CONTEMPORARY THEORIES OF SOCIAL WORK: MALCOLM PAYNE

CHAPTER I
The social construction of social work theory

Social work, what are its objectives and methods, who are its clients or beneficiaries and what is understood by a
social system.

When talking about social work, responses may vary depending on the moment, the conditions, and the social cultures.
current.

This book deals with social work theories that aim to explain, describe, or justify what social workers do.
social

Jordan (1989) states that social workers use "a process of violent agitation" to adapt and mix the theories into
in order to "produce ideas more useful to their purposes." The statements of the theory of social work often express their
coherent ideas, using demonstrations and concepts from the social sciences.

It is very necessary for clarity in theoretical ideas to be an integral part of social work, as these ideas constitute
an important pillar for the mutual understanding and identity of social workers. This also helps in practice, since
being able to determine what we should do and why is an important goal of theory and a
vital necessity for anyone who works with human beings and tries to help them.

I argue that theories of social action can be understood by relating them to one another as if they were a body.
global knowledge.

Rein and White bring up this point in an important document on the new ways of understanding search and the
uso del conocimiento.

... the basic movement in the attainment of knowledge is to take into account the contexts in transition. The knowledge that
It is acquired—the usefulness or belonging perceived in it—is mediated by time, place, and the person...

Cultural differences in social work theories

Much of the background and literature of social work comes from Western cultures and it is most likely that
they do not fit into the non-Western cultural block. On the other hand, the importance of American social work theory (and in
minor scale in Europe) and the colonial influences of Europe on third world countries have led to the belief
that the techniques that are suitable in these countries can be transferred to completely different cultures.
 The thesis of the book: social work is constructed socially

The fundamental principle of this book is that social work is a socially constructed activity. We have already had
occasion to see that social work is complete and varies according to its cultures. It can only be understood in context
sociocultural of the participating elements.

To understand social work, we must focus on the people who participate in it, on its organization, and on its
own theories, and we will only be able to understand these things if we realize how they are constructed by the society that
surrounds and of which they are a part.

The concept of social construction arises from the application of the ideas of Berger and Luckman (1971). These authors argue that the
Reality is knowledge that guides our behavior and of which we all have a different notion.

The application of these social work ideas has led me to assert that this work finds its reality in the fact that it
he considers that it exists; the theories developed about it express that reality; that is, created by human beings in their
defining interactions of social realities. Human beings are themselves created by the social realities of
the common criteria surrounding what is understood as social work.

The three elements of social work that I have introduced in this chapter are the social worker, the social client, and the framework.
in which both develop.

Three sets of forces shape social work: those that create and control social work as a profession;
those that grant the status of client to people seeking social assistance and those that form the social context in the
In which field is social work practiced?

Definition of the social worker

Through contact with their clients, the profile of the social worker is shaped by the so-called expectations.
occupational that are nothing more than statements and organized criteria that indicate to us the social process that defines
someone like that. The different backgrounds of social action, along with their relationships with other professional groups and
social institutions will grant it recognition as an occupation. This nature changes, grows, and perhaps declines in accordance with
social changes; in this way, the knowledge and ideas used by social workers also respond to these
changes.

Factors in the development of social work as a profession

Attempts to organize systematic personal assistance.

Attempts to control, limit, or manage the public's use of other social services and charity.
3. Development of new social institutions or changes in them.
4. Economic, political, and ideological trends.
5. Changes in the needs or perceptions of these in public debate or among influential groups.
6. Changes in the need or methods of social control.
7. Implementation of values and beliefs that are influencing society.
8. Changes in legislation.
9. Academic and intellectual improvements.
10. Employment and organization of social workers by public organizations.
11. Related occupations.

It is not possible to have a complete list of all the factors that influence work development.
social; nevertheless, this brief exposition and the examples given drive our interest towards the following aspects:

The practice and theory of social work are influenced by many social forces external to academic development.
practical of the profession.
These social forces are conditioned by political and public perceptions of personal needs and
social, somewhat dictating to the former the way they should organize services to meet those needs
needs.
The organization of services and public bodies, legislation, economic capacity, and techniques.
managerial elements that support this organization are all factors that affect the capacity of social work to carry out
to complete their task. If social work is the responsibility of a powerful and independent public agency, there are many
possibilities for her to feel free to develop social action techniques independently.
The academic development of social work theories may well be against the wishes of other groups.
professionals, or from the concept that entrepreneurs have of what the tasks of social work are, or lastly, from the
political objectives assigned to the services.

Social work is an integral part of a network of related occupations that makes us see the need to
recognize how it has been established and controlled and how it relates to the network that surrounds it. Part of this
knowledge also forces us to learn how their theories have developed and have influenced
said network.

Definition of the social client

These social clients are simply the subject of an activity defined by theory.

The process of forming the figure of the client is socially constructed in itself, as it is based on social criteria.
General aspects of the nature of social work.

People define social clients as those who interact with social assistants that use techniques where social work is
considered appropriate; but this is not always a faithful representation of their position, as it depends on how they, along
with the social workers and some others involved in the matter, see the situation.

The quality of the customer is also partly a matter of perception; thus, if others see someone as a customer, the most...
It is likely that someone is treated as such. The very definition of people of their status affects, but does not determine, that
is seen as a client. The formal designation is also important, to the point that the official consideration of a client
it can weaken or strengthen the impression that someone is a customer.

For example, a public center and a social worker may see Albert as a client, and for outsiders, he may...
this may be appropriate; but the fact is that Albert looks more like a friend of the social worker. And, if this is the case, what is it
What does the social worker do with Albert? Social work? He may be trying to make it that; but what happens if the client doesn't see it that way?
In that way? Does that social work become something different? This example shows us how the way of understanding people
The concept of client can affect the notion of what social work is.
Es difícil de entender al cliente social como un estado, creemos que es más apropiado entenderlo como un proceso; es decir, los
citizens become clients of social work and, at a given moment, stop being so.

The path to becoming a customer only begins when someone realizes that some aspect of their life requires a
solution: this usually happens when that aspect has a problematic connotation. This awareness of reality can,
together with certain social pressures, create a drive that moves us to seek help. At a certain point, the
awareness of the availability of the social organism, which leads the client to present themselves in it, then beginning the
interaction with the social worker.

And now is when the admission process begins. It's about taking advantage of the clients' circumstances and seeing if
can be adequately addressed by the organization in question; often this is accompanied by a report on the
motivations that have influenced their decision.

Causal report route to become a social customer.

People are still regarded as applicants and are investigated to determine if they fit within the definition of what the...
social organism. It understands a legal client, as well as to know their professional and personal background.
public and political.

All of the above leads to thinking that visiting a social organization is an optional matter, although in fact many
clients are involuntary since they are forced to appear at the center by court order or because they are under investigation for
the inspection body of a public social organization.

Definition of the context of social work

The relationship between social worker and client is interactive; that is, there is a mutual influence between them.

The theory of social work inadequately appreciates this fact, as it is based on a catalytic model in which one
competent social worker helps to resolve or heal the problems of an inexperienced client. This medical model is a
traditional symbol of social work;

In the catalytic model of social work, the expertise of the social worker comes from knowledge of the theory, which can
to be supported by empirical research.

Some social organizations have been able to integrate ethnic elements as a positive tribute to their social work.

Midgley (1981) observes that third world countries have often found the Western social work model...
inappropriate for their needs and they have had to create more pragmatic and radical working methods.

There are also signs that prove that social workers often react to the social trends they observe.
in their work, but they encounter difficulties in carrying this out within the organization to which they belong. Ex: the
violence against social workers.

They focus on the fact that their relationships with clients affect and transform them; so it is possible that the
social work and its organizations are directly affected by their clients.
Catalytic model

The interactive or transactional model, on the other hand, conceives assistants and social organizations not as catalysts,
but as entities susceptible to change due to their interaction with customers.

A theory that is always inadequate to represent the needs of customers is a theory.

condemned to be partially accepted or replaced by another over time.

Social work is interactive by its very nature, as it responds to the demands of clients of a service that affects
the social workers.

COMMON ASPECTS OF THE SOCIAL CONTEXT OF SOCIAL WORK

ASPECT IMPLICATIONS
Customization People are treated as individuals, not as categories.
Use of the Clients and actions come to be understood through
knowledge psychological and social knowledge, of evidence and reasoning.
Relationship Social work functions through relationships.
Organic Context Social work uses the organic context of its relationships to
carry out their activities.
Need Social work defines the need.
Maintenance of Social work is tied to the maintenance of social structures.
social institutions important.
Defense Social work advocates for its clients.

The aspect of personalization arises because social work deals with rational beings, that is, with people, and because, for
consider them as such, try not to operate solely based on bureaucratic procedures.

Personalization continues to retain its characteristic of an aspect of social work even when the clients are groups or
communities.

The relationship has touchpoints with personalization if we consider that the quality of the relationship partly depends on
of the customization.

Social workers should always accept each individual client as a human being full of values, even
when customer behavior is intolerable. This attitude distinguishes between people and their actions.

The utilization of knowledge, if people are treated as individuals, there must be some foundations that allow us to understand them.
as such. For this purpose, social work uses demonstration and argumentation both psychological and social. In this
differs, let's say, from jurisprudence, religion, and politics, whose bases of understanding are, respectively, the
respect for authority, faith, and interest.

Within social work, the history of reasoned evaluation goes back at least to the times of organizations.
of charity whose purpose was to plan personal assistance in such a way that it could be applied with the greatest possible effectiveness.
This involved assessing the social client person's status based on a systematic compilation of reports and research.
the details of the client's life.
The range of theories and knowledge used in social work and analyzed by Barker and Hardiker (1981), among others,
it encompasses sociological, psychological, social policy, and organizational theories. These theories generally serve to understand and
explain aspects such as:

The behavior of the customers.

The social origins of customer behavior and problems.
The social environment in which the clients have lived and live.
The interactions between clients and social workers.
The organic environment of social work.
The effectiveness or ineffectiveness of social work.

The relationship between the social client and the social worker. The relationship causes the sequences to occur and the actions to be carried out.
connections. It is the practical expression of customization and respect for people.

His emotions and their mutual interests are closely related. Perlman (1979) emphasizes the emotional and human aspect.
of the relationship both in social work and in life in general. This creates a bond between people that lasts even though
do not be together.

The relationship is so important in social work due to its relevance in psychoanalytic theory; although it is necessary to
It is worth noting that other therapeutic theories also emphasize the relationship; among them, those of behavior modification.
and those of humanistic therapy.

The most positive attributes of a relationship are the client's empathetic understanding by the social worker, respect and
warmth towards the client and frankness in the behavior of the social worker.

The organic context models and controls social work as an occupation, as well as the allocation of the organization of
social client to a particular person.

As social organisms, organizations serve to manage various types of social relationships. These relationships
they also encompass the interactions between organizations and other social entities, the power and the influence exerted
en el seno de la organización y los ejercicios entre ella y las demás. La forma en que esto se lleva a cabo refleja a menudo
patrones socioculturales existentes en la sociedad, como son las divisiones geográficas, de clase, sexuales, raciales, políticas y
relatives.

The necessity; personal and social needs are difficult to decipher and one of the tasks of social work is
specifically the one of assessing needs. When we talk about needs, it is necessary to consider two aspects.
important:

The need is often referred to as something that happens within us and drives us to achieve.
some purpose.
2. Se refiere a que la necesidad puede descubrirse socialmente en relación a esas cosas cuya posesión no es en cierta medida
essential.
 The origins of the importance of need in social work are found in:

The psychoanalytic theory

The old poor law on welfare and in charitable institutions that made a distinction between people who deserved
help and the one who did not deserve it.

Medical services.

The social definition of need is equally complex. As the criterion for defining need becomes important as
the right to access a service has taken on a certain political significance.

Bradshaw (1972) has created a taxonomy of needs whose different classes require distinct treatment in
as far as services are concerned. These classes are:

Regulatory needs; those determined by an expert or professional.

Felt needs; which are similar to desires.
Expressed needs; they are the felt needs turned into demands for some action (for example, the
express request for some services.
Comparative needs; these are the ones that people have if they suffer the same adverse conditions as those who are.
receiving the service.

The maintenance of social institutions. Davies (1985) argues that by performing this function, social work contributes to
maintain social norms and values and do so during the process aimed at helping people achieve a
satisfactory standard of living in society. As we saw when examining the important factors in the development of work
social as an occupation, the two most emblematic institutions supported by social work are the family and the
community.

When there is no family, social services often provide services that are substitutes for the care and support that
the family provides.

Looked at in this way, this is a support for the institution because:

Making assistance services available is a way to encourage families to continue helping their...
members, keeping family participation in such activities.
It expresses a clear commitment to public action policy regarding the preservation of the family and the community as long as
it is feasible.
Providing alternatives when family and community are not present demonstrates their value.
institutions.

Emphasize the importance of family and community. Hamilton (1975) tells us that the first social workers work more.
well with problems than with social structures. The importance of family in social work theory arises from
the protagonism that the early years of life have in psychodynamic theory and the role played by the assistants
social –especially in childhood orientation– in the research of the most remote social backgrounds of
clients.
The two most pointed criticisms of the emphasis that social work places on the family come from radical positions.
Marxist theorists see the family as the place where the labor force is reproduced; that is, where it is born and is
socialized in the acceptance of the ideological oppression of capitalist societies. In this case, maintaining the family can
to be detrimental to the interests of the working class; however, according to Corrigan and Leonard (1978), it can be
also the only place where the human race finds relationships of participation and collaboration.

Defense is another important aspect of social work, both in the sense of supporting the cases of social clients.
before the competent body that enables resources, as in the most generalized effort to ensure that the client integrates or
Reintegrate into society. Defense is a key element of all social work for two reasons:

1. Because it is a prominent and greatly forgotten function that, although recognized, has not yet found a place in most of the
the general approaches of social work practice.
2. Because it is an essential element for understanding the structure of social work, which defines the
characteristics of this last one.

The defense or advocacy is an integral part of social work because, as we have seen, its mission is to define
needs and personalize for their clients based on evidence so that, within the framework of organic structures, the
customer requests are adequately represented.

The defense by social workers extends beyond the justification of the client's case. Philp (1979)
it claims that the essential role of social work is to create a portrait of the client that is both subjective (that is, presenting
a personalized perspective) and social (that is, that shows how the person is created and affected by their social environments).
This turns the client into a "subject".

Social work and its theory. The organization of the book.

I have characterized social work as an activity in which social workers rehabilitate through personalization and
they advocate for the needs of their clients within and from an organic structure whose objectives include maintenance
from social institutions, a factor that lends credibility to their effort.

The theory for practice inevitably has to adapt to the social pressures of the moment, which is why it is tinted with
current interests and concerns. Moreover, it also reflects the historical background of the theoretical, occupational context and
assistance. The intensity with which these antecedentes influence the formation of current theory varies depending on the moment, the
place and the person.

The naturalization of social work theory.

Theories of social work share common aspects, these aspects come from the social contexts in which they
practice social work.

Cheers (1978), adopting a rather humanistic stance, argues that certain theories only touch on some parts of the
problems of a social client and they need to be coordinated to acquire a global perspective on these issues and
the way to solve them. According to him, a naturalization process requires the following:

Ideas must be intellectually studied and assimilated.

They must also be intellectually analyzed and criticized.
 Each social worker must give them a meaning based on their own experience.
Social workers must interpret theory and connect it to the overall structure of their thinking.
They should apply them and experiment with them to see how they work in practice.

At this point, it seems appropriate to introduce the concept of paradigm; this concept means pattern or template, something that
it commonly reproduces in an activity.

The basic paradigm of social work derives from psychoanalytic theory when it is carried out within an ethics.
humanist, but it is a derivation that now holds some distance from both psychoanalysis and humanism.

CONTEMPORARY THEORIES OF SOCIAL WORK

Chapter II

Utilization of social work theory in practice.

The pragmatic argument claims that we are faced with a confusing jumble of theories primarily brought in from outside.
from the field of social work practice by builders of academic theories; adding, moreover, that such
theories have hardly any utility. This argument is more related to the pragmatic tradition of practice
of social work particularly associated with official bodies that with social reform or therapy, which offers
alternative traditions of social work theory.

The positivist argumentation is based on the fact that many of the theories of social work are neither sufficiently rigorous nor
truly authentic, as they are limited to describing and launching hypotheses instead of explaining what the actions of the
social workers who would achieve precise results. The positivist would limit the theories that can be used to those
susceptible to being supported by empirical evidence, thus excluding many of the perspectives that could be within reach
of the social workers.

Eclecticism says that it is possible to use, together or in sequence, all or many of the available theories, or well
select some parts of them to use in a combined way.

The fourth section examines various ways in which theory could come into contact with practice and points out that each
one of these forms has its advantages and disadvantages, insisting again that pragmatic argumentation is mistaken
when announcing that only one relationship is desirable and that only a useless model of the relationship is being used between the
theory and practice.

Pragmatic argumentation.

All occupations of a pragmatic nature encounter inconveniences when they have to relate to the guiding theory.
their activity with the practice of it. People who take a pragmatic view of practice believe that the current
theory of social work (and perhaps any possible theory of social work) cannot be applied in practice. A pragmatist would say:

There is such a wide range of competing theories that makes their use impossible, and there are so many available that the
selecting only one can discredit the user.

The theories have such a high degree of generalization that they cannot dictate specific actions to practice.
 The theories either conflict with the legal or procedural responsibilities of many social workers.
mainly in public organizations, or they do not take such responsibilities into account because they are seen as
something unrelated to social work and part of the regulations of the organization in question or, when not, placed in a
category lower than that of therapeutic interventions.

The theories emphasize the voluntary, therapeutic, or reformist aspect of social work and are, therefore, hostile to the
legal, procedural or social control responsibilities of social workers who work in public organizations.

First of all, the theory is constructed to address the demands made from various media.

Secondly, if the problem is a matter of precept, it is important for us to know that everything we do is
Always theoretical, and the problem then is to see how actions relate to the theory formulated in the books.

Thirdly, I have argued that social work theory currently presents a considerable stability and this is
for two reasons:

Social work always maintains a balance between the seven characteristics that normally interact in its creation.
within a specific social context. The characteristics are always present and give social work a
peculiar form and nature with which the theory is always related.

2. It is my assertion that there is an approach and a basic model of social work practice that reflects both a theory.
implicit as explicit.

Social work distinguishes up to three distinct traditions of theory: pragmatic tradition, socialist tradition, and therapeutic tradition.

Two aspects of theoretical growth:

The first was the argument of interest in an alternative system of psychological explanation, materialized in the currents
conductists based on learning theory.

The second of these developments was the growing interest in the application of sociological theories to social work.

The social response produced two different kinds of theoretical changes. One was the integrative and synthesis approach that in the
case work gave greater importance to social factors. The most important ideas were based on the theory of
systems. The alternative approach was of a radically controversial nature, proposing that a change was necessary.
social, substantial and advocating for community and collective participation.

A certain number of alternative perspectives and therapeutic approaches that embrace traditions are available.
reformists, radical and therapeutic.

Are there other ways to organize the complete mess of theory? There are two paths: positivist approach and eclectic approach.

The positivist debate

Positivist or empirical-logical approaches must pay rigorous attention to the experimental and statistical design of
the prediction tests, as well as reliably verifying the integrity of the logic when propagating and exposing the theory.

Leonard, in an important article, distinguished two different themes for the exposition of the social sciences and applied them to
social work. These systems were the paradigm of the physical sciences and the paradigm of the humanistic sciences. In each one of
they identified two positions regarding the types of exposure:

EXPOSITORY SYSTEMS OF SOCIAL WORK

Paradigm of the physical sciences

Position A Position B
Aspire to the status of physical sciences. Similarity of aspirations and methods in the physical sciences
Importance is given to measurement and objectivity. social
Only data susceptible to exploration by the senses Physical sciences are inexact.
they are considered scientific knowledge. Importance of probability in the physical sciences
like in the social sciences.

Paradigm of the humanistic sciences

Position C Position D
Social sciences rely on subjective understanding. Social sciences are socially determined.
Questions have intrinsic value. Ideological influences are important.
Answers may have a fluctuating value. The socioeconomic context of theories is important.

The positivist critique formulated by Fischer and Sheldon provoked a considerable reaction—similar to that which occurred in the field
of psychoanalysis - and an excessive debate. It should also be said that positivism is a part of the struggle for control of the
theory and practice and not a debate about the evidence of theories.

Responses to positivist criticism can be classified into three groups:

La validación de la efectividad del trabajo social se ha conseguido mediante estudios que se han centrado en servicios
more clearly defined and in results from recent years, in contrast to broader studies
that were done in much earlier dates.

In order to progress from the previous point, positivist criticism ignores, according to D. Smith (1987) and Heineman (1981),
other various philosophical and research traditions that are equally acceptable and useful in related fields. Smith argues
that the positivist stance has an exorbitant grounding among the laypeople and within social work. Jordan (1978) and
England (1986) defends the artistic and imaginative approach to understanding social work, although Smith it
rejects because it does not provide a clear enough guideline for practice.

There are always problems with the positivist stance when it comes to human activities, as behavior
Human is difficult to define clearly and the results that are verified may not have a connection with the causes that are
they examine.
Eclecticism: The combination of theories.

Dryden (1984) identifies several forms of eclecticism in what has been written about therapy. Among them are:

The theoretical; which uses a single school of thought but adds certain techniques from other schools,
according to the purposes of the main theory used.

The structural; which evaluates the circumstances of the clients according to various categories of information,
selecting consequently techniques belonging to various theories.

The combinatorics; which deals with combining two or more approaches at a theoretical level and other levels.

The existential; which follows a general set of existential principles, such as the idea that by struggling and making it
In the face of life's difficulties, the basic dilemmas of the existence of clients are discovered; and that anyone uses.
of the available techniques to address these difficulties in such a way that what social workers do is
Conditioned, on one hand, by belief and principles, and on the other, by the revealed dilemmas.

The technique; which uses a series of principles taken from various theories without making any commitment to the theories
cede

Integration; which identifies the common aspects of many theories by defining and utilizing them.

The evolutionist; who conceives therapy as a series of strata for which theory is secondary.

The cause; which chooses any theory based on the appeal that similarity exerts on the social worker.

Is there evidence that social workers are eclectic or that eclectic theories exist? There is evidence for this in three ways.
types worth reviewing. The first of these types is research on the attitudes of attendees
social: the second, the texts that explicitly experiment with an eclectic projection and, the third, the works that address the
social work in an essentially eclectic manner.

Systems theories explicitly attempt to be eclectic-combinationalists, as they seek to offer a theory of

a catch-all drawer in which many or all of the other theories of social work can fit.

Moore (1976) asserts that being eclectic depends on the skills, knowledge, and values of the social worker, since this
it forms a firm foundation to move between theoretical ideas.

Theory and practice

The theory facilitates:

Models; that generally describe what happens during practical activity and that, when applied in a structured way
from a wide range of situations, they extract a series of principles and guidelines of activity that provide coherence and
uniformity in practice.
 Approaches or perspectives on a complex human activity that allow participants to organize their thoughts.
to the point of being able to take care of themselves during the participation.

Explanations; that give us the reason why an action leads to certain consequences and the circumstances in
that action has been developed.

Instructions for taking action so that social workers know what they have to do in certain situations.
situations.

Clarifying responsibilities; for executives, politicians, clients, and the general public when adequately describing the
social practices that are considered acceptable, thus making it feasible to verify if the activities
they are either inappropriate or not.

Justification for the use of models and interpretations of social practice.

Positivists make a distinction between models and theories by stating that a theory must clearly explain why.
Something happens and not just to cling to describing it in a systematic way.

Some theories related to the field of social work seem to be interested in relating the activities of this with
other broader categories of activities within society, instead of trying to explain, describe or prescribe
systematically the activities of social work. In this way, a certain system of social work activities
it can be justified by having broader social perspectives. Many social work theories do this to some extent,
especially when they claim to be based on certain human values as happens with existential treatments or
humanists.

Marxist and feminist therapies are an example. Other theories strive to justify or explain social work theories.
demonstrating how they relate to general models or theories about society or human behavior.

That branch of social work is thus somewhat justified because it can be demonstrated that it fits within a model.
recognized and accepted explanation or description.

In social work, different types of theory have distinct purposes:

The theories about social work explain the nature and role of social work in society.

Social work theories describe what activities constitute social work, establish its purposes, and explain why.
are suitable and effective for achieving the objectives.

The tax theories of social work are, among others, psychology and sociology, which interpret or describe the
personal and social conduct and they focus on systematizing the theories of social work regarding the explanations of the
general social science and to provide evidence that supports the tenets of social work theory.

The theories about the practice and the method of social work provide detailed norms about how the other theories up to
now outlined, they can be applied in the interaction between social assistants and clients.
 Theories of social work, in addition to having a specific method and practice, are strategic by nature.

Theories of practice and method are often the ones that form connections in the framework of occupations,
while social work theories set the boundaries of occupational groups.

Firstly, there is the question of whether social work should have an empirical or scientific character, although sometimes this question
it really boils down to whether to use experimentation instead of theory.

Some authors might argue that experiential knowledge and practice can inform each other.
U.S. study, Siegel (1984) conducted an experiment in which two teachers – a researcher and an empirical one – gave
simultaneously a course on social work, discovering through this means that there were five effective formulas for marrying the
research with practice. These five formulas are:

Working with clients including research activities.

Use the research findings to decide on practical actions and personal practice models.

Admit that both research and practice involve the nature of being problem-solving processes.

Use the concepts of research also as practical concepts.

Keep in mind that both forms of activity involve the use of 'applied logic'.

Secondly, there is the interest in achieving the effective implementation of the theory based on specific sources, hence
several authors wish for a greater (or lesser) use of ideas and knowledge derived from the social sciences
in general, of psychology, of psychoanalysis or of Marxist theory.

Thirdly, there is the concern that social workers struggle to give them operational authority.
the theories and the knowledge that they possess and understand.

Barbour discovered that, on the part of the students, there were three models of understanding regarding integration.
theory in practice. These models are;

DeFiltration, which reflects a situation where students acquire general ideas and methods, but
they are unable to say where they come from.

Deamalgamation, in which certain theories are used where they seem appropriate and in which each student is prepared.
a kind of "professional dossier" to use when necessary.

Personal style, which is one that holds that knowledge is integrated with the student's personality to form
a non-differentiated whole.

Analysis of social work theories

Practitioners who select theories find themselves having to choose from a large number of theories.
apparently useful and comparable to each other.
DIFFERENT TYPES OF RELATIONS BETWEEN THEORY AND PRACTICE

TYPES OBJECTIONS ARGUMENTS AGAINST OBJECTIONS

The general theories persist because the theories can be used to stimulate debate and
behavior or social life to academic support. to clarify the teaching.
that contribute to the work
social.
General theories are Many social workers The empirical verification is often difficult with beings
designed for Producers accept theories without humans and there may be occasions when it is required.
precepts practicals are validated to take actions for which you can give instructions
provable according to the empirically. useful an unvalidated theory.
scientific method.
The theory is a process of Instead of providing clarity, The theory of practice is always unfinished.
research and debate. drives cycles of a
disagreement in the field
ideological.
The theory is a series of It is unlikely to enjoy The public may prefer the validated theory by the
generalization and debate. public credibility not experience validated by experimentation.
to be scientifically
approved.
The theory comes to us from various Drives a the quick The restrictions are real and have to be included in the
origins to offer us acceptance of the theory.
practice models. restrictions.
The theory develops based on the theories derived from this approach allows the participation of practitioners.
to practical experience. practice is difficult to
validate.

Some trials have been conducted to analyze the theory of community work regarding social work. Taylor and Roberts
(1985), for example, recognize the distance that separates community work theory from casework theory and admit
few points of contact between them. They consider the theory of community work as fluid and identify five approaches
principles:

Community development that allows needy groups to unite to promote services in their interest.
community.

The political action that encourages disadvantaged groups to find ways to present their viewpoints.
most powerful collectives in society.

The pragmatic development and coordination that is interested in the weakest communities for the promotion of new
services and for a more effective cooperation within them.

The deplanning that is concerned with promoting a more effective planning of community social services and the
processes that promote the intervention of community members in that planning.
 The community gathering that promotes the creation of better links between organizations with identical interests in the
community.

York (1984) indicates that a certain number of conceptualizations of community work divides it into three models.
He presents several conceptualizations for each of them. York rejects the previous approaches in favor of a certain
number of dichotomies that apply to all community work:

Managerial vs non-managerial

Tasks or problems vs process approach

Initiation vs facilitation of roles for the social worker

Treatment vs reform

CONCEPTUALIZATIONS OF SOCIAL WORK

ROSS (1968) Rothman (1968) Gulbenkian (1968) Phases of development of

community work; York
1984
Reform Local Development Actions Direct work with people for Organization of the
towards the help the development of the community community organisms
Planning Social planning Facilitate cooperation between Development of the
(organizations organisms y promote local competency groups.
community community members.
Community Development Social Action Planning community y Political action for the
policy development. change

Some authors include family therapy

Residential assistance (group assistance). Lennox (1982) also sees residential assistance as a support base for the
group work, while it identifies the following forms of the latter:

Behaviorist approach

Meeting groups

Transactional analysis

Likewise, various ideological approaches regarding social assistance are identified. David proposes 3:

The optimists who, although they recognize that many establishments harm their residents, nevertheless believe that
this does not prevent there from being beneficial residential assistance.

The pessimists who argue that the institutional aspects of residential assistance will always be harmful to the
residents, which is why they recommend that this type of assistance be abandoned.
 Radicals argue that residential assistance, as it is currently provided, may be harmful, but
that communal living can initially offer opportunities for selfless self-realization, which is
it is not usually found in other therapies or in typically capitalist societies.

Sinclair reviewed the evidence presented on residential assistance and highlighted three types of ideology within it:

The one of Christian love

2. The therapeutic value of communal living

3. The one of individual rights or normalization approach

Conclusiones….

Chapter 3: Psychodynamic Models

They are based on the works of Freud and Ded Roazen. They receive these models because the theory that underpins them holds that
behavior is the result of a series of movements and interactions that occur in the minds of people and because
emphasizes the way the mind stimulates behavior, then both the mind and behavior influence and are
influenced by the subject's social environment.

It is worth mentioning that modern psychoanalytic theory is more interested in understanding how individuals interact with their world.
social, it is more social than biological.

Basic psychoanalytic ideas

The psychoanalytic theory is composed of 3 parts: theory of human development, abnormal psychology, and personality.
treatment. 2 basic ideas underpin the theory:

- Psychic determinism: principle that indicates that behavior or actions arise from people's mental processes.
- The unconscious: a part of our thinking and our mental activity escapes our knowledge.

These ideas are included in the belief that slips of the tongue or language errors and jokes reflect confusions.
latent and unknown aspects of human thought processes. It gives the example (Yelloly) of the meaning of the unconscious.
to demonstrate how broad psychodynamic ideas are. Resistance appears when certain thoughts and
feelings are not compatible with other beliefs that we hold deeply rooted, the mind does not allow the
Rejected ideas penetrate our consciousness through a process called repression. Many repressed thoughts
they are dynamic in the sense that they move us to act even if we do not realize that they exist.

At each stage of human development, certain behaviors are important, but as they are being met
we use behaviors associated with previous stages.
At each stage, the focus of attention is on a different need: oral (hunger), anal (excretion), phallic (identification with one)
(from same-sex parents), builds (attraction towards one parent of the opposite sex), latency (impulses are managed)
through the resolution of Oedipus conflicts), and puberty (social learning).

Linked to the stages of development is the concept of regression, when people who have been progressing through the last stages
experiences a regression to typical behavior from earlier stages due to a current stressful situation.

The psychoanalytic theory of personality assumes that the subject is constituted by a complex of impulses that together
They form the id (the it), which drives us to act to meet our needs, but our actions do not always produce
the desired results. The ego exerts control over the id, the superego is the one that develops the general principles of morality
that govern the ego. (It is worth noting that the ego will be hindered by anxiety, putting into play the defense mechanisms, the
projection (that unwanted ideas that the ego wants to protect are attributed in our mind to other people or
things), sublimation (redirects energy directed towards undesirable activities to other more positively viewed activities, the
rationalization (accepted reasons are invented when the real ones are unacceptable and repressed).

A wide influence has been exerted on social work by the work of theorists and practitioners of psychodynamics.
among those who stands out prominently is Bowlby, who in the 1940s and 1950s focused psychoanalytic interest on the early
mother/child relationships, theory of maternal deprivation (embryonic theory, if the child is deprived of contact with the mother, it
it hinders their personal development, it highlights the importance of affection.

The classical treatment theory required therapists to be like blank screens and to manifest in the most
anonymous possible to facilitate patients projecting their fantasies onto them (transference). This principle has been
adopted by social work to more generally expose the idea that our current behavior is
affected by the emotional remnants of past relationships and experiences.

Most psychoanalytic techniques are aimed at revealing hidden thoughts and feelings. These conflicts a
once revealed and properly understood, they stopped causing problems in behavior (hence traditional therapy
Psychoanalytic is interested in people gaining insight.

Psychoanalysis and social work

The theory of social work has been influenced by psychoanalytic theory; the approach of this theory underpins almost all of the
practice of social work. Its influence is seen indirectly and with greater complexity for the following reasons:

due to the influence of Freud on Western culture and that his ideas are of common currency.

because the development in different times of various aspects of his work has caused the concepts to emerge at intervals in
social work

because psychodynamic ideas formed the first explanatory theory driving social work.

due to the influence of his therapy in producing a permissive and open relationship style

The importance attributed to feelings and the factors of the unconscious

for the theoretical sophistication and complexity of his ideas that make him attractive and interesting to explore.
the important projection given to childhood in social work

for the emphasis placed on mental illnesses and behavioral disorders as the objective of a large part of the work
social.

. For the insight as part of the understanding and treatment provided by social work.

because in social work, social factors are given less relevance than psychological and emotional factors.

The aspects of psychodynamic social work that raise criticism are:

its scientific and initially biological approach that it adopts for the explanation being a theory that cannot be easily
approved by conventional scientific procedures.

.the weakness that is perceived in its statement of female development and personality to the point that it comes to be seen as a
reinforcement of that stereotype of women that presents her as domestic and a caregiver of children.

Due to its scientific approach, psychoanalysis operates based on a medical model.

The use of insight and how psychodynamic therapists approach it from the perspective that clients come to understand it.
What is happening to them for not helping them take measures on what to do.

the manipulation of concepts that empower social workers to blame the victims themselves for social problems.

.la preferencia que concede a los clientes con mas capacidad de expresión verbal.

that less importance is given to environmental factors than to internal psychological ones, which limits the possible areas of
interactions and reduces the assumptions from which social workers begin their work.

there is little interest in social reform, leaving a main element of social work overlooked.

Some historical reviews have given excessive importance to the golden age of psychiatry (Woodroofre 1962)

Where psychoanalysis was the dominant current in social work and was gaining prominence in social work theory.
the most important events were the association of community services with the medical treatment model and a
the narrowing of the alliance between social work and psychiatrists highlights the relevance of mental abnormality regarding the
social problems as objects of social work.

The psychosocial therapy of Hollis and Woods

They give us the guidelines for what the casework of psychodynamics should be. Casework is projected towards people, to their
entornos y a sus mutuas relaciones, hacia la persona en situación. La gente sufre presión de entorno y el estrés de sus propios
internal conflicts. Pressure and stress interact with each other in a very complex way. Defense mechanisms are
important for understanding how people interact with their environment. The most significant sociological concept he uses is
the theory of roles, and the cause of distress can be:
- Strong needs and impulses from childhood preserved into adulthood that impose unreasonable demands on the
situation.
- the environmental pressure
- a damaged ego or super ego

The problems brewing in the minds of the customers can be addressed by altering the balance of forces.
that are supposed to operate within them, acting on behavior or memories and is carried out post:

aeration: the client externalizes feelings of hostility or aggression, feelings that, when hidden, have become chaotic.
their way of thinking/acting. We are facing a type of psychoanalytic treatment of catharsis and open action.
corrective relationship: the client experiences with the social worker a relationship similar to that of mother/child that tries to
to compensate for another unsatisfactory previous relationship
examination of current personal interactions: making the client understand how these interactions are influenced
due to previous relationships and experiences.

The so-called treatment model encourages the social client to think and try to understand their personal framework.
situation through a positive relationship with the social worker.

Environmental work has a much lower level of completion than individual work, being rather seen based on
the relationships of the social worker with the people surrounding the client, such as interactions in organizations and communities.
Hollis and Woods emphasize the importance of integrating family therapy into social work. The psychosocial study establishes the
origins of casuistic psychosocial work in diagnostic theory, where the importance is to distinguish the different categories
of problems presented by the clients so that the casework could be properly directed, the study
psychosocial, gives a provisional idea of the problem and how to act to solve it, then this is followed by the
formulation of the diagnosis (analysis of the information), and finally the treatment is determined. The study involves analyzing, observing and
draw conclusions from the relationships (current and recent) in the environment and the events that have had an impact on
la vida del cliente. En la formulación del diagnostico intervienes el trabajador social y el cliente ambos acuerdan y deciden cual
It is the problem and what needs to be corrected. Then, it is necessary to select the treatment objectives. The social workers
They must determine if the change is really possible and consequently select the goals. The characteristics of the
treatment should be chosen according to the goals that have been previously established. The personality of the client and
The circumstantial factors should condition the selection of the treatment characteristics.

Alternative psychodynamic formulations of social work

Functional theory emerged in the U.S. in the 1930s (Smalley) which holds that the function of social work organisms...
they model and direct the practice in each sphere of activity. Functional social workers strive to help the
clients in their personal development, the capacity for development is fostered through the relationship that is established by the
casework highlights that social work is a process of interaction between clients and social workers. The 5
basic general principles of functional social work are:
involve social clients in the diagnosis and understanding of cases

conscious understanding and use of temporal phases (beginning, intermediate, and final).

the use of the function of the social organism, which assigns a specific role to clients in the understanding of the case.

Clear understanding of the structure or form of the social work process.

Social work uses personal interrelationships to engage social clients in helping themselves.

The functional theory avoids adopting a methodical model and is based on the problem to narrate positive change.
With future perspectives, social causality and social issues receive greater consideration than in psychosocial casework.

Perlman emphasizes the importance of examining 4 aspects of the situation: the person with whom the work is done, the problem.
proposed, the place where the work is carried out and the process of the work. It is assumed that the clients do not have sufficient capacity.
to solve problems and those who need help to overcome obstacles and thus increase their competitive capacity.

The psychology of the ego and ego-oriented casework offer a more explicit formulation of psychoanalytic theory.
Goldstein provided contributory idea groups: 1 the clear Freudian theory with an emphasis on the unconscious and on the role
of the ego, defending the mind and mediating between its different parts. 2 modern ego psychology with emphasis
in the ego as a rational part of the mind for problem-solving and an element that confronts the outside world.

She sees 3 aspects in ego-oriented practice:

1 the evaluation, examining the past and present coping attitudes manifested by the social client. The starting point is
share the problem, discuss the attempts that customers have already made and look for other possible ways to solve it.

The intervention: can be applied directly through psychological means or indirectly to the environment of the
clients.

Regarding client/assistant relationships: the needs of the client are what constitute the basic objective of the interactions and not
the needs of both parties as occurs in most relationships, social workers intervene in the relationship
in a disciplined and controlled manner and not by simple inertia or emotional reaction. Important professional values of work
Social networks are always present.

The client-assistant relationships have rational aspects (regarding tasks that must be carried out to achieve objectives).
aware) and irrational (determined by feelings formed in past relationships).

Transactional analysis: (Eric Berne), a form of humanist therapy as its basic principles are based on the hypothesis that
People are responsible and autonomous agents who have the energy and ability to control their own lives and solve their
own problems and that only cease to do so because of current defects that have their origin in behavioral patterns of
early childhood. It is composed of 4 elements

Structural analysis: it acknowledges that our personality has 3 ego states, the parent state, the child state, and the adult state.
the state of adulthood. Social workers must determine the internal interactions to reinforce the ability of
adult so that he or she can function properly in the world and redirect the energy from one state to another.
 Transactional analysis: seeing how a person's ego states interact with those of another. There are 3 types of
complementary transactions (when 2 states of the ego come into play, crossed when several intervene but the
messages are coherent and further when several states of the ego intervene
Game analysis: it has to do with interaction patterns and behavior. People have 3 groups of needs.
emotional: of stimulation, recognition, and vital structuring. In practice, social workers use the
games in union with the clients so that they come to understand and avoid them in favor of more personal interrelationships
satisfactory
Transactional analysis emphasizes communication patterns (communication theory).

The application of therapeutic environments to residential assistance

The psychodynamic group work has influenced the planned therapy of the environment, the environmental therapy, and the
therapeutic communities. The practice of these 3 forms of therapy includes:

The informal and communal atmosphere, group meetings are considered the primary aspect of therapy, everyone
assistants participate in community tasks, the therapists are auxiliary residents, the authority is shared by the management
And the residents accept fundamental psychodynamic principles, the community forms a dogmatic and closed entity.
whose values cannot be discussed.

Chapter 4: the crisis intervention model and the task-centered model

Estos dos modelos del trabajo social tienen algunos aspectos en común ambos preconizan breves intervenciones, ambos
models are structured in such a way that actions are planned in advance and adjusted to a predetermined pattern.
Between the social worker and the client, there is a contract or any form of agreement.

Crisis intervention is based on the psychology of ego psychodynamics, while casework is centered on
task.

Crisis intervention is a classic action that consists of interrupting a series of events that provoke anomalies.
In the normal functioning of people, task-focused work is centered on defined categories of
problems, both aim to improve people's ability to face the challenges that life presents to them. The
Crisis intervention uses practical tasks to facilitate people's adjustment, although an important aspect is their response.
emotional to the crisis and the long-term changes in its ability to manage everyday problems. The work focused on
The task emphasizes the development of practical tasks that will solve specific problems. Crisis intervention has
a theory about the difficulties of life.

Task-centered work is distanced from psychodynamic ideas as well as behavioral approaches, unlike the
theory of crises based on ego psychology.
The classical formulation of crisis intervention is attributed to Caplan, focusing attention on an emphasis on prevention rather than
that in the treatment of the disease. The crisis is what motivates one to present themselves before the social organism in search of help.

Crisis Intervention: Naomi Golan

The main points of the theory are:

Every person, group, or organization goes through one or more crises throughout their life.
Dangerous incidents are serious problems that trigger crises.
there is a vulnerable state when hazardous incidents take a toll on people. balance is the ability to
people to fit in the things that happen to them
Tension and stress occur with each failure. A triggering factor associated with unresolved issues increases the
tension and causes a disorder called active crisis
The triggering factors can be presented to the social worker as the client's central problem.
Stressful events can be perceived in 3 different ways (threat: anxiety, loss: depression, challenges: anxiety)
hope, expectations). The more problems have been successfully resolved in the past, the greater the number of
available solution strategies. All crises are resolved in 6 - 8 weeks
Individuals in crisis are often more open to receiving help.
In their reintegration after the crises, people become aware of new ways to solve problems.

Once the client is presented, the social worker has to determine if the concept of crisis needs to be used to check that
level reached, then understand the global situation in which the client is immersed and their interaction with aspects
psychological aspects of the person's life (situation of the person in crisis)

People who face their problems effectively will learn a series of strategies to prevent them from happening in the future.
crisis states appear, the steps of reintegration are:

correction of cognitive perception

management of feelings
development of new coping behaviors for problem-solving.

Conflicts in emotions constitute an important issue for Rapoport, and he defines two levels of intervention:

Social workers alleviate symptoms, help clients return to previous levels of functioning, or perform
improvement over them, help the client understand the causes of crises, teach the family and the community to support
client.
2. the intervention is more complex, helping clients understand the connections that exist between the current crisis and the
previous ones, imbue customers with new ways of thinking and coping with problems.
Golan believes that tasks are important in crisis management, but does not use the task in the way that it is done.
task-centered theory. In this theory, an emotional or socially necessary role is given consideration.
propose a process to explore various options, help select a solution, request a service, test the service,
getting used to acquiring expertise in the use of the service.

The management of psychosocial tasks consists of:

Facing feelings of loss and threats to one's security and self-esteem, trying new mechanisms to
facing life, as a way to control anxiety, offering support during the period of stress by seeking new
services, assist in the adaptation to the use of the services, make the client aware of what has been achieved or
that feels good in front of a loss. According to Golan's treatment model, it considers families and groups as
suitable places for treatment.

Task-centered case work: Reid and Epstein

In task-centered work, social workers solve the problems presented by clients, any theory
social work should explain how problems arise, what the problems are, and how they should be addressed. the work
task-oriented relates to problems that:

Clients recognize and accept that they can be resolved through actions that can be taken without the presence of the
social workers can be clearly defined, they stem from the unmet desires of clients, they come from extremes
of the clients' lives that they wish to change.

Reid classifies the problems for which task-centered work is effective into 8 classes (interpersonal conflict,
dissatisfaction with social relationships, problems with formal organizations, difficulty in assuming roles.
decisional problems, reactive emotional stress, inadequate resources.

Social workers must do everything possible to understand the behavior of their clients regarding the solution of
problems. The direction and strength of customer desires must be evaluated, desires trigger action but the
Social belief systems shape these desires and the suitable ways to satisfy them.

Beliefs guide action and are modified by interactions between social, client, and personal factors.
there are strengths: accuracy (when social networks help clients realize how accurate they are
beliefs), scope (when social workers want clients to realize the true scope of the
implications of beliefs), coherence (when the dissonance between 2 beliefs can be suppressed by the assistant
social).

Emotions arise from the interaction between beliefs and desires. Action is an intentional behavior in such a way that
Smart actions imply smart intentions. Plans are statements of intentions formed by interaction.
of beliefs, desires, and emotions. Actions occur in sequence and the problem may be at the beginning of them.
Skills can be learned directly or extracted from other situations.
The intervention strategy has 2 lines. Helping clients to solve the problems that affect them, providing a
good experience in problem solving, so that clients improve their ability to cope with
difficulties and be willing to accept help.

Task-centered practice

It is necessary to identify: the action requirements, the obstacles to it, the non-modifiable restrictions.

The problem specification is the first step that is usually taken at the beginning of a contract, in the drafting phase.
problem, one or more problems must be agreed upon and specified, order problems by priority, define results that are
they expect to design the first block of tasks, reach an agreement on the number of visits and the duration of treatment.

Task planning takes place during regular sessions with the client. General tasks set standards to follow in
the treatment process, the operational tasks, define what the client will do, the tasks can be unitary (1 action),
complex (2 different types of action).

The task planning phase is: identification of alternative tasks, establishing 1 agreement, planning of implementation,
summary of tasks. The tasks of the social worker are to work with people who are not the client, prepare awards or
Incentives for when it reaches its success, share tasks with the social client.

The termination phase is carried out by the social worker and the client as follows:

Compare the situation of the problem to be solved at the beginning of the problem with its current situation, evaluation by the
social worker the client and third parties of the perceived changes, planning the future, additional contracts, establishing a
concrete completion, conversion of the process into long-term treatment, referral to another social organization for receiving
additional help.

Chapter 5

Behaviorist Models

Behaviorist models of social work are found in the works of experimental behaviorist psychologists.
Thomas (1968 and 1971) in the United States and Jehu in the United Kingdom (1967 1962).

Behavioral social work is marked by controversy, mostly because it is the most positivist of the theories of
social work has been the center of positivist debate. There are also objections based on ethical grounds, based on the fact that the
behavior is manipulated by the social worker without it being under the client's control.

BEHAVIORIST APPROACHES IN SOCIAL WORK. Fischer and Gochros.

Respondent or classical conditioning (stimulus-response approach; Jackson and King, 1982)

Operant conditioning
Social learning

All are directly applicable to social work.

Behavioral social work is based on learning theory, which, unlike psychodynamic theory, projects itself
to observable behavior. It is deemed inappropriate to use hidden thoughts or inferences about structures of the
mind, because they cannot be independent and objectively verified.

Behavioral social work is often based on single-case experimental designs. To the precise definition of
the target behaviors are followed by the planned measurement of the frequency of their occurrence in a given period taken as a baseline
base. The intervention follows.

THE REINFORCERS

They act automatically, so customers do not have to understand them.

They must be applied consistently and immediately after the corresponding behavior and in a way that connects them to the
desired behavior.
They should be used as often and as intensely as necessary, but without overdoing it and without the client getting fed up.

They can be extrinsic (external to the person) or intrinsic (internal feelings like satisfaction and pride); the reinforcements
Intrinsic factors are easier to use and define, but the alliance of intrinsic factors with extrinsic ones helps to maintain the
conduct

BEHAVIORAL SOCIAL WORK IN PRACTICE

The fundamental purpose of behavioral social work is to increase desired behaviors and reduce undesirable behaviors.
undesirable for the people affected by social events to act correctly. This increases their ability to
live a full and happy life.

Warm personal relationships between the social worker and the social client are always positive in behavioral work.
just like in other forms of social work.

The most common recording techniques of behavioral social work are:

The diaries
The cards to be marked as columns
Coins, passwords, or strips of paper to be placed in appropriate locations, for example (to be changed from one pocket to
another)
Automatic counters (like some digital watches that have a counting mechanism or signals of the periods of
elapsed time.

History or assessment

To prepare the initial history, interviews should be conducted to discover:

What is, according to those involved, the problem?

Who is the one who exactly complains or suffers?
Who is part of the problematic behavior (since there can be more than one subject or it may not be the first person)
identified as problematic).
The background; exact dates and the circumstances that led to the problematic events.
If the problem refers to a behavior that is too common, too frequent, or inappropriate.
Who could be the mediator?
In what way would the social client like to change?
The likely reinforcers and their availability.

HERBERT (1987) GIVES US AN ACRONYM TO REMEMBER THE SFINDS FACTORS FORMED BY THE INITIALS,
FREQUENCY, INTENSITY, NUMBER, DURATION AND THE SENSE OR MEANINGS THAT PEOPLE GIVE TO THESE FACTORS
INVOLVED.

THE STAGES OF THE ACTION COULD THEN BE THE FOLLOWING:

Evaluation of the mediators (see below)

Decision on the most suitable place to intervene
Verification and analysis of the baseline data
Definition of the important relevant facts and their consequences.
The final and intermediate objectives
The program and the techniques to be used
Selection of reinforcers
Conjuntos de datos a comprobar a medida que se vayan cubriendo con éxito las etapas para modificar la acción si ello fuese
necessary.

Much of the behavioral work is not carried out directly with the client, but rather through mediators who can be
friends or family of this. It is good for the mediators to be from the client's closest circle.

CONDUCTIST GROUP TECHNIQUES.

This is possible using a conventional group as a supporter and reinforcer of those subjects who participate in
behavioral programs or are conducting interventions with several people at the same time. These setups can
helping people who have similar problems - to alcoholics for example or to those who have the same
background, for example - a local group of young people with criminal problems or those who belong to the same family or to
a social group.

RESIDENTIAL WORK

Behavioral studies represent the second largest group of residential work theories (Hudson, 1982, and Ryan,
1979). The most common technique is the use of a ticket system. These systems manage everything.
program of a residential facility in the same way as therapeutic environments -treated in chapter 3-.
They try to manage the overall behavior of a clinic.

Token systems have been implemented in schools and residential facilities for troubled adolescents or young offenders.
They have also been used with mentally ill patients, invalids.

COMMENTS
Behavioral approaches are undoubtedly a widely applied treatment modality and whose effectiveness is
backed by research; however, what is more problematic is maintaining good results over time.
Despite their proven effectiveness and the active promotion that their supporters do, behavioral approaches, in
they have not yet made an impact on social work even though they have been profusely used in specialized centers
for a few purposes.

Behaviorist approaches were the basis of the first serious attack on conventional psychodynamic modalities.
of social work, and apparently, they have caused relatively little impact on everyday social work, although they have been
effectively used in chosen circumstances. Social skill techniques were the most significant development.
promising, having been applied to multiple situations. However, an alternative critique comes to us from the field
psychological, the following theory of systems.

CHAPTER 6

SYSTEM AND ECOLOGICAL MODELS

Systems theory has had a great impact on social work since the 1970s and has been subject to controversy.
almost since then. It is traditional to distinguish in social work two modalities of systems theory:

The theory of general systems

The theory of ecological systems

There have also been attempts to distinguish a third and isolated current: the theory of social systems based on the
sociological analysis of PARSONS of the systems in society.

Las ideas de sistemas en el trabajo social tienen su origen en la teoría general de sistemas de Von Bertalanffy (1971). Se trata de
a biological theory that proposes that all organisms are systems composed of subsystems, forming those to their
is part of some microsystems. In this way, the human being is part of a society, and is composed, for example, of
circulatory systems and cells made up of atoms, which are formed by even smaller particles
small. This theory applies to both social systems (groups, families, and societies) and biological systems.

Basic concepts of systems theory

A system is an entity with boundaries within which physical and mental energy is exchanged in a greater proportion than to
through its limits.
A closed system is one that does not have exchange across its borders; something similar to a hermetically sealed thermos.
closed.
An open system is one in which energy crosses its boundaries because they are permeable; something like a teabag in a cup of water.
hot water that lets the water in and the tea out, but keeps the leaves inside.

PROCESSES

Input process
Internal global performance (throughput): the way energy is used within of the system.
Output process: effects that energy exiting through the boundaries of a system has on the environment.
 Feedback circuits: the information and energy that the system receives from the environment, caused by its output processes.
what the result of the same says.
Entropy: the tendency of systems to use their own energy in order to keep functioning; therefore, if not
they receive inputs from outside their borders, they stop and die.

APPLICATION OF SYSTEMS THEORY TO SOCIAL WORK PRACTICE. PINCUS AND MINAHAN

Pincus and Minahan (1973) provide us with an approach to social work that explicitly applies systems ideas. This approach
It is based on the principle that people, to lead a satisfying life, depend on the systems of the social environment.
immediate, so social work must focus on such systems.

Informal or natural systems, such as family, friends, the postman, or coworkers.

Formal systems such as community groups or labor unions.
Socialized systems such as hospitals or schools.

Four basic systems of social work (Pincus and Minahan)

1. Exchange agent system: social workers and the organizations in which they work.
2. Social client system: people, groups, families, and communities that try to help and collaborate with the agent system.
change.

Current social clients agree to receive help and even collaborate themselves; potential clients are
those whom the social worker tries to reach (for example, people on probation or who are being investigated for
abuses to children)
3. Target system: people whom the change agent system is trying to change in order to help them achieve their
goals.
The client and the objective systems may or may not be one and the same.
4. Action system: people with whom the change agent system works to achieve its goals.
The client, the goal, and the action systems may or may not be oneself.

The relationships between social workers can be: collaborative, negotiable, conflictive.

ECOLOGICAL SYSTEMS THEORY. THE MODEL OF LIFE.

The life model considers that people are constantly in a situation of adaptive exchange with many.
diferentes aspectos de su entorno. Ambos cambian y son cambiados por el entorno.

Three areas of transactional problems frequently appear in social worker-client relationships:

Social definitions of role and status, for example, the client's fear regarding the category or official rank of the social worker.
The structure of the social organism and its functions, norms, and policies
Professional prospects.
NETWORKS AND SOCIAL SUPPORT SYSTEMS.

One of the most important developments in all systems theories is the analysis of networks in systems of
social support. This analysis focuses on planned formal support groups and the training of informal caregivers.
or natural ones to help friends, neighbors, family members who need it. (Garbarino, 1983, Walton 1986). The type
The work that occupies us can be personal or social. Personal work makes use of psychological strength and faculties.
of the clients with the purpose of improving their competitiveness through self-help and internal strengthening.

Social assistance uses food and feedback to stimulate clients' support systems.

Comentarios:

Advantages.

Apply more energy in changing the environment than in psychological approaches.

It is interactive, that is, it focuses on the effects that one person produces on another, instead of on feelings and thoughts.
interns.
Equifinality and multifunctionality.
It is unitary and integrated or total, it works with individuals, groups or communities and does not highlight any particular method of
intervention.
Avoid linear and deterministic explanations of cause and effect regarding behavior and social phenomena.

Disadvantages or problems.
Es más expositivo que explicativo, estructura ideas de forma más novedosa, lo que se hace ams fácil de captar. No explica lo que
It happens with things and because there are connections. For this reason, their empirical verification is difficult.
It is not mandatory since it does not tell us what to do and how or where to do it.
It is too inclusive; not everything is important, it does not give us a guideline to determine what is important and what is not.
It has a complex and technical language.

Chapter VII:

Socio-psychological and communication models.

Connections.

A certain number of ideas widely used in social work come from sociological and socio-psychological theories.
ideas such as role theory, social and personal change, formation of social relationships, identity, behavior of
group, etc.

Role theory.
It refers to our interactions with others and how their expectations and reactions move us to respond.
In terms of characteristics, this theory is related to and is part of the structural-functional theory belonging to sociology.

Consider that people occupy certain positions in social structures and that each position carries a role or function.
Thus, a role is a set of expectations and behaviors attributed to a position in social structures, always.
considering these in the context of social relationships, they help us to form our identity, the roles can be
imputed (imposed by society) or assumed (voluntary choice).

Application and contributions of role theory to TS.

Role theory allows us to clarify what is happening in a situation, to understand a problem from the idea of conflict.
Role, without blaming the protagonists or their behaviors, this theory is insufficient by itself and needs many other explanations.
complementary to unite individual behaviors with social factors, nor does it specify whether the social patterns
established are appropriate, nor does it provide us with means to intervene in a situation or modify a behavior.

Communication theories in the TS.

This theory can provide us with a useful link between many theories of social work (systems theory, theories of
personality, behaviorists, cognitivists, etc.) since communication is an essential part of any comprehension task
carried out by the social worker.

The starting point of this theory indicates that when we take an action, we always do so in response to some
information we have received, then we proceed to evaluate it (process information), and finally, we provide feedback to
communicator, who thus gets an idea of how we have perceived and evaluated the information.

We all have our own internal rules for processing information, which makes us give importance to
some things yes and others not, this is what selective perception consists of.

Learning and change come from communication; communication always has a content, the way in which it
It presents the content suggests a certain kind of relationship.

This theory primarily focuses on the control of relationships (symmetric, asymmetric), metacomplementary relationships.
they are formed when a person relinquishes their power or force for another to take it, the above in social work us
help to identify injustices of gender, race, creed, etc.

In social work with groups, this theory is useful for identifying the operating rules within a group and thus understanding
their guidelines for behavior and communication, also being able to intend changes to these operating rules in order to
causing changes in the behaviors of group members, it is also very useful in initial interviews since
For the first time, communication guidelines are established, which will prioritize the obtaining of information, in this
In this case, the social worker's task is to establish an appropriate guideline.
During the social intervention process, the social worker operates at the content level in four ways:

-collecting information (asking, interpreting)

providing feedback (showing how it evaluates what the client expresses)

providing information and supplying materials (to prevent the client from telling the whole story and feeling rejected)

Changing the information (change the information that reaches the client ensuring that it is not conflicting for them.

Capítulo VIII:

Humanistic and existential models.

Some humanist influences in social work.

Clients should perceive the following characteristics in social workers:

they are sincere and consistent in their therapeutic relationships (that is, what they say and convey in their personality or
attitudes have no purpose and influence the client.)

that have a positive and unconditional interest in the customer.

that empathize with the points of view that customers have of the world.

The social worker's stance should be non-directive, non-critical according to Rogers, and in the latest formulations it should...
to manifest active interest, precise empathy, and authentic friendship, more importance is given to the here and now rather than to the
Background of the client's problem: there are 5 key ideas of humanism that influenced social work:

we can only understand ourselves in relation to others.

Our greatest anxiety in life is losing those around us and being left alone.

We are guilty because we cannot give ourselves a creative life.

The therapy aims to help us act and accept the freedom that comes with it.

The humanistic theory is also influenced by Maslow's theory of self-actualization and Frankl's logotherapy, which emphasizes
It relieves that each of us must find our own meaning of life.

This approach suggests self-development for both the social worker and the client, highlighting the importance of treating
customers as people and try to understand them, that is, to add meaning to the experiences and lifestyle of the customer, already
the way in which the social worker, the client, and their close ones add meanings will be decisive for how they will act
In light of this situation, the way people understand and interpret the world is considered relevant for an analysis.
of their behaviors and their social importance.

Symbolic interactionism.

It is a sociological and sociopsychological perspective, its basic idea refers to the fact that people act according to certain
symbols (current ideas) of the external world that they hold in their minds, people create symbols using the
language, through interpretative interactions between them and the world, clear to have interactions with the outside world
They must first have ideas about themselves, that is, people have interactions with themselves.

Existentialism

Existentialism refers to the way we confront the fact that existence drives us to want to live a life.
That you have many unsatisfactory aspects in yourself, people often question their identity and the value of their life.
our need for security and a fixed identity, an idea that contradicts the need for personal development, since
Starting new things always involves a risk, many times people lean towards what offers them
security, but this decision fills them with anxiety and guilt, because what they want is to realize themselves, and enter into
an alienation when seeing in front of them a life empty of content.

Social forces fuel this process by acting through seduction (propaganda for material success, machismo,
stereotypes) and oppression (sexual, racial, and class prejudices).

Las respuestas a la ansiedad pueden ser las siguientes:

-accept it and try to understand it better.

accept anxiety but blame the social, psychological, and economic forces that should disappear.

-countering it by filling our life with activity.

Rebelling against it as a sign of how deranged and chaotic life is, promoting human solidarity against our
absurd existence.

to take refuge in a religious feeling, seeking satisfaction in an afterlife.

Therefore, the fact of being (existing) in the world implies that we have to experience nothing; if we experience nothing.
while we gather the courage to move forward in life, we will affirm ourselves in the power of existing and also in the fact that the
The reason for being or existing gives meaning to our life.

Existential social work

In this approach, social workers seek to help people find meaning in their experiences, for this it is necessary
an identity, through the constant reciprocal action between the person and the situation, therefore maturation and development
Personal requires an openness to experiences and an understanding of the outside world through a state of activity.

This end is achieved with these 3 steps:

identity process: we become aware of the fullness of our living situation, that is, our feelings and experiences
without judgments or external meditations, it could be achieved through meditation and drugs.

process of creative power: achieving a satisfactory product, combined with an absence of limitations at the moment of achievement.

process of love that generates acceptance: painful experience of accepting reality, the value of other people or experiences.

The purpose of therapy is to help individuals achieve a satisfying lifestyle; problems are addressed based on
a la aceptación del estilo de vida y filosofía del cliente, explorando y solucionando los problemas dentro de ellos y evitando la
oppression and paternalism.

One should not help the client seek self-knowledge as it is a seduction to accept a naive utopia.
neither press him to conform to certain standards.

The treatment process undertaken by the social worker consists of:

-Centered: the social worker makes the client engage with him in the case, to understand their problems and participate.
actively.

vitalization: which consists of giving the impression that things are being achieved and that progress is being made.

Action: it is when the social worker shows receptiveness and the client sees that enjoying security is not always vital for them.
existence.

The social worker does not have a model of how clients and society should be, so there is no diagnosis or
The prognosis is primarily aimed at encouraging the social client to explore different options for their life.

Conclusions

The contributions of these two currents (humanist and existential) can be summarized in two other reasons:

the values of social work are essentially humanistic. although in social practice this approach may be truncated, and
it has to do with the bureaucratic models of public organizations, which carry a high standardization and control of the
processes, hindering the freedom of humanistic therapies.
the second area of great importance has been the influence of phenomenological ideas and symbolic interaction as a basis for
the understanding of human beings, who are more flexible and less condemnatory, the problem with these ideas and
approaches is its lack of clarity and the difficulty of setting clear goals and reaching agreed explanations of behavior, and
that these ideas are also accepted by powerful groups in society, in addition to receiving strong criticism from the
positivists.

Chapter 11

Empowerment and Defense

Connections

In the previous chapter, the radical and Marxist theories try to provide a perspective of social work focused on
social change.

Radical social work has managed to have considerable influence in social work, especially in Europe, and has been able to emerge.
it is crucial to ensure that social workers are aware of the social control functions that their work entails and
from the possible friction that could arise between their assistance and training activities and their official functions and
of control.

Russel-Erlich and Rivera (1986) observe that promoting empowerment in oppressed communities is a categorical response to
the political and economic currents that fuel oppression.

The defense

Defense is another important branch of social work practice that aims to promote control and participation.
of the clients in their respective lives, in their community, and in the services they receive.

Causal defense seeks to promote social change for the benefit of the social groups to which the clients belong.

Closely linked to the idea of defense is the denormalization that aims to provide people living in institutions with an environment.
in which they can develop a lifestyle and social roles of a quality and value very similar to those enjoyed by the
people from outside.

According to Freire's perspectives, the work is broadly educational. All social exchanges have a
political content because they accept or deny the current social order.

Customers engage in a practice in which they act and experience the reality resulting from their actions, actions that afterwards
they affect other subsequent actions.

Social workers try to penetrate and understand the reality of their clients.

The black empowerment. Barbara Solomon

 The state of impotence of individuals or social groups is defined by Solomon as "the inability to manage emotions,"
skills, knowledge and/or material resources to effectively perform the valuable social roles they carry
I achieve personal gratification.

The purpose of potenation is to use specific strategies to reduce, eliminate, combat, or reverse valuations.
negatives that powerful groups in society make of certain individuals and social groups.

Social workers have difficulties with empowerment strategies because their organizations are part of the system.
socially routinely devalues certain minority groups.

Negative assessments of minorities (not only ethnic minorities) can be so institutionalized that the problem
it doesn't become noticeable.

A strengthening strategy requires the commitment to maintain effective and equal services as well as
confront negative ingrained evaluations.

According to Solomon, most people go through 3 levels of development:

. Positive experiences in their early family life that give them confidence and competence in social interactions.
. Strengthens your ability to manage social relationships and use social institutions to gain even more competence
. He can accept and perform well the prestigious social values.

Indirect power blockages can appear at any of the 3 levels. Early negative experiences (the
ignominy due to race, incapacity or poverty) reduces trust in social interaction which in turn reduces what is
win at the second level.

The empowerment aims to help social clients to:

. They are considered causal agents in the search for solutions to their problems.
. They consider social workers as bearers of skills and knowledge that they can utilize.
. That they see social workers as partners and allies in solving problems.
. The power structure is complex and partially open to influence.

Social workers must be careful not to see clients as the cause of their problems for the simple reason that
that they try to see them as causal agents in the solution of their problems.

Solomon's approach to incorporating systems for Black social clients into social work can also be applied with
utility to a wide range of oppressed groups.

Good intention and goodwill are what should be had regarding the racial issue despite the distrust of white people and
the official layers of the system. Social workers should be familiar with the communication guidelines, the styles
of life and the experiences of the client and must seem 'authentic' in the humanistic sense of the term.

A strategy that yields good results is helping the client to provide services to their family, neighborhood, or community. With
This almost always establishes a more equal relationship between the client and the assistant since both are offering something.
The theory of learned helplessness

People have important experiences that prove that what they do has no effect on what happens to them.
These individuals acquire the conviction that their actions will generally not yield useful results. Their ability
to learn useful behaviors in other environments is damaged.

People who have not had power throughout their lives carry a considerable burden of learned helplessness. The response
it should be, according to Barber (1986), an environmental enrichment that gives this kind of people experience of those
situations in which she has had control and achieved flattering results.

Comments

These approaches are idealistic, but of a practical idealism that can be implemented. Some modalities of therapy can
do, if handled without due caution, that people become dependent on the 'expertise' of the social worker.

The philosophy of self-control, personal responsibility, and self-realization through empowerment is related to
with the cognitive approach and in particular with the humanistic one.

Empowerment focuses on developing the capabilities of clients and does not attempt direct change of social structures.
oppressive, except for the effects produced by individual cases through defense.

Chapter 12

Evaluation of Social Work theories

This chapter refers to how social workers can, in modern times, evaluate and integrate theories into their
daily practice.

Different uses of the theory

Thus we see that one way to decide on the value of theories is to fit them into a series of categories that define the
circumstances in which they claim to be useful:

The so-called simple theories offer a system of thought to cover all the practice that social workers...
they might need in casework, residential, and group work. The psychodynamic theory, behaviorist, systems, and ideas
Ecological and cognitive are examples of theories that claim to be broad.
The inclusive broad theories would also accept the inclusion of many other perspectives and methods drawn from others
theories.
At one end of the spectrum are the specific theories that offer ideas and techniques that would benefit social workers.
in their work, whatever theory they were using.
Perspectives theories offer a way to see the world, and especially a personal and social change that would be beneficial.
for social workers.
Application theories provide broad and useful ideas that are widely applicable along with some techniques.
specific usable in certain problems and in social and personal situations.
Perspective theories can also offer ideas and alternative thought systems to help us understand
customer groups or social situations where another theory, usually preferred, proves inadequate, insufficiently
developed or rejected by the clients.

It is more useful to combine 2 different types of theories.

Use of research in the evaluation of theory

Sainsbury (1987) raises the question that research often does not produce direct changes in practice.

There are also difficulties in creating a bridge between the researchers who discover things and the people who would have
to use them. What happens is that research tends to influence the state of professional opinion and, therefore, has an impact
slowness to change and to development.

Research in social work, although on a smaller scale in recent years, is carried out on specific techniques, although
There are also some extensive studies of results that are much older.

Rachman and Wilson in an authoritative review of the literature on clinical psychotherapy conclude that there is no
quantitative evidence that supports the view that psychoanalysis is an effective treatment even when there is a good
number of clinical evidence.

Rachman and Wilson argue that rigorous verification is feasible, although many of the studies that aim to show a
success does not reach a high standard of statistical or research design.

There are doubts about the viewpoints of Rogerian (humanistic) therapies partly because the research focuses on the
skills of therapists, which, as we have seen, are recognized and therefore there is little evidence that
particular techniques work under particular conditions.

The most recent studies are shorter in length, have better control methods (such as contracts based on the
definition of the problem by the client) and focus on more limited and manageable problems.. the highly techniques
specialized, such as task-centered work and behaviorist approaches, are properly validated.

In general terms, we can conclude that while the research tells us something about the use and validity of
algunos enfoques del trabajo social, no nos proporciona la ayuda necesaria para que podamos hacernos con un criterio que nos
allows for comparing the use and validity of particular theories.

The shift from theoretical responses to social contexts

Social workers prefer theories that respond to the social demands they receive or that can be developed.
for them in this regard, to any other evaluation of theory that is rational in nature and based on research.

The need for social change is recognized, as is the influence of doing something about it. The uselessness of the.
official organisms often find resonance in these theories, viewing it as a regrettable sign of the bureaucracy of the
modern times.
Thus, the radical social worker, feminist and Marxist has ideas and perspectives that help in a way that none of the others do.
theories make them understand how customers are oppressed in society. Actions can be taken to try to alleviate
In these situations; generally speaking, the methods of assistance and empowerment are well equipped in this regard.

Empowerment can provide a way to do traditional social work that meets some of the needs of the
oppressed and prevent the oppression from getting worse.

Three areas of this modern practice seem important; the first is the political and economic climate in which it is practiced.
social work.

The defense of clients is seen as a duty based on their needs rather than on the priorities that exist.
provision of services.

It is estimated that administrative decisions regarding resources should be considered as a matter that goes beyond the management itself.
practice of social work (perhaps taken by political managers) or those that fall within the scope of alternative models
or of theory of practice.

So far, social work theories have been unable to adequately address these new issues of the
modern practice; while in a pragmatic way many social workers manage to introduce and combine great
number of these ideas in its practice.

The reasons for this are:

The trends in theoretical development, as they respond to the needs of modern practice and approach the theories.
that integrate many of those ideas.
The process by which social work theory is utilized.
A number of important aspects are shared among many theories.

Theoretical Trends

Although some of the alternative theories are contradictory to each other, they have had to develop simultaneously and not one of them.
after another, an event that seems to have occurred rather as a response to the consideration of psychodynamic theory.
as a traditional form of social work, which was a response that was given among her.

All of them, with the exception of humanistic and behavioral approaches, place importance on the social environment and how clients
they get along with him.

The humanist, radical, Marxist, empowerment, and defense perspective attempts to do so directly by working on
These perspectives. The task-centered behaviorist approaches and the communication approach seek a practical way to be
specific, directive, and capable of explicit understanding.

The reason these trends are so common lies in the fact that they reflect the dominant political and economic ideologies.
in our days.

The dominant ideology expects citizens to become self-sufficient; dependence is less accepted and it is thought that
people must learn to shape their own destiny, to become part of the community, and to find their own means to
freeing oneself from the suffering of oppression. Social work strategies must assist in these processes, along with theories and technologies.
that enable them to do so, they acquire dominance within the occupational group.

According to the thesis of this book, the theory has been socially constructed by the society in which that theory operates.

La modalidad dominante de trabajo social en notablemente estable y aun conserva elementos significativos de la práctica
psychodynamics.

The naturalization of social work theory

The psychodynamic theory was the first theory of social work that had a general application, and it was also a factor of
pushed the development of social work theory since the sixties.