

Table 4.4. Typical hydraulic applications

Request Hydraulic drive

container pusher / indexer RAM
rotary dump unit motor
pressure feeder drive motor
operation of the crusher mill engine
intermediate carrier unit motor
operation of the crystallizer agitator motor
A properly installed hydraulic system requires very little maintenance, apart from
from the routine oil filter replacement and oil filling when necessary
necessary. Currently, it is claimed that the lifespan of industrial drives
heavy service is 50,000 hours at 50 percent of the nominal pressure and speed
of the engines.
Hydraulic mill drives
The availability of the high-torque low-speed hydraulic rotary motor has
increased its use as the primary engine of mills in the 1990s. Some
factories that faced growths or failures in gear transmissions, have
away from traditional turbine and gear transmissions to install a system
hydraulic transmission.
So far, factories have adopted various different installation approaches.
These include:
Engines on each roller with two motors on the top roller and one roller of
chain-driven lower feeding.
One or two motors drive the upper roller with gears to the rollers of
food and delivery.
Pressure feeders with individual motors
Pressure feeders driven by motors via gears
Most hydraulic pump drives are electric motors
And, in some cases, the factory uses a turbine drive through
high-speed gears for various pumps.
The advantages of hydraulic drives make them an attractive alternative.
to traditional drive systems.
These advantages are:
The high-torque, low-speed motors mounted on the axle eliminate the
need for gears, this reduces the extent of the foundations needed in
each milling unit.
The ability to control the individual speeds of the rollers and the
the ease of measuring torque provides the potential ability to control
easily the mill.
The hydraulic system's capability to handle a constrictor or blockage
at the mill relieving the hydraulic pressure before damage occurs in
the rollers of the mill.
Reduced maintenance
The engines have a much shorter delivery time compared to the
time required to specify and manufacture gears. For this reason, the
Hydraulic motors can be installed during the season after a failure.
catastrophic gear failure when the factory needs to replace the equipment as soon as possible
possible.
Estimation of the drive pair of hydraulic mills
The determination of the torque of a hydraulic motor is a simple calculation based on the pressure.
of the engine oil and a constant provided by the manufacturer based on the size
of the motor, the efficiency and the pressure drop.

Torque = constante x eficiencia x (presión de aceite - caída de presión)

For example: A Hagglunds Marathon MB2400 motor that operates at 200 bar has a
efficiency of approximately 97% and a operating pressure drop of
approximately 17 bar.
The pair in Nm = 2400 x 0.97 x (200-17) = 426024 Nm
4.8.5. Variable speed electric drives
More recently, AC frequency drives have been introduced.
variable in several factories. These drives promise greater efficiency and less
maintenance than hydraulic drives.

4.9. Gear
4.9.1. Basics of Gears

The transmission of mechanical power through rotational movement is important in the

majority of the unit operations in a sugar mill that begins with the
sugarcane harvesting, up to the stages of preparation and extraction and in processing
from the juice where pumps, filters, stirrers, and centrifuges are mechanically operated.

This transmission is achieved through gear or hydraulic transmissions. The

The nature and design of the variator depend on the power to be transmitted and the ratio of
speed between the main motor and the driven equipment. For example, a single mill
The grinder that turns at 4 rpm requires approximately 750 kW of power and is driven
for a steam turbine that spins at 4,000 rpm.
There are two types of gears widely used in a sugar mill:
belt gear
geared wheel
When the mill staff refers to gears, they are generally referring to
geared wheels and probably to the large units associated with the train of
crushing.

4.9.2. Gearing
The gear is used when a constant speed ratio is required and
the distance between the axes is relatively small. There are three main types of
toothed gears
 1. The spur gear is used for parallel shafts. If the tooth elements are
Parallel to the axis of the axis, the teeth are called straight-toothed gears.
If the elements are helices, the gears are called helical gears.
The bevel gear is used to connect two axes that intersect.
they use two types of bevel gears: straight bevel gears and gears
spiral cones.
3. Helical gears are used to transmit power.
between non-intersecting axes that are at right angles. Reductions can be obtained
high speed in a minimal space.

The essential requirement for a pair of gears is that the relationship of angular velocities
that the contact surfaces of the gears be the same in all phases of
coupling. This condition is satisfied if the normal common to the surfaces of the tooth
At any point of contact, it passes through a fixed point. Although there are several curves.
that meet this requirement, the involute tooth shape is almost universal due to the
ease with which it can be produced accurately and economically in machines
simple yet specialized tools.
Figure 4.33 shows the main characteristics used to describe a
Toothed gear. The nominal or circular pitch of a gear is the distance between flanks.
Similar to adjacent teeth measured along the primitive circle. The appendix is the
radial length of the tooth that is outside the pitch circle. The dedendum is the
radial length that is found within the primitive circle.

Figure 4.33 Terms of Gear Teeth

For spur and helical gears, the addendum and dedendum are corrected to avoid
the undermined
When two gears are meshed, the larger one is called the wheel or gear and the
the smaller one is called a pinion, regardless of who the driver is. The size of
the tooth of a gear is the diameter of its pitch circle and its width is known as
face width. The diametral pitch of a gear represents the number of teeth per
unit of length along the pitch diameter.
The transmission ratio for large gear pairs that transmit high power
it is generally limited to approximately 1:7. Otherwise, the pinion would be too
small or the wheel too big. The shapes of the curved teeth offer a
smoother engagement of the teeth, quiet operation, greater resistance and
maximum allowed speeds.
Table 4.5 lists some of the applications for gear transmissions.
teeth in a sugar mill. By far, the largest investment in drives
for a sugar mill, it is for the crushing mills, followed by the sophisticated ones
gearboxes that are now used between the steam turbine and the defibrator
heavy service.
Table 4.5 Applications of toothed gears

Request Typical gear type

crusher unit double helical spur
actions of the crushing mill:
high speed double helical spur
low speed straight spurring
clarifying agitator spiral bevel
crystallizer agitator worm

4.9.3. Engranaje del molino

The replacement of the gear drive systems of the crushing mills due to
high wear or sudden failure is costly. The design of mill gears and the
failure analysis is a specialized topic and is beyond the scope of this
introduction. The design rules and procedures, such as those detailed in the
standards of the American Gear Manufacturers Association (AGMA), the
German standards (DIN) and British standards are now used for design of
gears of sugar mills and failure investigations. The designs are based on
estimate the durability of a tooth surface (wear resistance) and the resistance
to the bending for the range of operating conditions along with the material properties
and the treatment techniques.
The transmission train of a crushing mill is generally divided into two stages: the
high-speed stage followed by low-speed stage (very high pair).
4.9.4. Effect of gear load on life
There is no doubt that the load on the gears has a marked effect on their lifespan.
the gears. The life/load relationships contained in the gear codes
(AGMA, etc.) can be used to estimate the change in the life expectancy of a pair
of gears caused by an increase or decrease in the applied loads. A
a 10 percent decrease in the load should, in the worst case, result in a
increase in service life by 2.4 times for surface durability and 19.2 times for
the resistance to bending. Therefore, the control of the gear loads is a
main means to ensure a longer lifespan of the gears.
It is worth noting that low-speed gears, in particular, operate with a torque.
very high (0.8 - 1.5 MNm). These conditions result in very dental loads
high, which in turn lead to high contact tensions that promote the
wear and high bending stresses at the root of the teeth or in discontinuities
(for example, cracks, holes) in the material.
4.9.5. Wear and the Importance of Lubrication
Mill gears generally operate with elastohydrodynamic lubrication.
(EHL) when they are new and in ideal conditions. EHL is a type of lubrication where
the surfaces in contact are separated by a very thin lubricating film. The
contamination of the lubricant by sugar juice, water, bagasse or dirt means that
Effective lubrication does not occur at all times with some lubrication setups.
existing. The proper application of atomized spray lubrication should
greatly increase the effectiveness of lubrication compared to the
conventional bath lubrication for large gears.
Lubrication is a vital aspect of flank durability. Figure 4.34 is a
graph of the life factor CLagainst the number of contact cycles. (The life factor
adjust the allowed voltage numbers for the required lifetime). To emphasize the
importance of lubrication, the Dudley I, II, and III regimes have overlapped in the
diagram. Dudley's regimes classify the effect of lubrication, being the
regime I a situation in which lubrication is ineffective and there is almost contact
complete metal-to-metal between the teeth of the gear, regime II has lubrication
partially effective and regime III has effective lubrication and little to no contact
metal on metal between the teeth of the gear. As seen in Figure 4.34, the curves
More general AGMA fall in the vicinity of Dudley’s Regime III. However, great
the low-speed gear part falls into Regimes I or II and, therefore, has a
much lower life factor. Therefore, it is important to find ways to
improving short life. This is done through:
application of maximum viscosity lubricants, taking into account the
thermal limitations of the lubricant,
provision of means to reduce the temperature of the lubricant by increasing the
clearances around the gears and incorporating transfer devices
of generous size heat,
separation of the lubrication of low-speed gears from lubrication
of the bearings. This allows the use of more viscous compounds in the
flanks of the teeth,
loading of lubricants with soft solids of micro size in the range of 5_10
percent, which makes the lubricant a suspension, and
Application of lubricants with a volatile component that will evaporate afterwards
from a brief exposure leaving the sides of the teeth covered with a layer
very viscous with high solid content.
 Figure 4.34 The effect of lubrication on the durability of the surface of the
gears.

The contamination of high viscosity lubricant or open gear compound

wear particles leads to abrasive wear. In sealed gearboxes,
separate lubrication of the bearings to avoid this can be very difficult and, therefore
Therefore, good filtration is required.
For intermediate speed reducers (pinion speed below 1000 r/min) there
It must incorporate a pumping lubrication system. The arrangement must be such that the
supply of properly filtered cold oil should be directed primarily preferably
to the bearings. The filtration system must include a large magnetic flow filter.
total after a conventional total flow filter. The designs that incorporate both
Filters in the same housing are unacceptable.
The lubricant used for low-speed gears (pinion speed below
120 rev/min) must be of high viscosity. This particularly applies to movement
final and to the pressure feeder gear where lubricants are recommended
sprayable. The viscosity of these materials on the gear face must exceed 4000
cP.
When using aerosol lubricants, the following precautions should be taken to
avoid scratches.
The lubricant should be sprayed on the active flank of the gear, preferably
just after contact. This provides the maximum time for the
solvent / thinner escapes before applying contact pressure. Sometimes not
It is practical to apply the lubricant here and a compensation must be made.
 The box must be properly ventilated so that the solvent vapor can
escape.
The flow to each individual spray nozzle must be monitored. The
thermal transducers are commercially available for this task. The
general flow monitoring is insufficient as experience in the industry
the miner has shown that the nozzles occasionally get clogged.
When using immersion baths, the following precautions should be taken to
avoid scratches.
The high viscosity bath must be cleaned of accumulated residues at intervals.
regulars. This can be carried out using a portable filtration unit
with a heater or completely changing the bathroom lubricant at intervals
that do not exceed 15,000 hours.
The viscosity and acidity of the immersion bath lubricant must be controlled.
periodically.

4.9.6. Gear Inspection

To improve the reliability of the existing gears, it is necessary to inspect the
regularly check gears for dents and cracks. The methods include testing
of eddy currents, magnetic particles, ultrasonic and visual inspection. Gears
what they have:

develop cracks of more than 100 mm,

develop cracks larger than 10 mm,
a hardness greater than 240 BHN,
a lifespan of over 20000 h,
sido fundido y normalizado en lugar de templado y templado,
there is no verification of homogeneity, or
driven by a steam turbine that often operates below the
85 percent of the maximum speed,
considerable care should be given to them. Likewise, pine nuts that have:
development of cracks exceeding 100 mm
development of cracks larger than 20 mm, a service life exceeding 25,000 hours,
it has been made of cast steel instead of forged steel,
without toughness verification, or
a design supported on a cantilever axis,
It should also be given careful consideration. These points apply to
practically all low-speed gears in the sugar industry.
Since cracks are potentially dangerous, they must be removed at the first sign.
opportunity by remachining the gear or through local grinding. The
Welding repair is usually necessary, but care is required.
considerable and the increase in service life should be estimated conservatively. It is
likely that the workshop welding in a factory with the right experience has
much more success than onsite work. Careful selection will be required of
electrodes, welding conditions, and adequate preheating. It must be controlled.
a greater distortion if a new machining is not going to be carried out.

4.9.7. Gear failure

The analysis of a gear failure must include an assessment of the loads on the
system that contains the failed element, a study of the load distribution in the
failed element, the classification of the failure and the required corrective action.

4.9.8. Evaluation of system loads

The load on a gear can be calculated from information such as the torque of the
turbine and the relationships and efficiencies of gears. In some cases, they may be
available direct torque measurements from the gear shaft.
Once the nature of the load has been established in a pair of gears
(preferably both the mean load and the oscillatory), a more thorough examination is desirable
stopped by the way the load of the tooth has been distributed.
4.9.9. The load distribution
A gear designer using AGMA is required to select a value.
numeric for the expected load distribution on the tooth. This value represents the
relationship between the maximum load intensity and the load intensity with a distribution
uniformity of the load and is one of the many reduction factors that affect the load
allowed during a certain life. It is a fact that the burden does not always
distribute evenly over the surface of the tooth. An example of this is shown in Figure
4.35. If a complete contact is achieved through the face, the value is likely to be 1.2.
1.4. If the contact is complete on one edge and decreases to the point of contact on the
another, the value could approach 2.0. For partial contact, the value can be 4.0 for the
50 percent contact and 8.0 for 25 percent contact.

Figure 4.35 Contact patterns and load distribution. Km is the factor of

load distribution
4.9.10. Modes of failure
AGMA 110.04 provides a nomenclature for the failure modes of the teeth of the
gears. This is an excellent reference source and every plant should have a copy
for maintenance staff use.
The lifespan of gears can be limited by one of two main factors:
The resistance to the bites of the gear surface; is often put on
as the load that can be supported or the nominal power that can be transmitted
before the profile is pierced to the point that the gear no longer makes the
work for which it was designed.
The strength of the teeth or the load that can be held before the tooth
fall catastrophically.
For most heavy engineering applications, the load is usually limited.
due to the resistance to bite punctures. The limitations of resistance generally
they are found with very high hardness gear teeth, fully hardened
the hardened ones on the surface. In these cases, an overload can break a tooth
before the sting begins.
Experience has shown that bites and resistance failures are caused
due to material fatigue. The fractures of the gear teeth can originate
at the root of a tooth (usually the region of greatest tension) but in some cases
the crack begins at a discontinuity in the material, like a hole. Figure 4.36
show a diagram of fatigue cracks in gear teeth.

Figure 4.36 Typical fatigue cracks in gear teeth

The four main types of gear tooth failures are: wear,

surface fatigue, plastic flow, and fracture.
The failure of any of the first three is related to the destruction of the profile and not
results in an immediate system failure. However, they can cause a
noisy operation with strong vibrations and, finally, cause the breaking of the
teeth due to fatigue.
Table 4.6 provides a summary of the failure modes documented in AGMA 110.04.
Table 4.6 Gear Tooth Failure
4.9.11. Gear Design
Standards Australia, junto con la industria pesada, ha introducido la norma australiana
AS2938 (1993) for the design of spur and helical gears. The previous version of
the standard (AS2938-1987) was largely based on AGMA 218.01 for qualification the
resistance to pitting and bending resistance of gear teeth
straight and involute helicoids. However, AGMA has recently launched a new
standard (ANSI / AGMA 2001-B88) which is a revised version of AGMA 218.01.
AS2938 (1993) is a revised standard based on the new AGMA standard.
Another gear code that could be considered for high-speed conditions
particularly harsh (for example, crushers that operate under conditions of
nominally continuous crushing) is API 613, a document prepared by the Institute
American Oil.
The Institute has a gear design package called 'IRATE' for qualifying the
straight and helical gear teeth according to AGMA 218.01. The program runs
on an IBM compatible. The program inputs are:
number of teeth (pinion and wheel)
normal metric module
helix angle (for helical gears),
minimum face width,
modification of addendum coefficients,
truncation (if there is any),
backslash
rotation speed of the pinion,
surface hardness of the pinion and the wheel,
quality number (according to AGMA 390),
allowable contact tension,
allowable bending stress
modulus of elasticity
design life and
reduction factors.
The program generates the design power for strength and wear. An expert mode.
it allows classifying the equipment for additional changes in any of the variables
previous.
4.9.12. Assessment of the accuracy of gear teeth
SRI has actively pursued the development of enhanced instrumentation for the
measurement and verification of the geometry of large gears. CSIRO, SRI, A. Goninan
and Co., BHP Utah and Ordnance Factory, Bendigo carried out a project of
collaboration to develop portable equipment verification teams. The reason for
this is that the expected 'process control' associated with batch manufacturing of
Small gears do not necessarily apply when a pair of gears is manufactured.
great unique.
Experience shows that there is still a need to carry out controls of
final inspection on large gear teeth.
The modern gear inspection machines, large and expensive, can
determine with great precision the geometric errors of the individual gears. Without
embargo, these machines are not available in Australia. Goninans has a
machine capable of measuring geometric errors in gears up to 2600 mm of
diameter. However, the very large gears of the sugar mill are found
out of the reach of this machine.
A portable 'axial passage instrument' can be used to determine the alignment or
the helix error of the flanks of large gear teeth. This instrument
It plays an important role in the quality control of gears in the industry.
sugar mill. The magnitude of the error of the propeller is probably the most characteristic aspect.
important to control during the manufacturing of low-speed gears very
large. The reason for this is that if there is a misalignment of the propeller angle, the teeth
the opposing decoupling will diverge and there will be a resulting uneven load distribution
in the teeth.
These instruments are now used at CSIRO, the Technological University of
Queensland and Goninans.
There are several ways to use the instrument. Gear manufacturers could
use the instrument to certify the accuracy of your gear cutting equipment.
Under some circumstances, the gear specifications must include statements.
that the instrument will be used to check for a minimum propeller error before the
end user accepts the gear. The tool can be used in the field to
determine the optimal axis for a gear that results in the best uniformity of error
from the helix to that gear. So it is necessary to align the gear axis with
this axis.
Figure 4.37 shows diagrams of the gear-mounted instrument with the
vertical and horizontal gear axes.
Figure 4.37 Measurement of axial step (a) mounted on a gear with axis
horizontal y (b) mounted on a gear with a vertical shaft

CSIRO has also worked on the development of a portable tracing instrument.

side profiles. This instrument has the ability to determine the profile
three-dimensional of a gear tooth. The instrument has been developed to the stage
of an experimental prototype and the work has ceased due to lack of funding.
4.9.13. Installation of gears
Superimposed on the geometric errors developed during the production of a
gear, there are errors associated with the gear installation. The design
inadequate auxiliary components such as bearing housings, shafts, and foundations
it is also a source of error. As a consequence of these errors, it is possible that there may be
that reduces the power of the gears or faces premature failures. The alignment
Being careful with the gears is important to ensure that errors are minimized.
of installation.
The gears are conventionally aligned by:
measure the free space on each side of the face between the load flanks of the pinion
and the gear with thickness gauges. The teeth must be clean and in
contact
apply Prussian blue or black lamp to several clean teeth and rotate the pair
of gears for a short period practically without load;
apply design dye to the clean load sides of the pinion or gear and make
operate the gear for several hours. Then, the
teeth in search of contact areas where the tint has worn off.
These methods can be criticized because they are time-consuming. The techniques of
lines and Prussian blue indicate static and unloaded conditions only and, although the
the design dye approach allows the alignment to adjust based on the load
complete, the method provides no indication about the distribution of the load along
from the face of the gear.
A method for aligning gears using infrared thermometry has been developed.
Misaligned gears result in an uneven tooth load that leads to
place at a temperature gradient along the surface of the tooth. Using the difference
From the temperature across a gear, it is possible to calculate a required movement.
for one of the bearings to align the gears. A program has been developed
computer program called 'GEALIGN' to perform the calculations used for alignment
gears.
The infrared thermometry method does not replace the need to apply the methods
conventional methods to initially install a set of gears. However,
provides a quick method to ensure that the gears in service are
aligned. An important advantage that infrared thermometry has over the methods
conventional ones is that the alignment is measured with the gears under operating loads
complete.

4.10. Maintenance of mill rollers (Rollers)

4.10.1. Introductory notes
A roller typically consists of a forged steel shaft with an iron casing.
mold adjusted for shrinkage, which contains the grooves. These grooves are curved.
to give a rough surface on the top of the grooves. The roughness of the roller
requires arch maintenance during the season. At the end of each
crushing season, the surface of the roller is inspected to determine the level
maintenance required to restore the slot profile to an acceptable shape.
Resurfacing the slots may be sufficient treatment, but it may be necessary
a new complete coating if the diameter is considered too worn.
This section provides detailed information about the choice of material for the
housings of the rollers and the arc formation procedures. It has also been
provided general information about rolling grooving. This information
Basic will provide a general understanding of mill rollers, their composition.
and maintenance.
4.10.2. The hammers of the mill
Introductory notes
The choice of materials for the roller shell has been of interest to both the staff
from the factory as from the Institute for many years. A large part of the work carried out
on this topic was carried out in collaboration with what is now the CSIRO Division of Manufacturing
Technology, Adelaide. The work with them was initiated by the Institute due to the continuous
failure of the cylinders in service at the raw sugar factories in Australia.
This section provides recommendations on the materials that can be used.
for mill hammers, the quality control of the cast pieces and the installation of the
axles on their axes.
Specifications of the roller hub material
Cast iron hammers do not have good tensile strength or good
resistance to fatigue failure because the network of graphite flakes provides many
tiny tension elevators in the alloy. In addition, those flakes provide a
easy path through which a crack can propagate. The traditional material of
gray cast iron with high phosphorus content used for roller housings
it has an additional resistance disadvantage. The high phosphorus content of the material gives
As a result, the formation of an extensive network of hard iron phosphide deposits.
but brittle. This fragile deposit provides an additional easy pathway for propagation.
of cracks.
The specifications given in this section describe roller mill materials that
are more suitable for the current conditions in the raw sugar factories of
Australia, which has traditional gray cast iron with high phosphorus content.
The intention of the specifications was to define alloys that:
do not contain unnecessary and potentially costly alloying elements,
they have greater resistance or the potential for greater resistance in
comparison with traditional gray cast iron alloy,
to have satisfactory roughness characteristics of the rollers and should be
reasonably economical to manufacture.
Specifications are given for four alloys:
Alloy A, the traditional material for the shell of cast gray iron roll with
high phosphorus content.
Alloy B, a gray cast with high sulfur content and low content of
Phosphorus. This is the technically preferred alternative to Alloy A. Without
embargo, it is unlikely to be used in practice, partly due to the cost,
but mainly due to the problems that foundries will have to
reuse the casings of scrap rollers.
 Alloy C, a gray cast iron with high sulfur content and reduced phosphorus.
Esta es una variante de la aleación B que debería ser menos costosa de fabricar.
It allows some waste shell material in the alloy and it can be melted.
more easily in traditional roller shell castings.
Alloy D, a high strength spheroidal graphite (SG) or ductile cast iron.
It is emphasized that the specifications must be discussed with the individual foundries.
before its use. Although the foundries are aware of these specifications, the inflexible use
The specifications may not result in the most economical roller housings.

ALLOY A: The traditional material for cast gray iron roll housings
The traditional alloy of the roller shell should be the starting point for any
change in the alloy of the roller shell and, therefore, is included here as
reference. A typical composition would be

carbon 3.6 at 4.0%

silicon 1.75 to 2.25%
manganese 1.2 2.0%
phosphorus 0.3 0.5%
sulfur 0.1% maximum

This produces a carbon equivalent (CE) level in the range of 4.3 to 4.9% where the
carbon equivalent level is defined as:
CE = % of carbon + 0.333 (% of silicon + % of phosphorus).

The carbon equivalent is an important parameter of gray cast iron.

commercials that relate to the strength of the alloy. The tensile strength
The cast iron shrinks as the carbon equivalent increases.
Reasons to modify the 'traditional' composition
The reasons for modifying this alloy, which are detailed below, are analyzed.
under the headings of the main alloy additions in the rest of this section.
Carbon: The high carbon content of the traditional casing material results in
resulting in a low-strength alloy. Reducing the carbon content increases the
resistance. However, CSIRO tests indicate that the characteristics of
Arc formation of the alloy deteriorates as the content is reduced
carbon. Therefore, there is a trade-off between strength and arc formation.
satisfactory. CSIRO demonstrated that the carbon levels suggested below for
Alloys B and C have satisfactory arc behavior. The use of these
alloys in the steel mills has confirmed it. If there is a continuous need for a
resistance of the casing even greater, experience can show that it is possible to reduce
even more the carbon content while maintaining an arc behavior
satisfactory. The reduction of the carbon content in the alloy also reduces the
fluidity of the molten alloy. This can cause casting issues in the foundry,
Phosphorus: The high phosphorus content of the traditional alloy results in a
extensive network of brittle eutectic phosphide in the alloy. It is believed that the high
Phosphorus content was a deliberate addition to the traditional alloy to produce
this eutectic. When the sugarcane supply was cut by hand and free of dirt,
the eutectic produced a beneficial roller roughness on a small scale as a result
from the preferential corrosion of the metal around the eutectic. The levels of dirt
now experienced in the supply of cane smooth this roughness. The inclusion of
Phosphorus now only produces a weaker but more expensive shell material. It is more expensive.
because some phosphorus should be added to the molten mass. CSIRO tests indicate
that phosphorus has no effect on the characteristics of the electric arc.
Sulfur: CSIRO tests showed that the presence of free sulfur in the alloy
improved the arch characteristics of the roller housing material. Therefore, the
Sulfur levels have increased in the specifications for alloys B and C.
Copper: To achieve sulfur levels above approximately 0.07% in the
foundry, it has been necessary to replace half of the manganese content
of the material of the traditional gray cast iron roller casing to copper. Without the
copper, most of the sulfur addition is removed from the molten alloy as a
foam that develops on molten metal. Without copper, the sulfur levels of
approximately 0.07% are as high as can be achieved. The sulfur levels
Above this are technically desirable but probably economically
unjustifiable.

ALLOY B: Gray cast iron with high sulfur content and low content of
phosphorus.
From a technical point of view, this alloy with high sulfur content / low
Phosphorus content is the preferred option for a gray foundry for housings of
sugar mill rollers. It has:
improved resistance compared to the traditional alloy,
controlled alloy composition to provide characteristics
appropriate roughness of the roller and
without unnecessary alloying elements or those that reduce strength.

Its disadvantages are:

It is likely to be more expensive because of the old material of the roll casing.
it cannot be used in the molten mass,
the molten alloy has reduced fluidity due to lower levels of
carbon and phosphorus, and
 The castings of roller housings would experience problems and expenses.
additional when using the casings of this alloy as food for the new ones
cases because they would need to analyze all the scrap cases in order to
determine if they contain copper.
Due to these disadvantages, alloy C (described below) is a better option.
practice.
The main requirements of alloy B are:
carbon equivalent level in the range of 3.9% to 4.2%
phosphorus level low enough to prevent the formation of phosphorus
eutectic (in practice, less than 0.07%)
sulfur level in the range of 0.07% to 0.1%, and
The alloy's strength is in the range of 200 MPa to 250 MPa.

The suggested alloy composition to achieve these requirements is:

Carbon: 3.3 up to 3.5%
Silicon: 1.6 at 2.0%
Manganese: 1.0 at 1.5%
Copper: 1.0 at 1.5%
Sulfur: 0.07 to 0.10%
Phosphorus less than 0.07%

Four mallets of this specification have been used and they have apparently worked.
satisfactorily. However, due to the third of the mentioned disadvantages
Previously, for several years, no molds of this specification have been made.
change, they have used:

ALLOY C: A gray cast iron roll shell material with high content
of reduced sulfur and phosphorus

This alloy with high sulfur content / reduced phosphorus is a modification of the
alloy B that:
reduces the cost compared to alloy B because something can be used
waste shell material,
it allows some phosphorus in the alloy but has a reduced phosphorus content
in comparison with the traditional alloy, and
it has a wider range of permitted carbon contents to allow
higher carbon levels. Carbon levels should be low in the range
for greater resistance.
The strength of this alloy in relation to traditional gray cast iron will depend on the
final carbon content. The lowest levels of carbon result not only in
an increase in resistance but also in reduced fluidity of the molten alloy. This
reduced fluidity can cause problems in casting. Stricter limits on
The carbon content should only be specified after discussing it with the foundry.
The main requirements of this alloy are:
carbon equivalent level in the range of 4.2% to 4.5%,
phosphorus content lower than 0.5% (that is, low enough to
to prevent the formation of a continuous network of eutectic phosphorus in the alloy,
sulfur in the range of 0.03% to 0.07%, and
tensile strength of the alloy above 95 MPa (that is, a strength
from the implicit design alloy of approximately 115 MPa, this resistance
should be achieved from a machined tensile testing specimen from
a test bar cast in the same mold as the hammer.
The composition of the alloy to meet these requirements must be determined by
each foundry. This specification aims to allow the use of between
approximately 40% and 60% of waste ingot material in the molten mass
without any additional phosphorus. Currently, it is believed that all roller housings are
fabricated according to this specification. As this alloy continues to be used, it should
allow to successively reduce the phosphorus content of the cylinder alloys
in the coming years because the phosphorus content of the available scrap will decrease
gradually.
ALLOY D: Spheroidal graphite (SG) or roll casing material of cast iron
nodular
One of the intentions of the work done in recent years on the materials of the
the casing of the roller was to find a resistant alloy. The strongest alloy that has been
evaluated in a mill is a pearlitic SG iron. One disadvantage of this alloy is that
it has roughness characteristics of very different lumps than those of cast irons
gray (flake graphite). This does not mean that SG irons cannot be used.
satisfactorily (at least two SG iron casings have been successfully used), but
require a different arch treatment. Another potential problem is that the scrapers
they can wear out at the bottom of the slot if excessive force is used. They
specify a pearlitic alloy microstructure to give the alloy greater strength
to this scraping action.
It is probably appropriate to use an SG alloy only when required.
specifically a high resistance or stiffness. The maximum tensile strength of the
the SG iron specified below must be at least five times greater than the
of any of the gray cast irons, although the fatigue resistance will only be
greater by approximately a factor of three. Therefore, the trend for them to occur
fatigue failures in a SG iron casing will be much lower than in a casing of
cast iron. The Young's modulus of steel is also two or three times greater than the
from the cast iron that is used for the housings of the rollers. Therefore, all the
roller housing / shaft combination is stiffer when a housing is installed
iron SG. Please note that this does not imply that a roll with an iron casing
SG can operate with a high roll load.
The alloy of the SG iron roller housing must be manufactured in general compliance.
with AS1831-1985.
The main requirements of this alloy are that:
the microstructure should contain as much pearlite as possible, although some of
ferrite around the graphite nodules would be acceptable although not
necessarily desirable, and
Graphite must be present near the spherical nodules.

The suggested specification is:

a ductile iron with 80% of the graphite as type V and VI as it
define in AS1831_1985, and
Brinell hardness in the range of 220 to 260.
The microstructure and hardness must be evaluated in the middle of a test bar that
it should have at least 85 mm in diameter and 250 mm in length (as dimensions of the
casting) and they will be shaped at the same time and in the same mold box as the casing
of the roller.
Quality control of the casting
The Institute believes that, as a matter of routine, information should be provided about the
composition of the material of the hammer and a test specimen must be provided
whenever a roller shell is launched. These are simple control measures of
quality whose implementation should be inexpensive.
The test bar must have a minimum diameter of 85 mm and a length of 250 mm
cast and poured into the same mold in which the casing is poured. It must be stamped.
with the same identification number as the helmet and supplied to the mill in
casting conditions for the mill to maintain it during the useful life of the shell.
This test bar has two purposes. Firstly, it allows to determine the
tensile strength of the alloy if necessary. Secondly, the test bar
provide a record of the melted alloy if any problems develop with it
shell. The action of the sugar juice and the formation of arcs of the roller means that it is
difficult to obtain a sample of a used roller shell that provides an alloy analysis
that is representative of the molten alloy.
The test bars specified above are larger than the recommended ones.
in AS1830 and AS1831 and are shaped in a different way. These standards require
that the test bars are molded in a separate mold instead of in the same mold.
This difference is deliberately specified because the roller housings are
large castings. It was considered that the small test bars were cast
separately they would produce a test bar whose microstructure would be further away from
the real wash of what is desirable.
As a result of these arguments, it is suggested that the specification of the bar of
test to be the following.
A test bar must be molded with each shell. This bar will be:
at least 50 mm in diameter and preferably 85 mm in diameter and at least
250 mm long as casting,
the mold in the same mold as the shell so that it experiences it as closely as possible
possible the same cooling history,
to be sealed or marked in another way permanently with the same number
of identification than the casing, and
supplied to the mill with the mallet.
The mill must store this bar during the lifespan of the roller for future reference.
The bar allows checking the composition of the alloy and the strength of the alloy.
at any time during the lifespan of the casing, if necessary. Please have
it mentions that there may be contraction or imperfections in the metal feed in the
center of the test bar. Therefore, any tensile test piece must
to mechanize itself moving away from the axis of the cast test bar.

Final comments
The traditional material for the casing of the gray cast iron roller with high content
Phosphorus is not necessarily unsuitable for continuous use in the sugar industry.
Australian, as long as the clubs made of that material are properly fitted.
to the axis. However, the castings of mill hammers have found it impossible
find foundries for the manufacture of mallets with this composition. The alloy
it contains relatively high levels of phosphorus, which increases the cost of the alloy.
Consequently, the cost of continuing to supply this material would have increased.
significantly. Therefore, the foundries have shifted to the new alloy and
cheaper, as specified in the previous Alloy C. The previous notes indicate the
work carried out by the Institute that has resulted in the specification of a
suitable alternative alloy. The two roller shell foundries based in
Queensland knows the specifications given earlier.
Assembly of hammers
The investigations into the material of the mill hammer and the bow were conducted.
partly in response to the failure of several hubs in service. It is believed that the damaged hubs
they had inadequate tensile strength. Failures have continued to occur
similar to irregular intervals. The investigation of the failures indicates that the poor adjustment
From the housing to the shaft could be an important factor in the failure of a roller housing.
The following recommendations from the Institute regarding the placement of casings are
the following:
The diametral interference factor between the housing and the shaft will be 0.00060 ±
0.00015 per unit of shaft diameter.
The foundry will provide details of the measurements taken on the shaft and the housing.
before assembly. Those measurements will be taken in at least two locations at least
Length of each projectile's landing and at least in three positions approximately
 equidistant if the projectile has only one plateau. At each place along the
housing, the measurements will be taken at least at three angular positions
approximately equidistant around the casing.

4.10.3. Roughness of the boss

The roughness of the burr is essential for good extraction performance. Although it has
there has been a large amount of research expenses on the topic, there is still much
What is unknown about the roughness of the roller. The basic unknown refers to the amount
and the type of roughness that is required.

Currently there exists:

no practical technique to quantify the amount of roughness on a roll,
no understanding of which form of roughness is better, and
there is no practical way to determine how much roughness needs to be applied for a
satisfactory milling performance.
These are the negative aspects. On the positive side, the research has revealed
What materials for the roll casing are the best (regardless of whether
coated electrodes, wire electrodes or carbon arc
What is the best way to get the molten solder droplet to stick?
to the roller.

A completely meaningful assessment of roller roughness requires both a

means to quantify roughness as a means to quantify performance of
associated extraction. A lot of time has been invested and relatively little has been achieved.
success in quantifying the amount of roughness on a roll. The methods based on the
'friction' provided by the roughness acting on the fiber of the cane is considered
not very practical. The 'friction' must be measured at high pressure and must allow for lubrication.
provided by the juice is forced to the surface. The methods that only measure the
the physical dimensions of roughness seem more feasible. The only success in this regard
refers to a device developed by CSIRO that was a laser-based system without
contact to measure the roughness profile. This device was used to quantify the
roughness produced in experimental materials of mill casings. They defined the
Roughness of individual droplets as a function of their height-to-diameter ratio.
Este enfoque produce números significativos, pero consume mucho tiempo, es costoso en
computing power and is not suitable for factory use. Therefore, in the environment of the
factory, it is still not possible to quantify the roughness of the rollers.

If the roughness of the cylinders were allowed to deteriorate severely, the

The extraction yield would undoubtedly be affected. The measure of yield of
extraction that seems more appropriate for roughness investigations of rolls is
the reabsorption. It is assumed that as the roughness of the roller deteriorates,
reabsorption will increase. Two attempts have been made at Cattle Creek Mill to utilize
the reabsorption as a means to assess whether a plant needs to refill masses. In the
most recent exercise, weights were filled in a mill if the reabsorption in that mill
it rose above a certain reference level. The chosen reference level was the
average reabsorption measured during the first half of the season, when it was taken
decisions about filling based on experience. In the second half of the
season, when the absorption level was used as guidance, the costs of the
welding consumables decreased significantly. Unfortunately, the measurement
reabsorption takes a long time and is imprecise. For these reasons, the system does not
it was adopted for routine use in the following years.
4.10.4. Grooving of the hammer
Grooving on the roller is required for satisfactory performance of the mill. Without
embargo, there is no published evidence suggesting that a groove depth and a
they produce better yields than any others, as long as they are observed
some basic rules. It is assumed that the effects of different slots on the
performance is small and, therefore, has been difficult to detect. The requirement
The function of the mill's grooving is to provide juice drainage and grip.
appropriate between the bagasse blanket and the surface of the roller. Proper drainage
requires grooves for there to be a drainage channel without fibers at the bottom of the
slots. If the juice load is high, specific juice slots may also be required.
The contact between the grooving and the bagasse blanket is concentrated in the upper half and
superior of the sides of the grooving. There are no effective contact forces towards the bottom of
the groove. Therefore, the roughness only needs to be applied to the upper half of the groove.
The effectiveness of the slots depends on how well the scraper plates maintain the
clean slots. If the pulp remains compressed in the slots, the gripping area is
reducing the difficulty of feeding.

4.11. Stationary plates

4.11.1. Introductory notes
The relevant maintenance practices for stationary plates include the
procedures used to build and protect any of the surfaces in a
sugar mill. This includes combs, scraper plates, feeding chutes
under pressure, the side plates of the mill and any surface that experiences wear.
A difficulty encountered when recommending maintenance procedures for the
wear of the stationary plate is that each factory has its own set of
operating conditions. The total yield of the cane, the grinding rates, the
levels of foreign matter and equipment design are factors that vary
significantly in the industry and influence the wear rates that are experienced by the
placas estacionarias.
4.11.2. Combs
Combs perform two main tasks:
Clean the pulp from the slots of the feed roller and
Direct the bagasse out of the feed line and into the discharge line.
The environment in the comb consists of bagasse under pressure moving over the surface of
comb while the sugar juice is extracted in the grooves and on the sides of the unit
grinding. This environment encourages abrasive wear and corrosive wear at the points
where the sugar juice comes into contact with the unprotected material. The choice of
material is a balance between wear and acceptable costs.
Chancellor and Glass published an article in 1976 titled 'Development of a Comb for'
mill to process 1,000,000 tons of cane." Now one could expect that the
penalties almost double.
The advances in material design encourage factory staff to try
different materials in the application of combs. However, the limited accessibility
The comb should be considered when testing new materials. Perhaps the new materials
They should initially be tested on scraping plates to judge the suitability of the
materials for the sugar processing environment. When testing new materials,
ensure that the documentation of the success or failure of the material is maintained.