"ŞTEFAN CEL MARE" UNIVERSITY SUCEAVA

FACULTY OF FORESTRY

TOPOGRAPHY – COURSE NOTES

for
distance education
Part I

Ovidiu IACOBESCU
Ionuț BARNOAIEA

Suceava, 2014
 Contents

Table of Contents 3

OPERATIONAL OBJECTIVES 7

Lesson 1
Brief history of land measurements 9
Discipline din sfera măsurătorilor terestre 12
Geometric elements of the land 12

Lesson 2
PART I: INSTRUMENTS AND METHODS FOR
MEASUREMENT OF TOPOGRAPHIC ELEMENTS OF
BASE
CAPITOLUL 1 MĂSURAREA UNGHIURILOR 15
Objectives of Chapter I 15
1.1 Types of angles 15
1.2. Types of instruments 17
1.3. Classical Theodolites and Tachymeters 17
1.3.1. Structural scheme, axes, movements 17
1.3.2. Main organ 19

Lesson 3
1.3.3. Secondary and auxiliary organs 24
1.3.4. Optical and reading systems 28
1.3.5. Total stations - electronic component 31

Lecț ia 4
1.3.6. Installation of the station 34
1.3.7. Verification and correction of theodolites, tachymeters, and ST 36
1.4 Measuring Angles 39
1.4.1. Capturing and scoring signals. Measurement 39
horizontal angles
[Link] of an isolated horizontal angle 41
b Measuring adjacent angles 42
3
Lesson 5
1.4.2 Measuring vertical angles 44
1.4.3. The precision of angle measurement 46
1.5. Magnetic goniometers (compasses) and topographic squares 47
1.5.1. Terrestrial magnetism 47
1.5.2. Compasses 49
1.5.3. Verification and correction of compasses. Precautionary measures 51
in their use
1.5.4. Measurement of orientations 52
1.6 Goniometer for fixed angles (topographic squares) 53
1.6.1. Tipuri. Schemă constructivă, mod de folosire 53

Lesson 6
CAPITOLUL 2 MĂSURAREA DISTAN ȚELOR 56
2.1. Direct measurement of distances 56
2.1.1. Instruments for direct measurement of distances 56
2.1.2. Measuring distances with a tape measure 57
2.1.3. The precision of direct distance measurements 59
2.2. Measuring distances optically 59
2. 2.1. Measurement with stadimetric tachymeters 59
2.2.2. The Bala device with the theodolite 62
2.2.3. The precision of optical distance measurements 63

Lesson 7
2.3. Measuring distances by waves 63
2.3.1. Electromagnetic Radiation 63
2.3.2. The principle of distance measurement with total stations 65
2.3.3. Step in the actual measurement of distance 67
2.3.4. Alignment and positioning lasers 69

Lesson 8
CHAPTER 3: DETERMINATION OF THE DIFFERENCES OF 72
LEVEL
3.1. Level surfaces, elevations, level differences 72
3.2. The influence of the curvature of the earth and atmospheric refraction 74
about the level difference
3.3 Levelling principles (methods of determination 76
the difference in level)
3.4. Geometric leveling (direct) 77
3.4.1. Levels without a scope 77
3.4.2. Levels with a telescope 78
[Link]. Classic levels 78
[Link]. Automatic levels (compensators) 80

Lesson 9
[Link]. Digital levels 81
3.4.3. Ancillary devices 83
4
 3.4.4. Verification and adjustment of levels 84
3.4.5. Work module in direct leveling. 86
Measures for increasing accuracy
3.5. Trigonometric leveling (indirect) 87
3.5.1. Trigonometric leveling at long distances 87
3.5.2. Trigonometric leveling at short distances 89
3.6. The accuracy of determining level differences. 90

Lesson 10
CHAPTER 4: ERRORS IN MEASUREMENTS 94
TOPOGRAPHIC
4.1. Generalities. Types of measurements and results 94
[Link]: definition, classifications 96

Lesson 11
4.3. Random errors in direct measurements of the same weight 98
4.3.1. Properties of apparent (residual) errors 98
4.3.2. The mean squared error of a single measurement 99
4.3.3. The mean squared error of the arithmetic mean 100
4.3.4. Reducing random errors with the number of 101
measurements
4.3.5. Distribution of random errors. Gaussian curve 102
4.3.6. Probable error, limit error, relative errors 103
[Link] propagation in direct and indirect measurements 104

Lesson 12
CHAPTER 5: CONCEPTS OF GEODESY 106
CARTOGRAPHY
5.1. Geodesy and cartography. The shape and dimensions of the Earth 106
5.2. Reference surfaces 107
5.3. Coordinate systems
5.4. Reducing some geodetic observations on the surface of110
reference
5.4.1. Correction of visa centering 111
5.4.2. Spherical excess 111
5.4.3. Convergence of meridians 112

Lesson 13
5.5 Concepts regarding cartographic projections. Their classification 113
5.6. Stereographic Projection 70 on a unique secant plane 115
5.6.1. Nature of projection, axis system 115
5.6.2. The law of deformation of distances 116
5.6.3. The law of reduction to a chord 118
5.6.4. Dividing the map into sheets 118
5.7. Stereographic Projection 2010 120
5.7.1. Generalities, characteristics 120
5.7.2 Dividing the map into sheets 121

5
Lesson 14
CHAPTER 6 GEODETIC NETWORKS 124
6.1. Generalities, types. The triangulation network 124
6.2. Generalities regarding the measured elements and 127
calculation of triangulation networks
6.3. Geodetic leveling networks 130
6.4. National GPS Geodetic Network 132

Selective bibliography 134

6
 OPERATIONAL OBJECTIVES

We consider that in the current situation, when Romania is heading towards

a true market economy and when entering the European Community
create and establish a strong competition in the labor market, attaining
real skills in multiple fields of activity can be an asset in
the preparation of any future specialist.
The ensemble of disciplines in the field of terrestrial measurements studied in
The Faculty of Forestry in Suceava grants, under current legislation,
the alternative of working in this field is as an authorized individual.
The subjects studied during the years of study are:
topography - geodesy over the course of two semesters in the first year,
remote sensing, GIS and cadastre, during two semesters from
year IV.
In this context, the present course can be viewed primarily as a
beginning of the road in acquiring skills in the field, during a period in
topographic-cadastral works have a significant demand, justified by
the introduction of the general cadastre in Romania. Secondly, the course
It can be seen as a set of knowledge that contributes, through its theme
and acquired terminology, in perfecting the training of a forest engineer.
The course aims, alongside the given concepts, at practical work.
from the laboratory, a series of objectives that seem important to us:

acquisition of theoretical knowledge in the field, related to:

the knowledge of the geometric elements of the land,
the knowledge of the most widespread and up-to-date measuring instruments
of these elements,
mastering the measurement methods and understanding the mechanisms that
governs the propagation of errors in measurements, for the purpose of
increases in determination accuracy,

developing practical work skills with the most widespread ones

instruments (total stations, levels, GPS receivers) for the purpose of
determining the position of the points and ultimately preparing a situational plan,

7
 the correct use of illustrated pieces such as plans or maps, in
analog or digital format for extracting topographic elements
necessary in engineering;

the mastery of the working method with a series of computing programs and
report for the preparation of specific design drawings for the discipline (plans)
of situation, topographic profiles of the terrain

the adoption of a working method in the spirit of the existing technical rigor in a
engineering-related activity, useful for other disciplines that will be
addressed within the study program of the faculty.

8
Lesson 1

INTRODUCTION

A Brief History of Land Measurements

The science of terrestrial measurements has as its object the determination of the shape, of
the dimensions of the Earth and including its surface representation as a whole or on
portions. The knowledge of territories as expansion and content has been and remains a basic requirement
in the organization of many activities, especially those related to economic matters, at the European level,
national, regional or local. For this purpose, representations have been used for a long time
conventional, referred to as plans and maps, in which all distances are projected in plan
The horizontals are reduced, in the same proportion, to a certain scale and the profiles that are
representing the relief, respectively the inclinations in certain directions.
Representative maps of the land, that convey the content of its natural details.
(apes, forests, pastures, landforms, etc.) and artificial (arrangements of any kind) are obtained
following a set of works generally called leveling in plan, which forms an object
science of terrestrial measurements. The working methods and instruments used have evolved in
a close connection with the achievements of science and technology, constantly stimulated by demands
of society, which needed increasingly precise plans and records of the territories,
obtained in a short time and as cheaply as possible.
In antiquity until the 4th century BC, activities in the field were closely related to
the development of mathematics and especially of geometry, knowledge that has formed the basis of some
important achievements demonstrate that they were well known and used in the works
topographical. Thus, the Great Pyramid of Khufu in Gaza, built in 2700 B.C., has
with a square base, perfectly drawn, with the sides oriented towards the points of the compass
magnetic, the Sumerian clay tablets (circa 1400 BC) allowed for the restoration of boundaries
of property according to the records of the parcels corresponding to the land plans
agricultural. Preserved stones marking property boundaries have been found, and a painting from Thebes
(1400 BC) shows how a land measurement is carried out by two people, who
I stretch a rope with knots placed at regular intervals. The first map appears (600 BC).
drawn up by Thales of Miletus, and in Egypt and Mesopotamia the boundaries of properties are
they were reconstituted after the great waters receded from the floodplains of the Nile and Euphrates
in topographic measurements carried out with simple equipment. Subsequently, contours were outlined.
the geometric principles of measurements, combined with some important events:
First, determine the radius of the Earth considered as a sphere (Eratosthenes, 276-195 BC),
established the foundations of trigonometry from Hipparchus (190-120 BC), the first who...
determine the distance from Earth to the Moon etc.
In the Middle Ages, along with the great discoveries, remarkable achievements appear: Mercator.
(1515-1594) introduced the system of cartographic projections in the representation of territories,
Galileo Galilei (1564 - 1642) builds the telescope, while the Scottish mathematician John Napier
invent logarithms (1614). Until now, Van Royen Snellius (1580-1626) formulates
the triangulation method (16I7) as a network of triangles in which all angles are measured and
one or two foundations, and in the year 1687 Newton formulates the law of universal gravitation, based on
of which the elliptical shape of the Earth is deduced. At the end of this period, it was outlined
clar că măsurătorile terestre sunt strâns legate de matematică, astronomie, geografie ș i
cartography.
In the modern era, starting from the end of the 18th century, it can be said that
the main problem was determining the dimensions of the reference ellipsoid and the sphere
the equivalent that is assimilated to the Earth. Delambre and Mechain (1792-1799) measure
9
with precision the meridian arc between Dunkirk and Barcelona, and Legendre (1752-
1797) and Gauss (1777-1855) introduced rigorous compensation through the method of least squares.
The period was concluded by recognizing the fact that the Earth's own figure,
suspended at the level of seas and open oceans, it is not a simple geometric shape, but
an irregular one, called geoid, a notion universally accepted and still used.
At the same time, complementary sciences emerged, which contributed to solving some
specific problems of terrestrial measurements, such as gravimetry and geophysics. On this
the work of Molodenski stands out, who proved the impossibility of determination
the exact shape of the geoid through measurements on the Earth's surface and developed the theories
methods for determining the physical surface of the Earth. In this context, it was
formulate the fundamental purpose of geodesy, to study the shape, dimensions, and field
external gravitational of the Earth.
The contemporary period began with the launch of the first artificial satellites.
Earth (1954), which opened up new possibilities in the development of terrestrial measurements and
satellite remote sensing. The fields of science that intervene in solving issues of interest
it has expanded, encompassing celestial mechanics, aerodynamics, cosmic research, and
The actual working methods have spectacularly improved based on distance measurements.
geo-topographical reasons.
The development of earth measurement science and topography in particular must be considered and
in close connection with the emergence and continuous improvement of geotopographic instruments.
The ancient Egyptians commonly used simple instruments for measurement and
drawing right angles, one of them having the shape of a wooden cross, with a thread with
plumb on each arm, being supported by a string in its center. They also used another
level, formed from a frame in the shape of the letter A suspended by a string tied to the top with a
with lead and a reference point on the horizontal bar of the frame. The Romans, who were in Egypt between
The years 30 B.C. and 642 A.D. improved existing instruments by adding a level that
operated on the principle of hydrostatics (a tube with raised ends), and the architect Vitruvius
Varoa invented the first rudimentary odometer system, resembling a wheelbarrow.
with the known circumference wheel, which automatically placed a pebble in a basket each time
complete rotation. Such tools have allowed for the tracing and realization of constructions
pretentious roads, aqueducts.
The actual topographic instruments, based on the same operating principles.
The tools that are being worked on today, equipped with a horizontal and vertical graduated circle, have been
predictions of Arab mathematicians. Circles were used to determine angles in the plane.
horizontal and vertical which, together with the measured distance, made it possible to determine
or/and tracing the position of a point through spatial polar coordinates. In this sense a
A significant contribution was made by Galileo Galilei (1564-1642), who invented the telescope (1609).
which allows remote viewing, which the mathematician Johann Pretorius attached.
the planchet, perfected later by engineer Marioni from Udine. Subsequent inventions - a
of the vernier (1631), of the micrometer (1638), of the collimation system by telescope (1669), of
nivelei cu bulă de aer (1704) aucondus larealizarea primului teodolitîn accepț iunea
modern concept, built by Rowley (1704) and later by Jonathan Sisson (1720).
The level meter, a topographic instrument, appeared in the same period.
The series production of the actual surveying instruments began in
the second half of the 19th century, with the establishment of the first specialized companies in optics and
fine mechanics. In 1864, in Jena (Germany), Carl Zeiss created the first microscopes and
then topographic equipment, the company continuously developing and becoming the most
important from Europe, with representatives in Jena and, after 1945, in Oberkochen, taken over in
In the 2000s, the American company Trimble. In Switzerland, engineer Heinrich Wild, who left from
Zeiss established the company Wild Heerbrugg in 1921, which produced under this name,
instruments until 1990, when it merged with another prestigious Swiss company - Kern,
then taken over by the Leicacompany known for its photographic equipment. These are
10
the most representative names of European topographic-geodetic instruments, widely
spread and in our country.
During the same period, some new models and achievements appear, high-performance: optical theodolites
with centralized reading, products originally licensed by Wild, later taken over by all companies, by a
exceptional precision, within ±1" compensating levels, automatic. These have been
double of numerous types of autoreducing detahimeters - with wires, with refraction, including
some distance measuring devices namely theodolites with stadia Balla, Lota-Keil,
without achieving notable results in the field of precision and especially efficiency.
In the second half of the 20th century, the achievements of electronics definitively penetrate and
revolutionizes the technology of geotopographic works from the ground up. Starting point 1-a
It constituted the idea of the American Bowie, dating from 1927, to measure the distance based on
the speed of wave propagation, implemented by the Swedish Bergstrand in 1948
in building the first electro-optical device of this kind. Subsequently, it was obtained
important achievements, at a steady pace, materialized in the last decades in two types
we have specific geotopographic devices:
total or smart stations, which allow for comfortable, quick and precise measurement
elevation of both angles and distances, display and automatic registration
the transfer in the computer, additionally having incorporated specialized programs
solution of lifting and tracing problems;
satellite positioning systems, as a modern opportunity for direct determination
the spatial position of certain points of great interest from the basic geodetic networks, of
support (agitation), of uplift and even characteristic points of the details. Positioning.
satellite-based essentially relies on measuring distances through waves, being agreed upon and
used today almost exclusively. The techniques are superior to classical methods such as
precision, efficiency and economic effectiveness;
aerial images taken from different platforms (airplanes, satellites), in various
wave lengths, with increasingly spectacular characteristics, available for free,
on which specialists with basic knowledge in the field of land measurements are
I increasingly strive to extract quantitative and qualitative information.

Computers and specialized software, such as plotters, scanners, and digitizers that
serves to the reporting and transformation of plans, complete the list of electronic means
in which sector of geotopographical works is used today. They have been refined and
continuously improving, becoming more affordable, with beneficial effects on
precision and efficiency, completing the automation process of complex operations from
sector.
In conclusion, everywhere in the world, as well as here, geotopographic activity, of elevation in
the tracing plan is overall equipped with new electronic equipment, with devices and
work devices that have completely changed the face of terrestrial measurements. The news is
mainly refers to the way of acquiring and processing data, since the methods
The topographies have remained practically the same, with a new conception appearing only in execution.
geodetic networks through the GPS system.
Current electronic logistics, made accessible and well-represented in the equipment
profile units, ensure a high degree of automation, with obvious advantages regarding
safety and comfort in work, materialized in an economic and technical efficiency
unimaginable a few decades ago. Modern means are vastly superior to those
Classics, with all their improvements, are outdated; the latest ones will probably still be used.
a period of time only for financial reasons, by virtue of habit or from
the lack of knowledge of new opportunities.

11
 Disciplines in the field of land surveying

The science of terrestrial measurements as an object encompasses the whole body of knowledge related to
similar works, which evolve and continuously improve and which have constituted, in
time, in well-defined fields of study thus:
geodesy, which mainly aims to determine the shape and dimensions
The Earth, to which belong the extensive works over large areas affected by the form
the spherical nature of it. In terms of actual lifts, geodesy has as its objective
establishment of reference systems (geoid, ellipsoid) and rigorous and unitary determination
geodetic networks, whose points serve as support for topographic surveys
and photogrammetric;
cartography, which deals with the flat representation of the spherical surface of
The Earth, as a whole and in portions. For this purpose, it studies projection systems.
used in the preparation of plans and maps as well as transformation methods
multiply these;
topography is an intensive working technique in which the necessary data is
I collect by traversing the area with specific measurements, supported by the network.
geodesy. Effectively, topography aims to track the positioning of characteristic points of
topographic details, necessary both for preparing plans and for tracing
construction on land;
photogrammetry is also a data acquisition technology, but
through photographic recordings made from different heights, which allow for the study,
reconstruction and measurement of the shape and position of an object or phenomenon in space and in
As a main application, we retain the implementation of plans and maps on surfaces.
stretched, using aerial photographic recordings of the land, processed with
specific equipment, based on reference points positioned through measurements
terrestrial
the cadastre includes a complex of technical, economic, and legal operations,
undertaken for the purpose of recognizing, inventorying, and representing the fund on the plan
to ensure a real record of it. Drafting plans
the necessary representative part of it, defined by volume and technicality
of the works.
Compared to the above, we note that geodesy, in achieving the proposed goal, resorts to
and gravimetry, which aims to determine the intensity of gravity at different points of
of the globe. Also, recently, there has been a report of the emergence of a new 'science' -
geomatica (mapping science), which registers more as a work technique based on
computer science.

Geometric elements of the terrain

In topographic surveys, as well as in the construction entry, some notions are used.
basic, specific, which will be explicitly detailed in the following chapters. In order to
understand the meaning of the exposition, it is beneficial to present them from the beginning.

The main elements considered in topography are:

1) the projection plan, always horizontal, on which the points are orthogonally transposed
of the ground. It can have different positions relative to the Earth considered as a sphere: secant
unique, lowered by 1.39 km both in the case of projection geographies '70 (in effect) and
stereographic 2010 - what is to be introduced, local secant that passes through the area of
interest, or more rarely tangent to the sphere in the center of this area;

12
 2) the alignment AB, defined by the line that connects the topographical points A and B, line
contained in the vertical plane that passes through these two points;
3) inclined distance LAB, (lABthe respective line segment determined by
points As B situated on the physical surface of the Earth (fig. i.1)

LAB AB (i.1)
4) the reduced distance to the horizonAB,
(dAB), as a projection of the inclined distance on the plane
used as a reference on plans or maps;

DAB AB0 (i.2)

Fig. i.1 Topographic elements of the terrain a) in vertical plan [V], b) in plan
Horizontal [H]

5) the vertical angle, expressed either as

angle of inclination ABformat from the lineABa
the terrain with horizontal, having positive values
either negative, or zenith angle zABin
report with the vertical of the site (fig i.1);
the horizontal angle defines
the orthogonal projections of directions SA and SB
of space, in fact the dihedral angle of the planes
vertical (V1and2) what do the two include
directions (fig.i.2.) Fig. i.2. Definition of the horizontal angle
orientation AB, respectively the angle
horizontal format of the north direction taken as a reference and direction AB, measured in sensors
(fig.i.1). Depending on the considered north direction, geographical orientations are distinguished and
magnetic
the leveling surface of any given point or actually intersects the points of
the same gravitational potential and, over limited sections, it can be assimilated with the plane
Horizontal at the place (fig.i.1);
the zero level surface, which serves as a reference for heights and which is
the geoid, an irregular body resulting from the extension beneath the Earth's crust of the oceans and
open seas, assumed to be in equilibrium (fig.i.1);
10) absolute altitude ZAsauZB(sometimes noted as H)A, sauHB),
represents the vertical distance from the zero-level surface to the level surface of
of point A respectively B (fig. i.1);
the difference in level ZAB( HABRelative saucota represents the distance on
vertical between the level surfaces passing through the two points A and B, being connected to
the absolute cotangent of these through the relationships

13
 ZAB= ZAZBrespectively ZB=ZA + ZAB (i.3)

12) land leaseABdefined as the trigonometric tangent of the angle of

inclination ABof the line AB is usually expressed in percentages or per mille:

p%AB= tg ABx100, [%] or p‰ = tg AB1000, [%0] (i.4)

The Cartesian coordinates define the position of a point on the surface.

topographic in plan and space, through the vectors measured along the three axes of a
reference system (fig.i.1):
absolute plane coordinates, XAYAconsidering the origin and Z coatAof the
sea level
relative plane coordinates, xAB, yABthe level difference zAB, definite of
the projections of points A and B on the three axes, resulting from the topographic measurements,
which lead to absolute coordinates:

14) the polar coordinates of a point, given by the vector radius1and the angle
polar 1This defines the position in the plane of this point relative to a known one and a direction.
referenceMN(fig i.3);

XB=XA+ xAB,
YB=YA+ yAB, (i.5)
ZB=ZA+ zAB
Fig. i.3. Polar and rectangular coordinates

14
Lesson 2

PART I:
INSTRUMENTS AND METHODS FOR MEASURING ELEMENTS
BASE TOPOGRAPHIC

CHAPTER 1 MEASURING ANGLES

Objectives of Chapter I
As shown, angles are basic geometric and topographic elements.
for the surveyed land. This section aims to understand the types of angles and
instruments that can measure angles. The types of angles used are presented
in topography and the instruments used to measure them. Because the range of
the instruments are very diverse, they are presented:
classical instruments, still present in the equipment of institutions or companies with
concerns in the field
modern instruments, built on the principle of classical ones, but which have
incorporate electronic parts that allow automatic reading of values, their storage and
their primary processing in the field,
traditional instruments used in the forestry sector, which although old, ensure
the necessary precision of some ongoing work,
Also presented are, for each type of instrument, the methods of
measurement of angles, the conditions under which they are correctly determined, but also
the practical measures we need to take to minimize the effect as much as possible
errors committed on the value of angles. Some instruments are presented more
detailed, according to their representativeness or the position they hold in the activity
current in topography.

1.1 TIPURI DE UNGHIURI

Faț ă de disciplinele studiate anterior, în topografie se obiș nuieș te ca laturile

the angle is called direction, and the unit of measurement for angles is degree
centesimal, note gon.1 the angle at the center that subtends between the sides of the 400th
parte din circumferinț a cercului. 1 gon conț ine 100c(minute centesimal), and 1c= 100cc
(centiseconds).
In topographic works, the following types of angles are used (figure 1.1.):

Figure 1.1. The horizontal angle (α) and angles in the vertical plane (φ, z)
15
 a) horizontal angle, to define two arbitrary vectors in space that start
from station S towards directions P1and P2and which is obtained in the horizontal plane Hs of the station S.
The horizontal angle represents the dihedral angle of the vertical planes V.1and V2care
contains respectively the two visas.
A separate category of horizontal angles is orientation, defined in relation to
north direction. Orientation of any direction ij ( ij) this is the horizontal angle formed with
northern direction, measured in a clockwise manner starting from the north (figure 1.2).

Figure 1.2. Orientation of the horizontal direction ij, ij

It is observed that between the orientation of the direction ij, ij(direct orientation) and orientation
of the direction ji, yes(reverse orientation), there is the relationship:

=
hello ij 200 gon [1.1]

where the sign "+" is for the case of traversing in the topographic sense of the arc (sensor).
the symbol "-" for the case of traversing the arc in a counterclockwise direction.

Figure 1.3. Angles in the vertical plane: zenith and inclination

b) the vertical angle of a sight is measured in a vertical plane (figure 1.3) and
it can be defined or in relation to the horizontal of the place (in which case it is called angle of
inclination, noted with ), or with respect to the vertical of the place (in which case it is called angle
zenithal, noted with z). The angle of inclination is assigned the sign "+" by convention.
if the direction is above the horizontal (upwards, the ground rises) and the sign "-" if it is
below (downwards, the land descends). It is observed that the vertical angle is obtained from a
single visa (the other is the zenith direction) and that:

+ z = 100gon 1.2

From here also results the relationship:

= 100–z, [1.3]

a relationship that provides both the value and the sign of the inclination angle.

16
 1.2. TYPES OF TOOLS

The instruments used for measuring angles are generically called protractors.
Basically, these have graduated circles, for measuring horizontal angles and
vertical and tiltable scopes, which can be aimed at any direction in space.
The classification of protractors can be done according to different criteria.
According to the number of visas (directions) needed to obtain the horizontal angle, they can be
instruments that determine the angle from two sights (theodolites, tachymeters) or from a
single visa (topographic instruments, compasses).
After the value of the horizontal angle, there are instruments that allow the measurement of a
angle of any size (theodolites, tachymeters, compasses) or that allow measurement (or
construction of fixed value angles (topographic squares).
According to the measurements, the instruments can be theodolites (which are specialized only
for angles measure values on the order of seconds or even smaller) and tachymeters
measures angles with precision to the minute, but can also determine the distance between
two points).
Depending on how the angle value is read, the instruments can be classic (reading the angle)
face the operator through an optical system) or digital (the reading is done
the instrument displays it on a screen.
Often, the declassification of instruments according to the company that produced them is used.
Among the representative companies in our country with topographic equipment are: Zeiss, Wild,
Kern, Sokkisha (for older generation ones), Leica Topcon, Trimble.

1.3. THEODOLITE, TOTAL STATIONS AND TACHEOMETERS

1.3.1. Structural scheme, axes, movements

There is currently a wide variety of theodolites and tachymeters, with classic or

digital, due to their evolution over time and the specifics of the construction companies. Regardless
but about the brand, the precision it offers, or the generation it belongs to,
instruments of this type have the same axes, the same main organ, secondary and
the same movements.
The principle schema (figure 1.4) highlights the position of the axes and the circles.
graduate.
The main axis, VV’, is the axis that should be along the vertical of the location in
the time of measurements. By construction, the main axis is perpendicular to the circle
horizontal gradat (limb), in its center. Around the main axis, the instrument can ...
execute the rotation movement in the horizontal plane. During the work (the tool is
(properly arranged), the main axis is materialized (can be visualized) through the lead wire.
on the laser thread.
The secondary axis, H-H', is the axis that must be horizontal during
measurements. The secondary axis is perpendicular to the main axis and is also
perpendicular to the graduated vertical circle (the ecliptic), at its center. The telescope
the instrument is suspended at two points that belong to the secondary axis, so that, in
jurul acesteia, luneta poate să execute miș cări de rotaț ie în plan vertical. Vizualizarea
the axis is made through a marked point on the instrument case specifically.
The axis of the lens, LL' (axis of vision, optical axis), is perpendicular to the axis.
secondary and is defined by the line of the focal points of the lenses that make up the telescope. A
the visible point on this axis is the intersection of the vertical reticular line (frv) and that of the
horizontal (from) the reticular plane.
The three axes are concurrent at a point.
17
 From figure 1.4 it can be seen that the values on the graduated circles that the operator
in position I of the telescope are those in line with the projection of the telescope axis (L-L')vertic
respectively L-L’ ricein the vertical plane for the inclinometers (V) respectively in the horizontal plane
for limb (H).

Figure 1.4. Principle diagram with the axes and circles of the theodolite/tachymeter

Regarding the freedom of movement of the limb, the theodolites and tachymeters can be:
-theodolite - simple tachymeter, where the level is fixed, connected to the base. At this
tip, currently it is no longer built, it can only rotate the alidada around the axis
vertical, V-V’. Different measurement origins cannot be introduced in any given direction;
-theodolite - repeater tacheometer, where the circle can also rotate around its axis
main V-V', along with the alidade. This allows for the desired gradation to be achieved.
example zero) in any direction. Measuring an angle at a station can be done with
different origins;
reiterating theodolites, which are modern instruments, where the limb can rotate
around the V-V' axis, either with the alidade or independently of it, by acting from
the exterior of a reiterator screw, which allows the introduction of different values into a
direction.
We call general motion that movement around the vertical axis V-V’ in which
The limb moves in solidarity with the alidade. In this case, the projection of the telescope's axis on the limb remains.
permanent at the same grade, so angles cannot be measured. This movement
It is used to bring a gradation of the tongue (including zero) towards a given direction.
We call rotation the movement around the vertical axis V-V’.
the limb remains fixed when the alidada rotates around the vertical axis V-V'.
The projection of the telescope's axis on the limb 'sweeps' graduated portions, so angles can be measured.
For the use of one or the other of the movements, there are systems for each instrument.
mechanics and specific drive levers.
After the amount of movement, rotation can be free, fine, or blocked. The blocking is
face by operating some levers or buttons from the outside, and the fine movement, which
it serves for the precise targeting of a direction, it is only possible when
The locking levers have been activated. In new instruments, including most stations.
Overall, the horizontal movement is achieved after overcoming a small resistance force,
without being effectively blocked by a specific screw.

18
 1.3.2. Main Body

The main organs considered are the ambaza, the graded horizontal circle (limbus),
the vertical circle (the eklimeter), the alidade and the telescope.
The ambaza (figure 1.5) is the lower part of the instrument, serving to support.
his construction, to achieve the attachment to the support he is working on (the tripod table) and
to make riding possible.
part
horizontalized

syrup
to declare
locating for the pump screw
rigid plate
flexible plate
a. b.
Figure 1.5. Ambaza: a–view, b- vertical section

Usually, the ambazas have the shape of an equilateral triangle with rounded corners. The part
The lower part consists of two plates: the lower one, rigid, effectively rests on the tripod in
the time of work, and the one above is flexible (elastic). It is connected to the elastic plate
the filleted socket where the fastening screw is attached to the tripod (pump screw). Through
the elastic deformation of this plate ensures a good grip of the tool on
tripod during work. The upper part is made of a rigid plate, having the role
in support of the actual device. Between the upper part and the lower part there are
Three saddle screws. Their convenient operation makes it possible to horizontalize the plate.
superior and, along with it, the horizontalization/verticalization of other parts of the instrument.
The role of the alidadaare is to protect the horizontal circle and to support the construction.
upper part of the device (through the alidade forks). Here the assembly is contained and protected
of lenses and mirrors that make up the optical system of the instrument (in the case of tachymeters),
the mechanisms for locking movement and fine movement or electronic components of
total stations.
The graduated horizontal circle (limb) is a ring made of glass, graduated on the portion
exterior, with a diameter ranging from 5 to 25 cm. In working position, the blade must be
perfect horizontal because it is used to measure horizontal angles. The limb
is fixed inside the alidade. In classical instruments, the graduations of the limb can be in
sexagesimal system, or, most often, in the centesimal system. The sense of increase of
of the graduations of the ora.
In digital instruments (total stations - figure 1.6 a, b), the scale is engraved with
optical or magnetic codes. The codes can be transformed by the station's processor into a grid.
sexagesimal to decimal. The meaning of grading can be, at the user's choice, hourly
It's also retroactive, but classical work becomes customary, with a sense of gradual growth of the grades.
Marking the circles can be done in several ways, of which are presented in
continue the optical codes on concentric tracks (figure 1.6 c). This type of
marking leads to a binary encoding (0 or 1) of the information: if the light beam
It does not pass, the photodiode does not produce an electric signal (code for the light barrier), and
if light reaches the photodiode, it produces an electric signal (code1). The alternation of
binary codes for the tracks in the position are unique and specific only to a certain
portions of the tongue.
The graduated vertical circle (the eclimeter) is also transparent, used for measurement.
vertical angles (figure 1.7). The ecliptic is placed in one of the forks of the alidade, in

19
 the vertical plan and the secondary axis is
perpendicular at its center. It is graduated in
the same way with the tongue.
If the measuring origin of
the vertical angle is on the diameter
horizontal, the limb reads the angle of
tilt, , and even if the origin of measurement
it is on the zenith-nadir axis (case of the majority
of modern instruments), the angle is read
zenith, z. The origin story of the degrees is
the the choice of the operator: measurement
Fig. 1.7 The Eclimeter inclination angles (φ), or zenithal (z)
according to the percentage slope, p%(100·tgφ).

c
Figure 1.6 Total station: a - view from the main face (position I), b - view
from the secondary face, as the marking of the tongue through distinct codes (5 concentric tracks) and
the equivalent position in binary code

The telescope is composed of lens assemblies arranged in two coaxial tubes.

The structural schema is presented in figure 1.8. It highlights:
objective tube, larger in size, with fixed length, containing the lenses
the objective, the focusing lens, the mechanism for its operation and the reticle plane;
ocular tube, shorter, which contains the eye lenses and can be moved in
the interior of the objective tube.

20
 Figure 1.8. Constructive diagram of the telescope

The roles of the telescope are to bring closer (to magnify) the targeted object and to
it allows correct sighting. In theodolites, the telescope plays a role in measuring distances along the way
optics.
Apparent proximity (image formation in the telescope)
Although the objective and the eyepiece are made up of several lenses, for
these can be assimilated with a single converging lens (figure 1.9).
Practically, corresponding to the usual situation in topography, the targeted object (AB) is
find the instrument at a distance greater than twice the focal distance of
the objective (on the order of tens of centimeters). It results in this case that the objective will create
a real, inverted, and smaller image than the targeted object (A'B'). The lens system
the objective–ocular is arranged so that the image created by the objective (A’B’) is
the formation between the ocular and the focal point of the ocular. According to the rules of image formation through
converging lenses, the eyepiece will take the image formed by the objective and will form it in this
because a virtual image (A"B") is similar to A'B' (line perpendicular to A'B') and larger.
This type of telescope, which gives an inverted image, is found in instruments for
older manufacturing and is called an astronomical pendulum. The manufacturing instruments
recently have an additional lens that corrects the image. Such telescopes, which give a
Imagine the same as the targeted object (straight in relation to AB), they are called terrestrial objects.
The focusing lens can move axially (along the axis of the scope) if it is
an exterior sleeve was activated. Its role is to create a clear image in a
the care plan coincides with the reticular plan.

Figure 1.9. Optical diagram of the astronomical telescope

The correct viewing is ensured by the reticulated plan. This is made up of a

crystal plate (diaphragm), fixed inside the telescope by means of four screws
antagoniste (figura 1.10 a). Pe diafragmă sunt gravatefire reticulare: (figura 1.10 bș i
fig. 1.4) one vertical (main wire) and the other horizontal (level wire). The correct arrangement

21
the grid plan during the work assumes that the intersection of the grid lines should be made
at a point that belongs to the optical axis of the telescope. In this way, aiming the telescope at
the desired visa, the visa axis goes in that direction, as the visa axis
contains as a material point the intersection of the reticular wires. Practically, the main reticular wire
it is used to target precisely (scoring) a directed line, and the horizontal line shows
the height of sight. On the reticulated plan, there are also engraved, at the tachymeters, pairs of lines.
symmetrically disposed relative to the reticular threads, called stadimetric threads. These have a role in
measuring distance optically, additionally using a graduated ruler (stage, sight).

a b
Figure 1.10. The reticular plan a- position in the telescope tube, b,c- types of reticular wires

Since the telescope can rotate completely around the horizontal axis, it can be aimed.
in any direction. It thus becomes necessary to establish a convention regarding
the position of the telescope within the instrument. Thus, the telescope is considered in position I when,
looking through the eyepiece, the clinometer is on the left fork of the alidade and in position II
when the ecliptic is on the right fork. Basically, in the first position, from the ecliptic there are
cite values ranging from 0 to 200 gon, and in the second position - values ranging from 200
and 400 gon. Regarding the scale degrees that can be read in the first and second position, the axis
lenses project on this in diametrically opposite areas.
Some total stations had a special telescope, with the possibility of automatic focusing.
(autofocus, AF), that is, the automatic adjustment of the scope to make it clear
the targeted image. This operation is possible through the use of a laser diode.
installed in the scope, with the role of concentrating the emitted light on the targeted surface and of a
servomotor, which commands the appropriate movement of the focusing lens. Power supply
the AF device operates with its own battery, which ensures a certain number of cycles
operation (of the order of thousands). At total stations with the AF system, the time allocated for aiming
a point is reduced to less than half compared to manual focusing.
The main technical characteristics of the surveying telescopes are the magnification of
enlargement of the field.
The power of magnifying telescopes comes from the arrangement of the lenses.
the formation of the image; each scope having its own magnification power, which represents,
in a broader sense, the relationship between the size of the image seen through the telescope and the size
percepută cu ochiul liber.
Since the intended object is usually at a very great distance from the lens
(tens or hundreds of meters) compared to the focal lengths of the lenses, it results that, practically,
the image is formed in the focal plane of the lens. In figure 1.11 it is noted with:
y - the natural size of the object,
y' - the size of the image created by the lens (y' y; the image is inverted)
y” – the size of the image taken and enlarged by the eyepiece,
foc , fobthe focal length of the eyepiece, respectively of the objective.

22
 The human eye prefers unadjusted images (in this case, the image y)
appear as far away as possible); thus, a regulation of the objective - ocular system results until
The ocular focus, Fire, is brought identically to that of image y' and that of the objective, Fob.
Under these conditions, the magnification power Mse is defined as the ratio between the tangent
the angle under which the target object is seen through the telescope 2and the tangent of the angle below
it can be seen with the naked eye 1Considering the long distances to the targeted object,
the angles 1and 2the figures are supposed to be equal, in which case the relationship that defines
the power of magnification becomes:

Figure 1.11. The magnifying power of the hazelnut

y,
tg 2 f nonef ob
M [1.4]
tg 1 y, f oc
f ob
It is observed that the magnification power of the telescope can be defined and the relationship between
the focal distances of the objective and the eyepiece of the telescope. It results that, in order to have a power
the greater the magnification, the longer the scope should be. Since the scope is not
practice if it is long, modern telescopes, with high magnification, have systems of
prisms and interior mirrors that, through successive reflections, artificially enlarge the focal length
the objective lenses (figure 1.12).

Figure 1.12 Telescope magnification power increase system

The field of view of the telescope (the angle of view) is defined as the angle of the generators.
the extreme visual rays that start from the eye and exit through the telescope. The values
the field angle is usually between 10and 2030'. The glasses that have
High magnification has a small field angle and vice versa.

23
Lecț ia 3

1.3.3. Secondary and auxiliary organs (parts)

The parts considered secondary have an important role in the functioning of the instrument:
["levels","compensator","centering devices","tripod","plumb line"]
Level sensors are devices that serve to detect the state of the shift.
(horizontalization), performed physically by the mounting screws of the base. Depending on the shape
The levels can be: spherical, toric, contact, double, and with a compensation chamber.
presents the most commonly encountered types:
The spherical level (figure 1.13) is mounted on the alidade/top plate of the base.
and serves to notify the approximate (rough) condition of the instrument. It is
composed of a glass cylinder covered with a spherical cap, partially filled with a
very fluid liquid, with a very low freezing point (alcohol, ether, carbon disulfide).
The entire assembly is protected by a metal casing fixed to the instrument.
old correction screws). A reference circle is marked on the spherical cap. Filling
the incomplete space (cylinder + cap) makes it possible for a bubble of air to appear, in fact
a space where the liquid and saturated vapors coming from it are in balance.
The clearance corresponds to the case where the air bubble is located inside the reference circle.

Figure 1.13 Spherical Level Figure 1.14. Toric level

The toric level (figure 1.14) is more precise than the spherical level and is used for
precise (rigorous) clarifications. It consists of a glass tor filled
incomplete culichid, leaving space for an air bubble under the same conditions described at the level
spherical. On the upper part of the torus, divisions are marked, usually every two.
millimeters, symmetric with respect to the highest point. Between the divisions, there are two longer ones;
these are the benchmarks within which the air bubble must fit when
The level indicates the state of leveling. The glass tube is mounted in a device held by
through two screws at the top or on the upper side of the base.

-the level of contact coincidence is

specific at the level of meters. It is in fact a level
optical device equipped with a prism system, which
face to face with the ends of the bubble. (figure
The device is calibrated when the two
extremities come apparently in coincidence. Level
are a greater precision than some
due to the more precise way it is done
the coincidence of the bubble heads, compared to
Figure 1.15 Contact level
her framing between references.
24
 The total production stations of recent manufacture are equipped with electronic devices (fig. 1.16a).

a b
Figure 1.16 a-electronic level, b-sensitivity of the level

The electronic level is an image of the spirit, the operator having on the display the
The station image of two such mutually perpendicular levels (figure 1.16a). Instead of
there is a reference point that must also be included between the central lines.
Horizontalization is done based on some electronic sensors. The two levels indicate that
their plan includes two horizontal perpendicular lines, guarantees directly
horizontalization of the plan.
The sensitivity of the levels is the main technical characteristic.
sensitivity refers to the angle of inclination, , I tangent to the level (T1) when
the bubble moves with a division (T)2Figure 1.16). If the length "d" is expressed
arc of circle A1A2depending on the angle and the radius of curvature, R, of the glass tube,
result successively (the angle this small):

without = sin 1” = / [1.5]

d
d Rtg Rsin ; 1.6
R

From [1.6] it follows that the accuracy of a level, defined by its sensitivity, increases.
together with the curvature radius of the torus. In practice, there is a limit to the size of the torus radius,
over which riding would become difficult. The toric levels of the usual instruments have
bull's breed of 40–80 m with sensitivities on the order of tens of seconds/2mm.
Size this is a factor used in homogenizing calculation relationships from the point
from a dimensional point of view (each member of the relationship must be expressed in the same
unit of measurement) and represents the ratio between the angular value and the linear value of
of the circle that has a unit radius. Its expression can be made in degrees, minutes or
seconds

400g 40000c 4000000cc

g
; c
; cc
1.7
2 2 2

The compensator is a specific device for total stations, capable of making corrections.
the effect of the non-verticality of the main axis, if it is below a certain value
(on average 4'-5'). The devices called compensators are relatively complicated.
The correction of non-verticality is done by decomposing its effect by the processor.
station into components that correct the value of the horizontal and vertical direction.
It is important to remember that the tool does not work when it is not vertical.
the main axis exceeds the limit value that the compensator can correct.

25
 The devices considered auxiliary do not effectively form part of the instrument.
specifically, but contributes to the necessary operations for measuring angles: tripod, thread with
plumb, compass, declinometer, yards, stakes with or without reflective prism.
The tripod (figure 1.17a) serves as a support for installing the device at a height.
convenient for each operator. The three legs are sliding and end at
the lower part with a metal hoof. At the upper part, the legs are articulated
from a horizontal platform (the tripod table). The table has a circular recess in its center
through which the pump screw passes, which fixes the lower plate of the base to the tripod and
the implicit theodolite or the tachymeter.
The lead wire (figure 1.17b) consists of a suspension wire and a weight.
in the shape of a cone tip. The lead wire materializes the main axis of the instrument
and its length fits so that the tip of the cone is as close as possible to the point
mathematical marked on the ground.
The optical centering device (figure 1.17c) is mounted on the part
the inferior of the alidade. It consists of a telescope, equipped with a reticle (with wires
reticular or concentric circles) and a deviating prism placed on the vertical axis V-V'.
The prism deviates the rays entering through the telescope at a right angle, so that, then
when horizontal rays pass through the telescope, they are deflected along the vertical, extending
main axis. When the device is correctly positioned in the station, through the telescope you can see, in the center
the grid, the point marked on the ground.
The newer total generation stations use a laser device for centering.
that emits a laser beam. The system has proven to be faster and more precise in centering,
not having the oscillations of the lead wire before the stabilization caused by the wind. The beam,
generally under 2 mm thickness, has adjustable intensity, being visible even in light
powerful of the day. The accuracy achieved in centering is below 1 mm. Since the performance
Laser beam centering - introduced by the company Leica - is good, most companies.
I build separate and embedded laser beam assemblies, which can be attached to
the instruments from older generations.

telescope
limb
prism
reticulated plan

V’

a b c
Figure 1.17 a.– tripod with detail for the upper part, b- lead wire, c- device
of optical centering

Compasses or declinators, (figure 1.18), as accessories that can be mounted.

optional on theodolites - tachymeters, can be used for measuring the magnetic orientation of some
directions. The mounting location is usually on one of the arms of the alidade. The declinometer is
behaves like a compass, but the magnetic needle can oscillate only in one space
reduces.
26
 Figure 1.18. Compass (a) and declinator (b)

Reflective prism installed on a support stake constitutes the specific auxiliary.

total stations, being used for measuring angles and distances.
The true prism (figure 1.19a) is obtained by cutting the corners of a glass cube,
its quality depending on the flatness and mutual perpendicularity of the resulting planes.
In this way, it can concentrate and reflect the radiations emitted by the total station. At the moment
for the visa, the axis of the prism must be directed towards the device by twisting it in the horizontal plane
and/or the inclination in the vertical plane on the mounting support, to allow for reception
signals sent from lower or higher positions, especially in the case of short distances
(figure 1.19b).

Figure 1.19 Prism: a-reflecting prism without and with sighting panel, b-installed prism
telescopic pole (viewed from the front and side) with the possibility of vertical rotation

The marker (support) serves to determine the direction of the deviation, it can be a marker.
vertical installed at the desired point with the help of a spherical level (figure 1.19b). The use of
the benchmark is simple and advantageous in surveying works. In both cases it is
it is important to determine the height of the prism, h,p, defined up to the center of the prism or of
the viewing panel (figures 1.19b, 1.20), which may or may not be equal to the height
the instrument in the station.
In practice, when using prisms, special situations may arise:
at large distances, due to the divergence of the beam emitted by EDM. In this case
It may be necessary to mount several prisms (3, 5, 7, 9...) on sighting panels, thus
to cover a larger area of the incident flow (figure 1.20b);
the simultaneous viewing of a point from multiple directions In this case, there can be
special prisms (figure 1.20c), capable of receiving and reflecting waves from
all directions (360 prisms)0);
27
 at the important points (from the network of densification or lifting), when they
recommended supporting the graduated milestone with a special tripod (figure 1.20d)

Figure 1.20 a-ambush and sighting panel for a prism, b- sighting panel with
three prisms, c-prism 360 0, prism pole supported by a tripod, with
indication of height, hp

Transmission-reception stations (figure 1.21)

there are pairs of bidirectional radio transmitters,
portable. They have multiple channels and work in
semi-duplex regime, that is at one point only
one of the operators can transmit, while the other
can receive.
Low power variants are exempt from
transmission license. Operating frequency
often at 27 MHz (CB frequency)
citizen’s band = civil frequency). The size is
comparable to that of a mobile phone, have an antenna,
microphone, receiver, various buttons (on/off,
activate transmitter, channel switchers) and
regulation (volume, standby, etc). Power supply with
energy is usually done at 12 - 14 V, which
allows the battery to be charged
Figure 1.21 Transmission-reception stations car, autonomy is a few hours, and the distance
which are useful is on the order of kilometers.

1.3.4. Optical and reading systems

The optical system of classical instruments is a set of

prisms, lenses, and mirrors that serve to illuminate graduated circles and to transport
their image in a reading microscope, placed next to the telescope. The light from outside is
introduced into the device through a small mirror placed on one of the forks of the alidade.
The rays pass through the transparent graduated circles and reach the eyepiece through successive reflections.
a microscope, where the images of the graduated circles can be seen simultaneously (figure 1.22a)
The reading systemReading the graduations marked on the tongue or the clinometer is done in
the area that corresponds to the projection of the telescope's axis in position I on the plane of the graduated circles,
the meaning of targeting. If the axis of the scope were to project exactly over a graduated mark engraved on the circle,
the reading would be done directly. The position of the projection of the line of sight is usually a random one, so

28
so that a reading 'C' on the horizontal circle consists of two parts (figure 1.22b): a part
whole, certain, “c”, which represents an integer number of divisions of the graduated circle,
cite directly to the index of reading R and a division fraction on the circle,
"x", which is determined with the help of a reading system. In the end, the value on the circle
the gradation will be: C = c + x. The reading precision of the value C depends only on the precision with which
the value of x is read. It is mentioned that the reading system of the theodolites or
the reticle is integrated into the optical system, so that its image is superimposed over
that of the graduated circles. The most widespread reading systems are presented.

C=c+x
a b
Figura 1.22 a- componentele unui sistem optic, b- rolul sistemului de citire

Figure 1.23 The reading system Figure 1.24. The reading system of
the wired thermometer measuring instruments with scale
(V: 220g08c and Hz: 208g23c.) (V = 97g59c; Hz = 317g27c)

The wire micrometers (Theo 120, Theo 080 Zeiss) do not actually have a reading system.
specifically: over the images from the circles is superimposed a blade
transparent (figure 1.23) on which a reference point is engraved. It is read up to the wire.
degrees and minutes are read directly, while
minute estimates. For figure 1.23, the readings are: V: 220g08cand Hz: 208g23c.
The precision of wired tachymeters (the smallest division that can be read) is 10c.
The tachymeters with scale ensure accuracy of 1c. (the grading of 1 can be readc).
The image of the graduations of both circles is brought simultaneously into the micrometer field.
set next to the scope. A scale is superimposed over each image, the length of which is
The rigor is equal to the length of a gradde on a limb or clinometer (figure 1.24). The scale is
graded into 10 equal parts, numbered from 0 to 10; in turn, each of the gradations are
divided into 10 equal parts, thus a total of 10x10 = 100 divisions, corresponding to
29
of a centesimal minute. To find the gradation, the degrees are read at the subdivision that
the scale ticks, the minutes are given by the division of the scale inscribed on the left side of the line
of the degree, and the minutes are read between the tens digit of the minutes and the degree line. In the figure
1.24 the readings are: V = 97g59c ; Hz = 317g27c.
Micrometer gauges generally ensure better precision than
the described details above. An example is the Sokkisha TM 20 HS theodolite. For this one, there are
simultaneously adjust the images of the two circles in a micrometer next to the telescope.
The windows through which the graduated circles are viewed have a central reference point represented by
two parallel lines (figure 1.25). On the right side, there is a window, having on the
middle. By acting on the sleeve of the alidade fork, it is successively aligned for the tongue and
the eclimeter is the wire that indicates the number of degrees between the central double wires. In the window of
the right, the first two digits next to the graduation indicate the tens of minutes and respectively
the minutes, and the last represents the tens of seconds. In this way, it is obtained successively
the following readings: for the limb: H = 23.34.50; for the ecliptometer: V = 91.96.00.

Figure 1.25. Micrometers reference Figure 1.26 Lamella with faces

(H = 23.34.50 V =91.96.00) parallel planes

The plane and parallel-faced lamella is part of the optical system of certain instruments.
which performs reading through the coincidence of images. It is made of material
transparent. The alignment of divisions on the TM 20 HS tachymeter is possible.
due to the blade with flat and parallel faces.
The rays that pass through the blade (figure 1.26) perpendicular to its faces pass undisturbed.
The rays that pass through it at an angle of incidence 'i' with respect to the normal are deviated in
the interior of the prism (the deviation occurs close to the normal n-n), and at the exit, the rays
emergent are again deviated (the deviation is made by moving away from the norm). If
the medium in which the two faces of the prism are located is the same (air), the incident ray and the ray
emergent are parallel and there is a distance x between them. According to the law of refraction and fig.
1.26 results:
x
sin(i r) ;x IEsin(i r) [1.8]
IE
Approximating IE (the width of the blade) and taking into account that i, r, are small angles,
results:
l(i r)
x l(i r)sin1cc cc
1.9
According to the law of refraction, for refractive indices considered to be small, it follows:
here i
n; n; [1.10]
sinr r
where "n" denotes the refractive index of the slab.
Using the properties of proportions, it can be written successively:

30
 i n i n n 1
; ;i r i [1.11]
r1i r n  1 n
Replacing [1.11] in [1.8] results in:
l(n 1)
x i I [1.12]
n cc
The relationship [1.12] shows that, in the case of small angles i and r, the deviation 'x' of the radius
the incident with respect to the emerging ray is only a function of the angle of incidence, 'i', the factor
"k" being determined based on some constant values.

1.3.5. Total stations - electronic component

Total stations (TS) are part of the new generation of geo-topographic instruments
having, in principle, the functionality of a classic tacheometer. The emergence, perfection
continue, the spread and use of them almost exclusively, as well as the confirmation
The advantages of precision, ease of handling, and efficiency have made total stations
the symbol of today's topographer's activity. They are electronic instruments capable of
measure in the field, to memorize or to calculate the majority of topographical elements
(angles, distances, level differences, surfaces).
Most STs are currently instruments that encompass the same casing.
an electronic capable instrument:
to measure angles, through a microprocessor + reading system,
appropriate to the grading of circles,
to measure distances, through a microprocessor + EDM device
(=ElectronicDistanceMeasurement = electronic distance measurement). EDM can
emits laser or infrared radiation;
to memorize the measured data, the programs in the work menu, or data
operator load (known point coordinates, codes),
to communicate with the operator through a display and a keyboard, through
displaying measured values, commands from available programs, issues
operating etc.
All these functions are supported by energy from batteries or accumulators, which
ensures the operation of electronic components specific to total stations.

The microprocessor,
The microprocessor with which all total stations are equipped and which is actually a
central unit embedded in a single integrated circuit, is the brain of the instrument.
The main feature is the working frequency.
The role of the microprocessor is special, as it performs:
mathematical operations, among which the most representative are those for
determinarea valorii unghiurilorș i a distanț elor măsurate,media mai multor unghiuri,
the compensation of angles in the horizon tour, the average of several distances measured between
two successive displays, the calculation of the reduced distance to the horizon and the difference in level,
the coordinates of the targeted point, orientation from coordinates, intersections forward and backward,
surfaces, the distance between known points, correction due to the curvature of the earth, etc;
monitoring the overall status of the total station, namely: leveling status, degree of
of battery charging, the intensity of the signal received by EDM
(including taking protective measures in case of strong signals), reporting and
the communication of operational errors and their type. At stations equipped with sensors of
temperature and atmospheric pressure, the values are measured every second, and
31
Corrected due to atmospheric influence is determined instantly for each
measurement.

The EDM device

The electronic measurement of distances is carried out within total stations with
the EDM device or DEM (Electronic Measurement Device) using waves from
electromagnetic spectrum. Waves with short wavelengths are used to carry
signals and waves with long wavelengths that are used for measurements.
From a construction point of view, EDM is positioned in a sight, and the waves are emitted by
custom along the axis of the visa.
In principle, to determine the distance we can measure:
the phase difference between the emitted wave and the received one (phase method)
the time in which the signal returns to the instrument (the procedure with impulses)
There are total stations that measure in one of these two ways or even in
both ways. The principle of measurement will be presented in the chapter dedicated to measurement.
distances.

Electronic memory
The electronic memory (data collector) is the component responsible for storage of
information (function menu structure, field work programs, measured data)
and replaces the classic field notebook. The memories currently used are the ones in which
the measured data and the specific codes of the points are entered automatically, through a
simple key action, usually ENTER.
Based on their position relative to the instrument, the memories can be:
- incorporate, when they are contained in the station casing. They communicate with
the calculator through a special cable or, if in the form of cards
removable, download to a reader-writer and then to the computer. Internal memories
usually contain applications–program;
- external, when they are caught by the tripod and connected by a cable to the instrument. In this
because memories can do much more than just store data, they being in fact
complex microcomputers.
After the functions performed, the memory is divided into:
-internal, used on one hand for recording the measured data (JOB) and
the coordinates of known points (known data), and on the other hand to keep the most
use point codes;
- of work, where the station coordinates, references are uploaded
the coordinates of the points to be plotted, keep the last measured values, etc.
Communication between memory and the personal computer is done through:
data download, an operation that refers to the transfer from memory
in computer of measured data, in general: inclined distance, horizontal and vertical angle,
accompanied by the number and code of the point;
the loading of memory (upload), through which the transfer from the computer is monitored
some software applications or some data necessary for field measurements.

The display and control panel

It includes the keyboard, the display, and possibly the remote control, typically grouped together in a
operator-facing panel (see figure 1.27).
The keyboard is a grouping of keys, each with one or more functions, which
I serve to transmit the operator's commands to the total station (figure 1.36a).
The commands refer to: start/stop (ON/OFF), selecting the working mode,
functions, menus and submenus of the station, entering numeric or text values and
32
clear viewing - in the case of motorized stations. The number of keys varies from one
instrument to another, the trend being to use multifunctional keys.

Figure 1.27. a - keyboard and display at the Pentax R100 total station, b - display at Set
600 Sokiksha; 1- EDM laser operating indicator, 2- ON-OFF button, 3- HELP button (help)/ ESC
(escape= exit), 4- command ENT (enter= validate/enter data or commands) 5- keys for
functions F1 ÷ F5, 6- button display backlight

Display - (the display screen) represents the communication interface between the operator
and the total station. It was initially made based on LEDs (Light Emitting Diode =
light-emitting diode) and now exclusively on LCD (LiquidCrystalDisplay = display
with liquid crystals). Some total stations have two display screens, corresponding to
of the telescope's position I and II. A screen is characterized by the number of displayed lines and by
the number of characters/line (fig. 1.27b).
The display consists of messages referring to: measured values (horizontal angle,
vertical, distance), the used menu, the working method, the coordinates of the targeted point, codes,
prism constant, atmospheric correction, battery state, self-diagnosis in case of some
operational problems, errors occurred in the communication of the microprocessor with various
component (EDM, automatic compensator, angle sensors, ROM memory,
data transmission etc).

Battery charger
They provide energy for measurements, the operation of the microprocessor,
communication of messages on the display, lighting of the grid and the display, emission of
audible or visual warning signals for the operator, etc.
The battery is attached to one of the forks of the alidade, in a special slot that ensures a
automatic grip (see figure 1.6). The batteries that make it up are based on NiCd.
(nickel and cadmium), NiMH (nickel metal hybrid) or LiI (ionic lithium). Each total station
it is provided with at least two batteries, so that charging and using them can be
alternative.
Maximizing the active life of the battery requires certain storage and charging conditions.
ș i descărcare, care sunt importante întrucât energia este esenț ială pentru funcț ionarea
total stations. Chargers must always be correlated with the battery they serve.
The latest generation cells are called intelligent, as they have a microprocessor.
own, capable of recognizing the type of battery and optimally managing the process of
charging for one battery or even two simultaneously. The charging time is
reduced from 12–14 hours, as it was in older generations, to 70–90 minutes.
It is important for an operator to know:
the type of battery recommended by the manufacturer, defined by voltage, current, and power;
autonomy (usage time) under different conditions, expressed in number of hours
functioning or as an approximate number of recorded points (lines);
the charging time and the type of charger;
the level of charge and how it is indicated on the display: through text, (for example.
low battery (low battery) or image (figure 1.28);
33
 battery lifespan, provided that the operating conditions are met
the knowledge of the construction company.

Figure 1.28 Example of display indication of the message regarding the battery:
1, 2 -baterie încărcată, 3 – pregătiț i rezerva, 4-înlocuiț i

Lesson 4

1.3.6. Installation of the system

The theodolites, tachymeters, or total stations are ready to be used for measurement.
of the angles when they are installed in the station, that is, the main axis, V-V', is in
vertical position (mounted) and passes through the mathematical point of the station, marked on the ground
(centering) - figure 1.27. This is achieved through the operations of translation and centering.
For this purpose, using the attached devices, the following steps are followed:
Approximate centering by bringing the tripod with the table as horizontal as possible.
so that the plumb line comes above the marked point on the ground. When the land is in
a pronounced slope, for safety, two feet are placed downstream, whose length is
adjust suitably so as to allow work in ergonomic conditions. One presses on
The foot pads for secure fastening and the device is attached with the pump screw, without
a-l definitely gathers (fig. 1.27a);
-approximate calculation, using the spherical level, whose bubble is brought into the circle
reper acting conveniently on the mounting screw located in the direction of its movement;
the definitive centering, with the help of the optical device placed on the ambush
laser beam. By slight translations of the instrument on the tripod table, the reference circle /
the spot of the laser device overlaps the mathematical point (fig. 1.27 b);

Figure 1.29. Installation of the device in the station: a - approximate centering, b - centering
definitive, c-fine tuning, d-instrument in working position

The final leveling is done with the toric level placed in an initial parallel position.
with the line of two mounting screws S1 and S2, which are operated simultaneously and in opposite directions
rotate until the level bubble is brought between the markers (fig. 1.27 c). It is then rotated
aligning the level in the second position, perpendicular to the first one respectively to the direction
of screw S3, from which, through suitable movements, the bubble is centered between the markers. In these
conditions, the plan defined by the two perpendicular directions becomes horizontal and implicitly
the main axle VV' is brought into a vertical working position. The two operations are repeated,
and for control, the level is positioned in the III position, parallel to the first, when its bubble must
34
to remain within markers. It results that the instrument is ready to measure horizontal angles
(since the tongue is horizontal), with the tip at the station point (since the center of the tongue,
through which the main axis passes, is at the vertical of the station point).
Once the instrument is set up, it can also be checked whether the level is horizontal.
it is well adjusted or if it is necessary to correct its position. Any potential
Dysfunctions in classical instruments can arise due to vibrations, impacts, or wear.
The verification of the toric level and any adjustments are made periodically, only for
the classic instruments. The operation consists of moving the level to a third position (position III,
figure 1.27c.) by rotating around the V-V' axis by 200 gon from the first position. If the bubble
stays between the markers, it means that the level is good and the device can be used. If the bubble
it is displaced from the central references by a certain amount, 'd', it is brought between references
eliminating half of the bubble movement from the adjustment screw R and the other half
the leveling screws with which the level is parallel1and S2). The verification is done by rotating
aligned in a certain position, when the bubble must remain between reference points. The operation of
the rectification is sensitive and needs to be repeated several times.
When the toric level is checked, the spherical level check can be done.
For this, the theodolite is carefully calibrated with the help of the leveling vial. If the bubble
the spherical level remains in the reference circle, then the level is good. If not, it can be done
level adjustment: the leveling screws are operated to eliminate a half
of deviation, while the rest is eliminated from the leveling screws.

The effect of the centering error in the station

The correct installation of the instrument in the station is of particular importance.

The central support in the station ensures the accurate measurement of horizontal angles, and a good
The leveling ensures the correct determination of vertical angles. In total stations, there are no
practical errors due to misalignment, because of the effect of small errors in the verticality of the axis
Principal are eliminated by the compensator. The following analyzes the effect of the error.
from the center above the measurement of horizontal angles, considered to be the most important.
Assuming that at station A it is stationed eccentrically to the mathematical point of
the sun with distance 'e', will result in distance 'd' an angular error ' The value
this results from applying the sine theorem in triangle AA'V (figure 1.30)

e d e
sine sine [1.13]
sine sine d

Since the value of the eccentricity is small, it follows that the error is also it's small and,
according to the relationship [1.5], it follows:

e e
without ; without [1.14]
d d

Figure 1.30 The effect of centering error in the station on the horizontal angle.

By analyzing the relationship [1.14], it follows that the magnitude of the angular error is directly
it is proportional to the eccentricity and to the value of the sine function and inversely proportional to
the distance "d". It is observed that sin it is maximum when this is a right angle and it does not depend
35
of when it is 0 or 200 gon. Regarding the distance, it can be calculated that, for e
= 1cm (maximum value, not achieved in practice): at 30m it results = 2c13cc, the d = 120 m
results = 53ccand for d = 600 m it results in = 11ccThe practical conclusion drawn from here
the centering must be done with great care if there are short distances, under 30-40m,
because the effect of centering error on the horizontal angle is very important.

1.3.7. Verification and correction of theodolites, tacheometers, and ST

In the case of classic instruments (theodolites, tachymeters), the conditions that must be
to fulfill their tool to be suitable in measurements are grouped into two
categories: construction and adjustment. The tools must be checked periodically.
Failure to meet construction conditions leads to the occurrence of errors.
construction. These are caused by small imperfections in the construction of the device. At
the main generations, due to technical and technological achievements, construction conditions
I am permanently fulfilled.
Adjustment errors are caused by the wear of the device or by the misalignment of some
organs of his. The errors caused by these malfunctions, inevitable during operation, are
usually removes from the adjustment screws and it is the duty of the surveying operator to
identify and remove them. The main errors in this category are presented,
the way they are ascertained and the method of correction.
a) The main axis, VV', should be vertical. Horizontalization of the blade through
the mounting operation implicitly requires the vertical alignment of the vertical axis. If
the instrument is correctly constructed (the vertical axis is perpendicular to the limb), this
the condition is achieved through riding. The imbalance of the levels can be corrected, as it has been
previously presented.
b) The visa axis, LL’ should be perpendicular to the horizontal axis HH’ (the error of
horizontal collimation). In case the line of sight is not the same as the reticle axis.
(that is, if the intersection of the reticular wires is no longer a point on the axis of the telescope), nor
perpendicularity (LL') The condition of HH') is no longer fulfilled. This happens practically
when the reticular plan is off-center. The error is detected by viewing a point
(reper) distant and well visible. It is read at the tongue, with the telescope in approximately position.
horizontal, in positions I and II of the telescope, resulting in readings C [Link] CIIIf,
repeating the operation of reading the values from limb, systematic differences appear between them
two readings, then the condition is not met. Correction is made after the readings
CIand CIIthe arithmetic mean is calculated:

C I  (CII 200)
Cwith
2
It is brought to focus, in position I of the scope, with the help of the fine movement screw.
horizontal plan, the previously calculated average reading. Then the reticular vertical thread is superimposed.
on the targeted signal, acting on the opposing screws with which the reticular plane is secured (see
figure 1.10). In this situation, the intersection of the reticular wires, which is a visible point of
the axis of the sight is now on the optical axis of the telescope; as the axis of the telescope is constructed
perpendicular to the secondary axis of the device, it follows that the required condition is met.
c) Secondary axis, HH', must be in a horizontal position, implicitly perpendicular to
Main axis, VV’ (vertical collimation error). If the situation is not as shown,
when the instrument is set in the station, it turns out that the sighting scope no longer rotates around the axis
a secondary rotation in a vertical plane, but in an oblique one, affecting the measurement of angles
horizontal. The detection of this error is done by targeting a high point, P, in position I.
the second of the telescope and the design of the sight on a horizontally placed graduated ruler, perpendicular to
visa direction. If the two readings on the graduated scale match, then the plane in which

36
the telescope is vertical and therefore the secondary axis is horizontal. If the readings P1 and
P2 (corresponding respectively to the readings in the I and II positions of the telescope) are different.
the stated condition is not met and the instrument must be rectified. Rectification of the error
taking into account that the distance P1-P2 is the effect of the double error of horizontality
horizontal axis. On the alidade forks, if the outer casing is removed, there is
adjustment screws. If these are operated, the effect is that of raising or
lowering of the respective end of the secondary axis. The operation is performed until the projections
Points P1 and P2 of the visa on the graduated scale coincide (figure 1.31).
d) The reticular fibers must be properly arranged. When the device is correct
the main reticular thread must be perfectly vertical and implicitly that of the levels must be
perfectly horizontal, since the threads are engraved on the reciprocal grid plane perpendicular.
The detection of the fulfillment of the condition is sufficient to be done for one of the threads, then
when the device is correctly adjusted. Regarding the vertical wire, it should overlap.
perfect, along its entire length, along a lead wire viewed through a telescope.

Figure 1.31. Checking the horizontality of the horizontal axis

If the check is made for the horizontal wire, the scope is locked so that
the edge of the levels should be tangent to a detail with the clearly outlined upper part, located in
the visa field. It rotates with the fine horizontal movement and is observed if the thread remains
tangent to that detail along its entire length (figure 1.32a). The error rectification is done in
the case where the vertical line does not perfectly overlap the image of the lead wire or
when the line of levels does not remain tangent along its entire length to the detail in question (figure
1.32b). Indeed, the error is due to the rotation of the grid plane. By proper action
the antagonist screws, the plane rotates until one of the two described situations occurs
mai sus este îndeplinită.

Figure 1.32. Verification of the correct arrangement of the leveling wire

In the case of total stations, they must measure the geometric elements.
to specify, to register them, to perform some calculations directly on the ground and to communicate
the computer's results (fig. 1.33).

37
 Figure 1.33 The flow of data collected with the total station

The total stations, created with the contribution of cutting-edge modern technologies in the field of
Optics, fine mechanics, and electronics allow certain constructions to be
diminished to a limit that no longer influences the outcome. Another part of the errors are
eliminate specific means (e.g. compensator), while others are required to be
an authorized unserviced remedy, in the absence of accessible screws for the operator.
The classification of errors associated with total stations can be done according to the method of
decrease and practically remove them, resulting in three categories.
A. Conditions guaranteed by construction, within the limits of residual errors that do not
effectively affect the results of the measurements:
the perpendicularity of the vertical axes VV' and horizontal HH' on the respective limb
eclimeter, practically achieved with an accuracy ten times greater than the limit of ±10c
that could influence the measurement of the respective angles;
the equality of divisions on the circles, ensured by the raster lines and readings by
scanning;
the equality of the graduations on the prism support, whose rigor allows
the recording of the correct value especially for shares.
B. Conditions that are met automatically, or in command during work, through
intermediul unor dispozitiveș i programe capabile, la modelele mai noi, sămăsoaresau
to calculate, eventually display and practically eliminate the corresponding error effect:
axes to be centered with graduated circles.
the axis of the visa intersects the main axis,
the verticality of the main axis VV', a component condition of the installation in the station, which
it is ensured by riding. A deviation framed within certain limits is automatic and
integral eliminated compensator. The operation of the compensator is observed.
blocking horizontal movement and tilting the sight in the vertical plane when detected
changes in the displayed direction at the language.
the perpendicularity of the sight axis to the secondary one is a basic condition for
the correct measurement of horizontal angles. Total stations equipped with a device
it automatically takes over the determination, storage and regulation of the respective removal
errors that no longer affect the value of the horizontal angle.
C. Conditions that can be assured by a specialized service of the manufacturing company,
where these can be verified and rectified:
the secondary axis should be horizontal;
The prism constant must correspond to the nominal value of the set.
prism used effectively. If other prisms than the original ones are used, the constant
The time must be set from the station's menu, if a systematic error will not occur.
distance measurement;
the EDM device to emit along the axis of the sight, a condition which, in the case of a station
total with infrared radiation, is checked by pointing at a prism placed at about
The tracking measurement is started continuously, the image is focused.
the red point of the transmitter; if it is displaced by more than 1/5 of
diameter, it needs to be corrected;

38
 the verticality of the prism's support, which depends on the installation of the spherical level. It
check by placing the graduated metal stick along a vertical line drawn
on a wall using the plumb line. If the bubble of the spirit level is and remains
centered and by twisting the stick, it is correctly secured;
The conclusion drawn from the above is that current technologies
revolutionizes the construction of modern devices, and the interest in eliminating some
errors through specific devices and programs exceed the trend of reduction or
minimization of them.
The maintenance of total stations refers to a set of measures that need to be taken.
in order to permanently maintain the measurement technical characteristics at the parameters
designed, respectively for a rational and safe exploitation of them.
The user manuals include not only the way of working, but also a special chapter
reserved conditions to be respected in handling the device as well as instructions for
those who ensure its maintenance, regarding: transportation by avoiding shocks and vibrations,
respectarea condiț iilor de încărcare ș i păstrare a bateriilor de acumulatori, încadrarea în
the temperature range in which it can be used, the use of the protective umbrella in time
of heat or rain etc. The representatives of the construction companies are taking into account
failure to comply with these standards when repairs are carried out within the warranty period.
ISO (International Standard Organization) regulations contain procedures for
performance verification of the instruments both when they are new, at delivery, and after
Periodic control, through which the quality certificate is obtained. Usually for
caracteristici sunt prevăzute tehnici simple, accesibile utilizatorilor atât din punctul de
viewing of field measurements, as well as a method of processing and interpreting data.
Controlul precizieide măsurare aunghiurilorse face conformISO–17123-
2001–part 3. For horizontal angles, I use 5 test points (panel type)
set approximately homogeneously in the horizontal area, at distances between 100m and 250m.
I made 4 series of observations, each with 3 horizon turns in both positions of the telescope.
preprocesses through MCMP, resulting in the experimental standard deviation of the direction. For
vertical angles install 4 bride - test on a tall building, at about 300and it is done
a fixed number of measurements in both positions of the telescope. In both cases
The determinations must comply with the given precision standards.
Verification of the EDM device, regulated by ISO 17123–2001, part 4,
it is carried out based on measurement, in which 4 distances have been determined with an EDM
calibrated. The lengths, chosen from a range between 20 and 200m, representing those
most frequent values in practice are measured at least 4 times, corrected for influence
curvature and refraction, depending on the standard deviation, it is assessed whether the differences
obtained fall within the permissible limits or not.

1.4 Measuring angles

1.4.1. Capturing and marking signals. Measuring horizontal angles

For the correct measurement of angles, one must be well acquainted with the instrument and
the measurement methods. Knowledge of the instrument refers to the way it should be used
installed in the station, in his movements and blocks and in the detection and possible correction
of adjustment errors that may occur. The measurement methods differ depending on how it is
talk about measuring horizontal or vertical angles, once or multiple times.
A correct measurement of angles also requires knowledge of how
highlighted and punctuated the topographic signals.

39
 Measuring horizontal angles aims to determine the size of an angle.
with the tip at the station point (angle at the center with the tip at the center of the rim), whose
The edges pass through the targeted points. Measuring the angles in the vertical plane is necessary.
for determining the level differences between the station point and the targeted points.
By correctly installing the device in the station, the bringing of the tongue is ensured.
horizontal position (by sitting) and with the center on the vertical line of the mathematical point from the ground
(by centering). Through correct viewing, the axis of view is ensured to be directed towards the direction
of the signal.
The previewing and marking of a signal involve the following steps:
-the scope is aimed at a light background and the image of the threads becomes clear
adjust by rotating the eyepiece sleeve. Once clearly visible, the operation will continue
repeat only when another operator is working with the instrument;
- aims the telescope at the signal, using the collimator. When the target
the collimator overlaps with the signal image (figure 1.34a), it is blocked
the movement in the vertical and horizontal plane (aiming or 'catching the signal');
- the signal image is clearly formed in the field of the telescope by adjusting the lens of
focusing, and then using the fine movements of the instrument, the reticular thread is brought in.
vertical (which gives the line of sight direction) over the signal population ("signal marking")
figure 1.34 b).

Figure 1.34: Visualization and marking: a- signal captured in the field of the scope, b- signal
punctation, c- the visualization of the prism direction, d- the punctuating of the prism in current measurements.

The scoring method of some representative signals is presented (fig. 1.35):

a b c d

Figure 1.35: Marking some representative topographic signals: a-pyramid

topografică, b-biserică catolică, c-biserică ortodoxă, d- coș de fum

If the visa direction is indicated by a church tower (figure 1.35 b, c),

for reading at the limb, align the vertical axis with the vertical axis of the cross, and for reading at
the eclimeter measures the levels of the crossbar;

40
 if the direction is given by the vertical axis of a chimney (figure 1.35 d), it
place the vertical tangent thread on the left and right, the readings are taken and determined
average reading, cm :
c c
cm = s d [1.15]
2
The methods of measuring horizontal angles often require that, at a specific
direction, to introduce gradations of a given value (including zero). To each type of
the instrument is specific to the practical method of introducing the zero grade.
The total stations offer distinct options for measuring and recording the set.
distance - horizontal direction - vertical direction or for horizontal direction - direction
vertical.

a. Measuring an isolated horizontal angle

An isolated horizontal angle can be measured once or multiple times.
For measuring once we use the difference reading method or
zero variant in coincidence.
By the method of difference of readings, the value of the horizontal angle ASB = the
determine in the following stages (figure 1.36 and table 1.1.):

the device is installed in S,

it aims at point A with
telescope in the positionI and him
automatically notes/records the reading
the limb (e.g. cA=I 120.66.60);
with the recording movement
turn clockwise towards B (cB= I
195.14.40);
B is being re-checked with a telescope in
II
the second position is noted reading (c B=
Figure 1.36. Measuring an angle 395.14.30), which must be different
horizontal isolator from reading to B in position I with
approximately 200 gon;
II
the telescope rotates counterclockwise, and is re-sighted and memorized A(=
320.66.70)
To obtain the value of the angle (table 1.1.) first the average is calculated
the values read in the two positions of the telescope (considering the degrees in position I) and then
the difference in average readings, considering that the leveling graduations increase in a clockwise direction.

c c ;
m m
c m cAI  c  200  ;c
II
A m cBI  c  200 
II
B
1.16
B A A B
2 2

Table 1.1. Field notebook and angle calculation

Station Visa Read in language Media Formula,
Position I Position II citations results
A 120.66.60 320.66.70 120.66.65 =cBm- cA m
S
B 195.14.40 395.14.30 195.16.35 =74.49.70

In the case of zero measurements coinciding, the angle results from a procedure.
similar to the one described earlier, with the difference that, towards point A, in position I, it
introduce zero gradation. Angle calculation this method is shown in table 1.2.

41
 Table 1.2. Field notebook and angle calculation
Station Visa Reading in the language Media Formula
Position I Position II of citations results
S A 0.00.00 199.99.90 - 0.00.05 = cB-cA m
m

B 56.60.10 256.60.00 56.60.05 = 56.60.10

For measuring more options, one can use, for example, the method
rehearsal. The isolated angle (figure 1.36) is measured using the recording motion and
general direction. With the telescope in position, its recording movement is aimed and noted.
reading towards A (cA), then towards B (cB) With the general movement, keeping at the limb (cB), se
aims again towards A, the recording movement is released and it reads towards B (cB)2,
after which the operation is repeated a number of times (table 1.3.), at the "n"-th reading obtaining
the value (cB)nIt is observed that values exceeding a circle (400 gon) are
The angle value results from the relationship:

(cB) n (cA)
[1.17]
n
Table 1.3. Calculation of the horizontal angle by the repetition method
The station Visa Reading in limb Formula, results
A 317.74.50
B1 350.99.20 =(cB)5 –cA]/5
B2 384.23.80
S
B3 (4)17.48.40 = (483.97.60–317.74.50)/5 =
B4 (4)50.72.90 = 33.24.62
B5 (4)83.97.60

[Link] adjacent angles

Often it is necessary to measure the angles around a point. These are
it can be measured, as the case may be, only once (by the horizon round method) or by
multiple times (through the series method).

Figure 1.37. Adjacent angles

The horizon tour method is considered in the case shown in figure 1.37, a case for which
the measurement of the horizontal angles around point P in one single instance. The method
consists of the following stages:
on the ground
the device is installed at point P,
42
 A well-lit point is chosen as the reference visa for the horizon tour.
it is recommended that the sun be behind the operator), distant and clear, projected onto the background
open (for example the Orthodox Church of Deleni),
The telescope is brought into position I, the signal is targeted and marked, noting the reading:
178.34.40 (table 1.4, column 2) or memorizing it in the ST memory along with the code
attributed to the respective point (e.g. BDEL),
- the device rotates clockwise, the following signals are targeted and marked,
in their succession given by the clockwise progression, inscribing/memorizing the reading,
The chosen reference point is once again targeted for measurement control.
For the measurement to be correct, the error must be e. date of the difference between readings
control (of closure) and initial reading (of departure) should not exceed a certain
tolerance, given by the relationship:
T = mo n [1.18]

where mo represents the measurement precision of the instrument and 'n' is the number of sights in
the horizon tour. For the chosen case (m0= 20cc, n=7), it follows that T = 53cc,
- the sight is moved to position II, aimed at, and pointed at the chosen point as
reference. The operation is successively repeated for all visas, but while going through the horizon tour.
in reverse chronological order (the data is recorded in the notebook from bottom to top - table 1.4., column 3).
The horizon tour ends by returning to the initial point, when it is checked whether
non-closure is tolerable,
at the desk
the averages of the readings are calculated, taking the grades from position I (column 4),
- the error of the horizon turn is calculated by comparing the values read towards the target
references made initially and to the closing of the round (e -20cc T= 53cc,
the total correction and the unit correction (which corresponds to each angle) are determined: c -e
= + 20cc, cu = - e /n = 20cc/7 3cc;
the horizontal tour compensates, that is, the average reading of departure is equalized from
position I with that of closure. The distribution of corrections is done proportionally to the number of
order to the visa (column 5)

Table 1.4. Field Notebook and Horizon Tour Compensation

Visa Reading in limb Reading Corec- The value Angle
Position I Poziț ia II media youcc ) compensated horizontal
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Twice. Orthodox. Division 178.34.40 378.34.30 178.34.35 00 178.34.35 45.25.93
MăguraDeleni 223.60.20 23.60.30 223.60.25 03 223.60.28 43.59.93
Bis. Delenii Noi 267.20.00 67.20.30 267.20.15 06 267.20.21 35.73.33
Signal R 24 302.93.40 102.93.50 302.93.45 09 302.93.54 35.15.62
Popii Hill 338.09.00 138.09.10 338.09.05 11 38.09.16 84.48.68
CastelapăIAS 22.57.60 222.57.80 22.57.70 14 22.57.84 102.96.18
Catholic Bishop. 125.53.70 325.54.00 125.53.85 17 125.54.02 52.80.33
Bis. Place. Division 178.34.10 378.34.20 178.34.15 20 178.34.35 -
Check - - - - - 400.00.00
e = 178.34.15-178.34.35 =-20cc; c = + 20cc ; m0= 20cc; T = 20 7= 53cc ; e T ;
cu 3cc, ci, = icu

The compensated values are calculated by summing the correction attributed to each visa.
with the average score for the respective visa. As a check, the same must be obtained.
value for starting and ending the horizon tour (column 6)

43
 the value of the horizontal angle between two sights is determined by the difference
compensated average readings. It is checked whether the sum of the angles is equal to 400 gon
(column 7).

The series method (of reiterations) is actually the horizon tour method applied.
multiple times the same directions, each time with a different origin in the tongue.
The field operations and calculations are the same as those described earlier: each
reiteration is treated as a sweep. The corrected average is reduced to zero by subtraction
from all visas of the average reading value of origin. The angles for each horizon turn
are obtained by the difference of the readings for two consecutive gauges, while the final values
represents the average of the angles from each horizon.
Table 1.5 presents a series consisting of two horizontal rounds (n = 2),
for which a Sokkisha SDF3R instrument was used (precision = 20cc) For this
tip, i = 400g/2 = 200g.

Table 1.5 Field notebook and compensation by the series method

Rei- Punct Read in the language Quote. Cor. Reading Cit. red. Val. Media
ter. vizat Poz. I Pos. II average (cc) correct. at zero angle angle
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
[Link] 178.34.40 378.34.30 178.34.35 00 178.34.35 0.00.00 45.25.93
MgDeleni 223.60.20 23.60.30 223.60.25 03 223.60.28 45.25.93 43.59.93
[Link] 267.20.00 67.20.30 267.20.15 06 267.20.21 88.85.86 35.73.33
I R 24 302.93.40 102.93.50 302.93.45 09 302.93.54 124.59.19 35.15.62
D-l Popii 338.09.00 138.09.10 338.09.05 11 38.09.16 159.74.81 84.48.68
[Link] 22.57.60 222.57.80 22.57.70 14 22.57.84 244.23.49 102.96.18
BCat Del. 125.53.70 325.54.00 125.53.85 17 125.54.02 347.19.67 52.80.33
[Link] 178.34.10 378.34.20 178.34.15 20 178.34.35 (40)0.00.00 ( =400g
B [Link] 378.74.70 378.34.60 378.34.65 0 378.34.65 0.00.00 45.25.91 45.25.92
MgDeleni 23.60.60 223.60.55 23.60.58 -2 23.60.56 45.25.91 43.59.90 43.59.91
[Link] 67.20.50 267.20.50 67.20.50 -4 67.20.46 88.85.81 35.73.36 35.73.35
II R 24 102.93.50 302.93.85 102.93.88 -6 102.93.82 124.59.17 35.15.60 35.15.61
D-l Popii 138.09.50 338.09.50 138.09.50 -8 138.09.42 159.74.77 84.48.70 84.48.69
[Link] 222.58.20 22.58.25 222.58.22 -10 222.58.12 244.23.47 102.96.19 102.96.18
BCat Del. 325.54.45 125.54.40 325.54.43 -12 325.54.31 347.19.66 52.80.34 52.80.34
[Link] 378.34.80 178.34.80 378.34.80 -15 378.34.65 0.00.00 ( 400g ( 400g
e 1= - 20cc, c = + 20cc ; e 2= + 15 ; c 2= -15 ; T = 53
cc cc cc

Note: Sokkisha SDM3F device, (m0= 20cc), I= 1.67m, clear weather, warm, very good visibility

Lesson 5

1.4.2 Measuring vertical angles

Vertical angles result from a single sight, as the other one is

always carried out by the device (usually: the zenith direction). There are situations in which,
depending on the required precision, the angles in the vertical plane can also be measured quickly.
using simpler tools.

a. Measurement using theodolites, tachymeters or ST

Given the grading method of the ecliptometer, angles are usually measured.
Zenithal, z. At ST there is also the option to select for measuring the angle of
inclination, The measurement of vertical angles is done in the position I and II of the telescope.
44
 In the case of measuring at short distances (under 400m) with a classic tachymeter, there
use vertical stand. The measurement stages are: (figure 1.38a):

a b
Figure 1.38. Measuring vertical angles at short distances: a- with the total station and stadia,
b- with ST and milestone+prism

The device is installed in A and the height I is measured up to the secondary axis (of
ex. I = 1.73m);
With the sight in position I, the vertical stage is targeted from point 'B', leading the thread.
level on the grading of the stage equal to I(1.73), the line of sight becoming parallel to the line.
of the land
- the operation is repeated in the second position and it is checked if the sum of the values
from the two positions is approximately 400 gon.
Using an ST and a hollow assembly - prism (figure 1.38b), the steps are:
ST is installed in A, at the height entered in memory.
With the telescope in position I, the vertical prism target from B, installed by
custom at another height, hp ≠ hi, leading the thread of the levels on the center of the prism (in this case
the visa line is not parallel to the ground line
The operation is repeated with the telescope in position II.

In the case of long distances (over 400m), specific signals are targeted, leading
the levels of elevations precisely specified, as shown in figure 1.35: at the part
the upper part of the butterfly - in the case of the pyramids, the upper part of the bulb in which it is
embedded cross-in the case of church spires, or at the upper part of the chimneys
high, when these represent signals. For the ST case, it can be used as signals and
prism assembly (or prism panel) + marker (see figure 1.20).

Rapid measurement of terrain inclinations

For measuring the tilt of the ground, some less common measurements are used.
rigorous, but convenient and quick, that meet the precision requirements. The tools
the templates are simple and easy to use, their construction principle being based on
the suspension of a vertical graduated circle, which acts as the ecliptometer.
To determine the inclination of the ground between two points A and B (figure 1.39),
the operator located at A looks through the instrument's collimator towards B, at an equal height
with its own, appreciated with the help of another operator of the same height, or on a
stake, pillar, tree. In this way, the parallelism between the line of sight and the line is ensured.
of the land. The accuracy of determination depends primarily on the realization of this
parallelism.

45
 Figure 1.39. Expeditious measurement of land inclination: top - principle,
classic and digital clinometer

Among the most commonly used instruments are mentioned:

classic clisimeters (figure 1.39), which are small in size (on the order of 10
cm, weighing a few hundred grams). The model in the figure has a graduated drum on which
gradations are usually registered on two scales: one that offers the inclination in degrees, the other in
1%).
percentage, with a precision of
digital clinometer, where the tilt of the view can be read directly on a display
slope or angle form, expressed in percentages.

1.4.3. The precision of measuring angles

The operation of measuring the horizontal angle is affected by a series of errors,

with an effect on the value obtained. The causes of errors are various: instrumental, of
operator, of the environment. Errors due to small imperfections of classical instruments are
can be removed by rectification and by working in both positions of the scope. The most significant effect
the influence on the values resulting from measurements is: the centering error at the station
(mcs) of visa (mv), of reading the graduations (mcand for signal installation (msThe error
total, m , this is the date of the relationship:

m (mcs)2 (mv)2 (mc)2 (ms )2 [1.19]

Since the horizontal angle results from two sights, the error propagates according to the relation:

mu m 2 2 (mcs)2 (mv )2 (mc)2 (ms)2 [1.20]

For the angle measured in the position of the second aperture of the telescope, the error reduces, after
the relationship
mu
mu,2 1.21
2

The effect of the centering error in the station has been studied previously [1.3.6]; it decreases.
as the distance to the target point increases. The targeting error depends on the power of

46
increase of the scope and the distance to the target point: it decreases as the point is
I removed it. The reading error of the graduations, applicable to the case of the instruments
classics, where the reading is done by the operator, depends largely on experience
This is directly related to the type of reading system.

Figure 1.40 Installation error of the signal relative to the terminal: a - signal assembly
centered terminals, b - eccentric signal projection relative to the terminal, c - calculation elements of
signal installation error

Regarding the errorsthis refers to the fact that the projection onto the ground of the pole
The topographic signal, in the direction of which it is aimed, can be different from the vertical.
the mathematical point of the boundary, which represents the sought direction (figure 1.40a, b). If
the orientation of the direction marker - signal (figure 1.40c) is well known, B-S and the distance between
terminal and signal, DB-S, the value of this error can be determined, and its effect on
The size of the horizontal angle can be eliminated by switching the direction from the signal to
terminal. If, for example, this signal is aimed from A, with the geometric elements
it can highlight the size of the error. The value of the correction to be made to the visa from A
In triangle A-B, B results from the sine theorem.s-Bb:

sin sin DBS

; cc cc
sin , [1.22]
DBS D D

where DB-S represents the distance between the marker in Bș and the signal projection, measured in
a field with a ruler, D is the distance between points A and B (calculated from coordinates),
resulting from the difference in orientations (determined with a pocket compass or a declinator),
cc cc
this is the factor of homogenization of relationships = 636620cc). If, for example: DB-S =
g c
0.12 m = 122 31 , D = 9670m, it results:
0.15
cc
636620 sin122.31 9cc.
9670

So, in order to transfer the visa from the signal in B to the terminal in B, the direction must
modified by + 9 seconds.

1.5. Magnetic goniometers (compasses) and topographic squares

1.5.1. Terrestrial Magnetism

Experience has shown that, overall, the Earth behaves like a magnet.
giant two poles, N and S (fig. 1.41). The direction of the magnetic field lines is given by

47
magnetic meridians that connect the poles. Compasses are instruments that contain a needle.
sensitive magnetic field and able to orient along the field lines. Due to
convergence meridians
magnetic towards the poles, and the directions
indicate the magnetic declination
convergent. For small areas, of
on the order of 2-3 km, it can be approximated
that the magnetic needle remains parallel to
itself; under these conditions the use
the buckle is possible.
In the horizontal plane
point P on the surface
the earth can be found (figure
1.42.a):
the geographical meridian (Mg)
Figure 1.41 The Earth with the position of the poles
determined by the plane that passes through
geographic magnets the two geographical poles and the point
considerate
- the meridian magnetic
(Mm), determined by the plane that passes through the axis of the magnetic needle installed at point P and
the two magnetic poles. With the notations in the figure, the magnetic declination is defined, care
this is the horizontal angle formed in P by the geographical and magnetic meridian.
In the vertical plane, a magnetic needle suspended (figure 1.42b) is acted upon by
the intensity vector of the magnetic field, I, with its two components: H, horizontal
(directs the needle in the direction of the magnetic meridian) and V, vertical, which tends to incline
magnetic field with an angle "i" relative to the horizontal of the place. The angle "i" is called angle
of magnetic inclination. Both the declination angle and the magnetic inclination angle have
variable values.

a. b.
Figure 1.42. Elements of the magnetic field: a-in the horizontal plane, b-in the vertical plane

The magnetic declination exhibits variations:

- secular, which are slow over time, although important in value (during a
measurement campaigns variation does not exceed a few minutes, which can be neglected);
annual, which are especially important in the years when spot phenomena occur
solar (can reach values of approximately 70c/an);
lunar, due to the variable characteristics of the magnetic field intensity,
the maximum values of the variation being in July, while the minimums are in April, with values of
around 10c;
daytime, which are the most important, as they affect precision
the measurements taken during a working day. The maximum values of the variation are
It reaches 20-30 during the summer months, between 8 AM and 2 PM.c;
accidental, caused by magnetic storms, by the presence of some
ferrous minerals in the workplace or objects that contain iron (railways, poles
48
electricity, overhead and underground power lines, etc.). In these cases, the compass becomes
unusable.
Figure 1.43 presents the variation of magnetic declination at the level of Europe. It
Note that, under normal conditions, at our leveling, one can rely on a value.
average of 40est.

Figure 1.43. Variation of declination at the European level

The magnetic inclination varies with latitude, the component

the vertical is minimum at the poles and maximum at the Equator. Since the magnetic needle must be
oscillate in the horizontal plane of the place, the force V (variable with latitude) that acts
on the northern part (n) of the needle is balanced with a counterweight, sliding on the side
south (s).

1.5.2. Compasses

The compasses are instruments that primarily serve to orient the operator in
the conditions in which there are no other reference points in the field. There are classic, simple models
electronic (pocket), as well as actual topographic instruments, used in the past,
primarily in the forest fund.
Classic pocket compasses, simple, without lenses, are widely used.
used in topography for orienting the operator in the field, for orientation
plans or maps or for orienting the direction marker - signal projection in case of
signals that do not project to the ground at the terminal. The principle diagram of such a
The compass is shown in figure 1.44. The needle is suspended centrally on a well-pointed pivot.
sharp and hard (diamond chisel) and oscillates in front of a fixed, graduated dial. The needle is
left the pivot to oscillate only during the measurements; otherwise, through screw 8, the needle is
He/she lifts and presses against the protective window.

49
 b c
Figure 1.44. Pocket compass: a-section, b-top view, compass
1-geam protecț ie, 2-cutie, 3- ac magnetic, 4- cadranul cercului 5- contragreutate, 6-ș apă, 7- pivot,
8-locking screw, 9, 10 collimator elements

Electronic (digital) models consist of strings of magnetic sensors.

resistiveMR, electric signal amplifiers, a set/reset type circuit and a
microprocessor capable of detecting the horizontal component of the magnetic field (figure
1.45a). The LCD display shows the orientation, in numerical form or as an arrow.
oriented (fig. 1.45b, c).
It is important for pocket compasses to be horizontal during use, each one.
slope degree can introduce a two-degree error in reading the direction.
The precision of determining orientation with digital compasses depends on sensitivity.
the sensors, often reaching 10c(0,1gon).
Topographic compasses are instruments that have as main components
the ambush, telescope, clinometer, and the compass itself. From a construction standpoint, they have
those with a disc were predominantly used. These are called compass theodolites because

Figure 1.45. Electronic (digital) compasses: a - construction principle, b, c - models

with different ways of displaying orientation

50
 to a graduated circular disc that can rotate
in horizontal plane. On the lower side of
a magnetized rod is mounted on the disc,
the disc is oriented in the magnetic field.
Among the compass types with a disc, the most
the Wild T0 compass is widespread (figure
1.46), which was used for a long time in
specific measurements of the forest fund.
Centralized reading, and the horizontal circle
the gradat (disc) can be used as a piece
magnetic, when left free to
oscillate on a pivot, or like a tongue, when it is
blocked from lever 3. On the lower side
Figure 1.46 Wild TO1 compass - plate a cercului gradat se găse ș te o tijă
flexible, 2-screw rider, 3-lever locking magnetized. If the disc is suspended,
["excuse me","4- image switch","5- rectification screw"] the zero grade is automatically brought to
eclimetru, 6-microscop citire, 7-fereastră the direction of magnetic north.
illumination disc, 8-fine screw movement scope, 9-
["sight","10 - leveling scope","11 - locking screw"]
scope, 12 - collimator

1.5.3. Checking and correcting compasses. Precautionary measures for their use.

To work correctly, the compass must meet the following conditions:

it should be located in an area where, to indicate the direction of magnetic north,
to exist only under the influence of the Earth's magnetic field;
the movable part (the needle or the magnetized disc) should be in good working condition.
Avoiding the use of the compass in the case of accidental influences that disturb
The terrestrial magnetic field aims to correctly indicate the direction of magnetic north.
Thus, during the use of the compass, metal objects that may be present should be removed.
on the operator and could influence the position of the needle (axe, markers, nails, keys).
It is also necessary to maintain some distances between the compass and a series of details:
- 40 m from the high voltage power lines and tall buildings with
reinforced concrete structure
70 m from single railway lines and 100 m from double railway lines.
- 15 m from metal poles;
- 10 m from metal fences;
If there could also be magnetic influences that we cannot see with the eye.
liber (ferrous metal deposits, metal conductors, underground electrical cables), is
It's good to verify this work by measuring in the area of use of the compass for direct orientation.
and reverse between two points located at 30-40m. If the differences from ± 200 gon (or ±
1800they are tolerable, for example within a margin of 200we can use the tool. If it
large deviations of the magnetic needle are observed, it is recommended to contact the center of
observation of the magnetism in the area, to see if during that period
magnetic storms have been recorded.
The verification of the classic compass as an instrumentation tool shows that it is good for
work. The needle or the compass disc is removed from the balanced position with the help of an object
feros. After the disturbance is removed, the way in which the return is made is monitored.
the gradient at which it is in balance.
If the return to the right of the gradient is done through slow, slightly damped oscillations,
It means that the needle is not sufficiently desensitized, due to the fact that it has demagnetized. In this
because the needle needs to be remagnetized using appropriate methods.

51
 If the needle oscillations are sudden, with discontinuities or in jumps, it means that
the axle is not sufficiently demobilized due to the pivot suspension. In this case, the adjustment
constă în refacerea/schimbarea ș apei la un atelier de specialitate. Pentru a preveni
the deterioration of the contact between the needle and the pivot, it is mandatory that during transport
instrumentului acul să fie blocat, prin ridicarea de pe pivot.
If the needle is not at the same level during the rebound oscillations,
the horizontal edges of the compass dial, then it is not well balanced.
The adjustment is made by operating the slider on the welding arm (position 5 in figure 1.44)
until balancing.

1.5.4. Measurement of orientations

Determining the magnetic orientation for any direction can be done using a
a compass or a declinator.
Because topographic compasses are no longer used today, it is shown how
of measuring the orientation θSAwith a pocket compass. The operation involves
the following stages (figure 1.47a):
the horizontal compass is placed at point S,
The direction is viewed through the collimator, the graduated dial is rotated until
The "0" (N) gradient is also directed towards point A;
The reading is taken at the north end of the needle. Since the gradation is made in direction
topographic inverse, the value read represents the orientation of the SA direction.

a b c
Figure 1.47. Measuring magnetic orientation: a- with the compass, b- with the declinator,
c- declinator installed on a total station

If the declinator is used, it is mounted in a special device on

a fork of the alidade, so that the axis of the tube containing the magnetic needle is in a
a vertical plane, parallel to the vertical plane in which the telescope pivots (figure 1.47b).
The stages of measuring the direction orientation SA (θ)SA) are:
the theodolite/ tachymeter is installed at station S;
- the grade "0" is introduced to the tongue and the recorder movement is blocked;
with the general movement, the device rotates until the needle of the declinator points
it is directed towards magnetic north (its ends are seen in coincidence,
It follows that the grade '0' is also directed towards true north;
- the recorder movement is unlocked and the point A is targeted; at the limb
read directly the magnetic bearing of direction SA, since the direction of grade 0 is towards
Magnetic north..

52
1.6 GONIOMETER FOR FIXED ANGLES (TOPOGRAPHIC SQUARES)

Topographic plans are simple instruments that are generally used for
the construction of right angles, being used for the raising and lowering of perpendiculars.
Due to the simple way they are built, the levels can only work on land.
approximately horizontal and over relatively short distances (80–100m). They are rarely used in practice.
in current topographic activity, but they can be useful in situations where determinations are required
simple, expeditive, of low precision

1.6.1. Tipuri. Schemăconstructivă, mod de folosire

Construct, distinguished with a pair / with two pairs of mirrors.

prism. It is of interest in the presentations with a pair of prisms.
They are composed of two overlapping pentagonal prisms, set in a frame.
it ends with a device to which a lead wire or a stick can be attached
of verticalization (figure 1.48a). The arrangement of the prisms is done in such a way that, when viewed from the front, one
bend the light rays at a right angle to the left, and the other at a right angle
to the right. Each pentagonal prism (Brandt type) has uncoated faces facing each other.
perpendicular, and the extended silver ones form a 45-degree angle o(figure 1.48b). Between
The two prisms have a free space (gap) through which the gaze passes undisturbed.

Figure 1.48. Thought with a pair of prisms a- constructive types, b- optical scheme

The point of incidence is noted with I and the angle of incidence is noted with r.
refraction (i at the transition from a less dense medium - air - to another denser one -
glass - refraction occurs with approach to the normal from I). Point E is noted
emergency and with you the formed angles for the same reasons, the exit is made with
deviation from normal in E). Considering that (figure 1.48b) α + β = 450(external angle)
in L for triangle GFL) and that 2(α + β) = 900it results in γ = 900and that in H there are angles
killed. Writing the sum of the angles in the quadrilateral AEHI results in:

90o+(90o+e) + 90o(90o-r) = 360o 1.23

and thus that e = r. If the law of refraction is written at points I and E:

53
 here sin
n ; n 1.24
sinr sine
it follows that i = The sum of the angles in the quadrilateral AEMI (M is at the intersection of the direction
incident with emergency} is written:

90o+ (90o-i ) + (180o- ) + (90o+ ) = 360o [1.25]

As i = it results that the incident ray and the emerging ray form a right angle 90o).

The topographic operations that can be performed with the set square are (fig.1.49):
the positioning of a point D on the given alignment AB, in which case the operator is
move with the square transversely in this direction, until the images of the markers from
A and B overlap in the two prisms, on the same vertical (fig. 1.49a);
the dropping of a perpendicular from point C, given, on the alignment AB,
marked on the ground (fig.1.49b), when the operator moves with the square along
the alignment of AB, but also perpendicular, until the two beacons from A and B, seen
the prism and the one from C viewed through the slit appear in extension
the raising of a perpendicular from point P on the alignment AB when, in the set square
Install here, the two stakes from A and B overlap, and the one from C is moved.
of help until all three are seen in extension, as in the previous case.
The precision of constructing right angles using triangular squares is ±2.c,
which limits their use to 70-80m and only in approximately
horizontal. The opportunity to use rulers is, in turn, justified by
the assured yield, standing out in the construction layout works, not being
exclude even in the simple lifting (surveying). In both cases, the use of squares
it is limited to the mentioned conditions.

Fig. 1.49. Use of the topographic ruler: a- alignment arrangement, b- elevation

(descent) of perpendiculars

54
Self-assessment test on chapter 1: Measuring angles

It should be defined through explanations and drawings:

the horizontal angle of two directions (vanes),
direct and reverse orientation,
the vertical angles and the relationship between them,
the structural schema of the theodolites, tachymeters or total stations (TS), with the axes
and their circles,
the movements of the theodolites around the vertical axis,
image formation module in the astronomical telescope
-the role of the reticle in the scope,
the magnification power and the field of the telescope,
the sensitivity of the level,
the role of the lead thread,
the role of the reading system,
- the role of the reflective prism and the ST marker,
the capturing and marking when viewing topographic signals
the principle of rapid measurement of vertical angles,
magnetic declination
optical scheme of the topographic ruler

List, describe, and schematically draw the main and secondary parts of a
theodolite or classic tachymeter.
List and explain the steps for setting up a theodolite at a station.
Explain the measures that are taken to reduce the effect of centering error in the station.
Explain the role of the compensator in ST.
Describe the role that electronic components play in the operation of ST.
Enumeraț i caracteristicile bateriei ST.
Provide examples where emission-reception stations attached to the ST can be useful.
Show the steps for measuring an isolated horizontal angle only once.
Explain in drawing the steps for measuring and calculating adjacent angles in a tour.
horizon.
List the sources of errors in angle measurement and the measures taken for
the reduction
Describe and draw the pocket compass.
What are the requirements that a compass must meet to be suitable for
work?
List the precautionary measures to consider when measuring with a compass.
Explain how to use a set square to drop perpendiculars.

55
Lesson 6

CHAPTER 2 MEASURING DISTANCES

Objectives of Chapter II
Measuring distance is a basic operation in surveying, serving together with
the measurement of angles in defining the position of points in a plane and in space. Among
the distances listed as basic elements of the ground figure i.1 in the introduction, in
In this chapter, we deal with measuring inclined distances and the reduced distance to the horizon.
In principle, distances can be measured directly or indirectly. Direct measurement
it involves measuring the distance and applying an instrument over it
measurement. Indirect measurement refers to determining the distance without traversing it, but through
determination of other elements that are in a calculation relationship with the sought distance. In
In this context, the distance can be determined optically (using a graduated ruler and a
topographic instrument that has a reticular plan with stadimetric threads in the telescope) and through
where (instruments capable of emitting, receiving, and analyzing certain parameters of
of the emitted waves).
The instruments described in this chapter are diverse and of different generations.
they are all equally widespread in current activity, but even the least used in
presents are interesting for showcasing some principles that were, at one point,
considerate revolutionary. Also, tools that are not presented
destined exclusively for topographic activities, but which are very useful in measurement
distances.
The distance measurement methods include the mandatory steps to follow for
Each situation. The sources of errors and the method of propagation are analyzed in each case.
of errors, being highlighted the measures that must be taken to limit
the effect of them on the measurement result

2.1. Direct measurement of distances

2.1.1. Instruments for direct measurement of distances

In topographic work, tape measures are used for the direct measurement of distances.
often built from special steels.
Ropes of lengths 2m, 10m, 20m, 30m, 50m are used for measurement.
short distances, of the heights of the topographic signals or the device at the station. They are
steel strip, with a guaranteed nominal length of 200C. It wraps on forks with
handle and locking lever, possibly protected by a casing (figure 2.1).
The division of the ruler is done in centimeters and millimeters, and the numbering is done
for each decimeter by indicating the number of meters and decimeters. It is very
It is important to know what the gravitational position "0" is, which can be at the end of the line.
stretch or at a certain distance from the end.
The straps are made of steel band and have a length of 50m or 100m.
guaranteed at 200C. Newly manufactured parts can be lighter, made from fiber of
glass.

56
 Figure 2.1 Rulers of different lengths, with metal tape (I, II, III - possible
positions cheerleading zero

2.1.2. Measuring distances with a tape

In ordinary work, for small distances, the distance can be obtained directly.
horizontal, integral or in sections, without dividing into sections of continuous slope,
using a well-stretched tape measure and a plumb line or another vertical reference (fig. 2.2 a,b). When
the terrain is flat and smooth (asphalted roads, other arranged surfaces), the distance can be
the measure is slightly curved. It counts the number of laps with an integrating device
mechanical or electronic (fig. 2.2c), which can be reset to zero or can accumulate
the measured distances.

Figure 2.2 Direct measurement: a, b - over short distances, with the tape measure stretched out, horizontal
with the wheel, on flat and smooth surfaces

In the case of large distances, the basic condition that must be met during measurement
The direct measurement of distances is that the operation should only be done on continuous slope sections.
Practically, direct measurement is performed in order to determine the reduced distance to the horizon.
going through the following steps in the field:
a) marking of alignments. It is mandatory for lengths that exceed 3-
400mș i constă în aranjarea de jaloane, aflate în planul vertical al punctelor de capăt.
The role of the benchmark is to maintain the direction given by the points during the measurement.
end, avoiding exits from alignment. If the operator positions themselves at one of the ends
the distance to be measured (marked by vertical markers), the marking is done for itself.
example towards A– (in figure 2.3), so that the vertical markers from 1, 2, ... are in the same
plan.
b) the clearing of the land along the alignment consists of the possible removal of some
obstacles (shrub or herbaceous vegetation, small obstacles), for the purpose of being able to
make a good stretch of the ribbon.

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 [V] 2 1
3
5 4
7
6
B
8

Figure 2.3. Self-referencing (A) of long alignments.

c) dividing the distance into sections of continuous slope (figure 2.4). Delimitation
The stakings for any plot of land are made through stakes 1, 2 ..., thus fulfilling the requirement.
basic stated.

Figure 2.4. Division of the alignment into sections of continuous slope

d) measuring the necessary elements: inclined lengths and vertical angles.

This is done for each previously delineated panel. The distances are measured from two
ori (forward and backward), stretching the ribbon eventually with the help of metal clips on
the benchmark alignment. The vertical angles are measured with a surveying instrument with
Ecliptometer (tachymeter, compass, theodolite), by aiming at a stage at the height of the device.
e) application of corrections to the measured distances, if necessary.
The calibration correction is applied if, when comparing the length of the tape with a standard, there are
detect differences. These differences are actually systematic errors, acting on
the result of the measurement for each application of the ribbon. The effect of systematic error can be
eliminated, if it is detected. Its value for an application of the tool is
determines the difference between the length of the ribbon and that of the comparison (reference):

es.u.= LribbonLstandard [2.1]

The error made in applying the ribbon over the entire distance 'l' is:
l
es.t. es.u. es.u. n [2.2]
L pang

The correction that needs to be made for the removal of the effect of the error on
the result is:

ct= - es.t. [2.3]

the corrected length is determined by the relationship:

lcor= l + ct [2.4]

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 Temperature correction is applied in the case of high-precision measurements.
when the temperature-considered constant-is different from the calibration one (20 0C).
The elongation of the ribbon (correction) at a different temperature is given by the relationship:

l = l0(t–to) 2.5

where the coefficient of thermal expansion of steel (1.23x10-5graduate-1), l0this is the length
the calibration temperature tot is the working temperature. The above relationship written
for the specific case of a 50m steel ribbon is:

t t 0
l mm 3 [2.6]
50

that is, the ribbon deforms by 3mm for every 50Difference from temperature
calibration of 200C. The total correction to be applied to the measurement of the entire distance "l" is:
ct=n l mm t  t 0 03 l , [2.7]
5 Lpang

the corrected length is determined by the relationship [2.4].

f) the reduction of distances on the horizon, for the case of the land in figure 2.4., consists of
in determining horizontal distancesifor each section and their summation:

di= lisine zi, D = d1+d2+ d3 [2.8]

2.1.3. The accuracy of direct distance measurements

Direct measurements of distances are accompanied by errors or even mistakes.

The errors can be systematic or random. The systematic ones are dangerous.
because it propagates according to the law of multiplication, potentially exceeding tolerances.
In the specific case discussed, the most dangerous systematic errors are those of calibration.
it is detected by comparing the ruler with a standard. Random errors can be
provocation of slight deviations from alignment, variable temperature during
measurements, the stretching of the instrument with unequal forces. The reduction of the effect of these
errors regarding the result are made in accordance with the measurement conditions.
Under these conditions, one can rely on average accuracy values of 1-3cm at 100m.
measure in the case of using steel tapes, in flat, horizontal areas. Precision
it falls along with the slope of the land.
Direct measurements with a tape measure or ribbons over long distances are rarely performed.

2.2. MEASUREMENT OF DISTANCES USING OPTICAL PECULATION

2. 2.1. Measurement with tachymeters and stadimeters

The measurement of distances by optical means is currently becoming increasingly rare,

they have occupied, as a share, the first place in current measurements for decades and decades.
The measurement is done with the help of an instrument equipped with a scope and a ruler.
graduate. In case of measuring the distance between two points, is installed
at one point the instrument and at the other the graduated ruler, the instrument is called

59
tacheometer; if the graduated ruler is contained in the device, it is called
telemetry
Tachymeters, instruments rarely in current use, are equipped with a telescope.
special (of the Porro type), which contains a fixed analyzer lens (analytical telescope), mounted
so that its focus, O, is between the objective lens and the focus of the objective, O’ (figure
The image created by the analyzer at O is real and is located between the focus.
of the objective and objective, the latter forms a virtual image in C (center of
The constructive elements of the scope are chosen in such a way that the center of
the analatism should be found on the main axis of the instrument, VV'.
The case of determining the horizontal distance between point A, as a point of
station and point B, where a vertical staff (stadia, sight) is installed. If it is aimed at the staff at a
Height equal to that of the instrument, then the sight axis is perpendicular to the staff. In figure 2.5.
the notations have the following meaning: F – the focal distance of the objective lens, e – the distance between the objective and
analyzer - the distance between the objective and the principal axis, f - the focal length of the analyzer lens, h - the distance
between the upper stadimetric line and the lower one on the reticulated plane, h' - the projection of the distance h on the lens
objective, H - the projection of distance h on the stage, D' - the distance between the objective lens and stage, d (or dAB)–
the distance to be measured, between axis VV' and the stadia.
For the case in the figure, the distance d (horizontal) between A and B is:

d = D' + [2.9]

Figure 2.5. Diagram of determining the basic relationship in tachymeters

The expression of the distance as a function of H, which can be read on the stage, and of elements is pursued.
known constructive features of the telescope. From the similarity of triangles Ca'b' and Ca''b'' it follows:

d H
;d 2.10
H h' h'

Sizes and h' are conveniently replaced, depending on known elements. From the similarity
the triangles opposite to the vertex in O result:
h f h
decisive  e f  2.11
he's f f

The relationship of the lenses:

1 1 1
2.12
x1 x2 f

written for the objective lens, with x1object-lens distance, x2lens distance – image, focal distance F
and which creates a virtual image (-) becomes successively:

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 1 1 1 1F e  f F(e f)
 ; deci: [2.13]
e f F F(e f) F e f

Replacing the final expressions from [2.11] and [2.13] in [2.10] results in:

F(e f)f Ff
d H H kH [2.14]
(F e  f)h(e f) h(F e f)

The value 'k' is called a stadimetric constant and its value depends only on
constructive elements of the scope. The constructive elements are chosen wisely and provide
for a round value, most often 100 or, less commonly, 50 or 200. The relationship [2.14]
this is only valid in the case where the axis of the visa is perpendicular to the stage, when
it can be written:

d = kH = 100H [2.15]

The basic relationship [2.15] allows the determination of the distance as a function of distance H.
of the stadimetric threads projected on the stadium, called the generator number.

Measuring distances using stadia instruments. In principle, measuring

The distances with tachymeters and stadimeters involve determining the generator number and a
series of specific calculations. The general case is that of an arbitrary land.
The generator number is determined on graduated vertical scales - stages or sights
(figure 2.6). They are made of wood or aluminum-based alloys, and have lengths of 3
After 4 meters, they are foldable to 1m, 1.5m, or 2m. The graduation is in centimeters, on a white background, with
contrasting colors that alternate every whole meter. The bride is inscribed on
decimeters; within them, centimeters are most often grouped in sets of 5, under formalities
And to facilitate reading the generator number.

Figure 2.6. Stages (targets) used in topography

In the case of a vertical stage installed at point j (figure 2.7c), the number
the generator is determined by aiming with the thread of the levels at the height of the device (for example
1.60m - figure 2.7.a) and then bringing the fine movement of the stadimetric wire into the vertical plane
inferior to the nearest decimetric grade (at 1.50m in figure 2.7.b). The number
the generator is read between the two stadimetric wires placed on the vertical reticular wire,
counting on the stage the whole decimeters and centimeters and estimating the millimeters (H = 12.4cm)

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 Figure 2.7. Measuring distance with stadimetric tachymeters: a - position of the threads
stadimetric when measuring the vertical angle, b - the position of the stadimetric wires for
measuring the distance, c-calculation elements in vertical plane

The reduction of distances to horizons means that the basic relationship is valid only
for the case when the line of sight is perpendicular to the stage. In any terrain (fig.
2.7 c) the condition is not met and consequently the intercepted generator number MN
the distance between the stadimetric wires on the vertical stages is greater. In the context of the basic relationship,
the generator number M'N' could be read on a hypothetical stage, perpendicular to the sight
(figure 2.8c) and, with its help, the inclined distance is determined:

N'M' = NMcos ij= Hcos ij Hsinzij [2.16a];

lij= 100Hcos ij= 100Hsinzij [2.16b]

The reduced distance to the horizon results similarly:

dij=ijcos ij= 100Hcos2 ijsauce dij= lijsinzij= 100Hsin2zij [2.17]

The level difference between points i and j is:

d ij
zij= dijtg ij= dijctgzij = [2.18]
tgzij

2.2.2. The Bala device with the theodolite

This is an example of parallax measurement of distances (figure 2.8 a).

The Bala device is a special host, and the measurement is done with a theodolite, with which
the angle 2 is measured in the field The stadium is built from a material that practically does not
There are variations in length with temperature variations (invar) and the length is exactly 2m.
(figure 2.8 b). The theodolite is mounted on a tripod in a horizontal position and perpendicular to
visa direction.
Knowing angle 2 , the horizontal distance is given by the relationship:

d = 1m ctg [2.19]

The horizontal distance for angle 2 is directly obtained. it represents the dihedral angle
to the vertical planes that contain the two views directed towards the reference points, that is
horizontal angle.

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 Figure 2.8. The Bala device: a - measurement principle, b - Bala standings

2.2.3. The precision of optical distance measurements

Mistakes can occur during measurement, primarily due to carelessness.

the operator who reads the values or the assistant who records the data in the notebook. They can
detect only by reading the values with control (e.g. in both positions of the scope). In
in cases where the errors were not detected in the field through control, it is necessary to redo
measurements.
The errors are mainly due to reading the generator number and non-verticality.
stadiest. One can rely on an accuracy of ±(20–25)cm/100m, in horizontal terrains.
On the Bala device, the errors are mainly those committed during the washing of the base.
horizontal and the horizontal angle 2 If the angle is read with a theodolite (with precision
reading of ±2cc) it can be counted with accuracy of ± (1.5-2) cm at 100m, accuracy
comparable to that of direct measurement.

Lesson 7

2.3. MEASURING DISTANCES THROUGH

2.3.1. Electromagnetic Radiation

Modern surveying instruments (total stations, positioning receivers in

satellite system) is based on the indirect measurement of distances using waves from
the spectrum of electromagnetic radiation carrier of the measuring signal. In this
some concepts about their characteristics and how they are considered useful
propagate, valid for both measuring short terrestrial distances and larger ones,
between Earth and satellites.
As a physical aspect, electromagnetic waves represent a dynamic form of
energy that only manifests in its interaction with matter, being generated by
the change over time of the size or direction of one of the two component fields
electric and magnetic. Waves are the form through which energy propagates.
electromagnetism, which is why they are called electromagnetic radiation. A wave
this is produced by an oscillating element (source) and is defined by the following parameters (fig.
2.9):
frequency f, as the number of oscillations of the source per unit of time;
perioada T, adică timpul necesar unei oscilaț ii complete;

63
 the phase velocity of a wave, v, as a fundamental element in measurement
distances;
the wavelength λ, as the distance between two consecutive points of the same
phase or the distance traveled by the wave with speed during one period;
the amplitude A, given by the extreme values of the oscillation
the pulsation or angular frequency of oscillation and the phase of the wave Φ = ωt + φ, where φ
initial phase of the movement, at time t0= 0.

Fig. 2.9. Characteristic elements of a wave

The state of a region at any given moment is described by the phase Φ.

y Asin Asin( t  ) Asin(2 ft ) 2.20

Propagation speed and implicitly the wavelength depend on the medium through
how the wave propagates. In a vacuum (and in air, with some approximation), the speed of propagation of
electromagnetic waves are c0299,792.458 km/s (or approximately 300,000 km/s). In
The old medieval wave reduces depending on pressure, temperature, pressure.
water vapor, wavelength. The ratio n = c0/cse is called refractive index.
The propagation of electromagnetic waves and a series of their characteristics are
influenț ate demediul de propagareprintr-o serie de fenomene, din care amintim:
the divergence of the beam where it leads to a decrease in intensity
the signal as the distance from the source increases;
the refractive index n, which does not have constant values along the path,
dependent on the frequency of the signal and the structure of the medium traversed;
dispersion and absorption, caused by impurities in the atmosphere (dust, molecules
of gas, water vapor), which scatter and respectively retain part of the radiation;
the Doppler effect, through which the frequency and wavelength are modified
received when the source and the radiation receiver are in motion
relative. Waves are received with increased frequency when the source approaches and
with a lower frequency in the case of moving away from the source.

As a bearer of the signal

measurement, the wave behaves like a medium
excellent, provided that one of the parameters
what I define - amplitude, pulsation or
phase - to be modified according to certain rules
(figure 2.10)). In this case, it is said that the wave
modulated, with possible modulations of
amplitude, phase or pulse if one of
Figure 2.10 Modulation of a wave these parameters are modulated in the rhythm
in amplitude modulation signal.

64
 The spectrum of electromagnetic waves encompasses the totality of radiations, arranged either
increasing, function of λ, either decreasing, function of f. From the entire spectrum set, for
This chapter presents interest in near-invisible and infrared radiation, with wavelengths
wave of 0.4 – 1.3 10-6in the microwave range, with wavelengths from
the order of millimeters to meters.

A special case represents unidirectional radiation, in which the beam no longer

it is emitted in all directions, but remains constrained in a narrow cylinder and is obtained
practice through stimulated emission of radiation by a certain medium under the influence of a
stimulating external energies (for example, that of electric current). Depending on
the wavelength of the stimulated emission, these radiations can be of several types (table 2.1):

One-dimensional radiation Table 2.1

The name The field Interval
radiation in the spectrum wavelength
laser visible 0.40 μm - 0.76 μm
X - laser X (Roentgen) 10-6μm - 10-2μm
ir-laser infrareds 0.76 μm – 500 μm
uv-lasers ultraviolet 0.40 μm – 0.01 μm
master microunde, radio 3mm–1.40m

Laser radiation (Light Amplified by the Stimulated Emission of Radiation)

respectively amplified light through stimulated emission, have a series of properties
of which we retain:
coherence, as a result of the emission of radiation in phase with the stimulating radiation,
the high intensity, ensured by coherence and which prevents the waves from
chaotic interference, but only through addition;
monochromaticity, achieved through the emission mode at a single frequency of
excited atoms,
the directionality, due to the fact that the reflections of the radiations from the beam
emerges only in the direction of the emission axis.
All these properties make laser-type radiation suitable for
measuring distance in the construction of ancillary devices or surveying instruments
own sizes.

2.3.2. The principle of distance measurement with total stations

In principle, measuring distances using electromagnetic waves as a carrier

the measurement signal has largely changed the evolution of instruments
topographic and measurement methods.
The electronic measurement of distances is carried out within the total station with
the EDM (Electronic Distance Measurement) device or DEM (Electronic Device
of Measurement - equivalent in Romanian), using waves from the electromagnetic spectrum
(figure 2.11). As shown, waves with short wavelengths are generally used.
signal receivers and waves with long wavelengths that capture signals that
take the measurements. From a construction point of view, the EDM is mounted in the telescope,
the waves are usually emitted along the axis of vision.
The effective methods used to determine the distance consider
phase difference between the emitted wave and the received one (phase method) or the time in which
the signal returns to the instrument (the impulse procedure).

65
 The basic procedure, the most commonly used, consists of the continuous emission of the carrier wave, on
what is modulated another sinusoidal signal with the help of which the measurement is made. The wave
modulated leaves at the moment0from a transmitter, the distance covered is reversed D
arrives at the moment to a receiver, the expression of the oscillations at the two moments being
(fig. 2.11b)

0 2 f mt0 0 , respectively 2 f mt 0 2.21

Fig. 2.11 Measurement by waves of distances: a- working mode, b- principle

the phasic procedure, c- the principle of the impulse procedure

where is the cupm and0the

frequency of the modulated wave and the phase angle were noted
the oscillation. The phase difference Δθ between the two oscillations can be expressed as a function of time
τ=t-t0necessary to cover the 2D distance with speed v = c0/n.

2D
 0 2  tf mt0  2 fm 2 fm [2.22]
v

As during the time it goes through a whole number of periods 2π and a fraction φ
measurable in the receiver, the expression of the measured distance D results successively

2D v 2 n 
2 n fm ; 2 D [2.23]
v 4 fm
The precision of distance measurement is at the millimeter level.
The impulse procedure travels back and forth the 2D distance (fig. 2.11c),
thus the classical relationship
D n
D
v c0 [2.24]
divine
2D n c0
2D , where from D [2.25]
v c0 2n
The pulse generated by a transmitter has a very short duration, and measuring the time
It is realized with an electronic counter using different techniques:
-digital, with the help of high-frequency oscillators (300MHz), which
ensures millimeter precision after a few successive measurements;
- analog-digital, with lower frequency oscillators (15MHz), with which it
achieve millimeter precision even from the first measurement.
The energy of the impulses being high, the signal can be received at greater distances.
reflected through the reflection off the surfaces of reflecting prisms. That is why there is

66
and total stations that have two EDMs mounted, as is the case with those in the Leica TP series.
For this case, the distance can be measured using reflective prisms for
the return of the beam from where (phase procedure), or even the visualized surface (the procedure
reflections). The impulse reflected by different surfaces is stronger the more
the surface tension is higher.
In conclusion, it can be said that the phased procedure is the most used and verified.
on time and done at acceptable prices, although it requires demanding optics and batteries
powerful. Through the impulse process, good precisions are achieved, even at long distances and they
I can measure distances usually shorter than 5-600m to hard-to-reach points or
inaccessible. If a laser ST were used at distances greater than 5-600m, the energy
The laser beam must not be too large and could affect the operator or people within range.
of action.

[Link] in the effective measurement of distance

The total station is capable of measuring distances after it has been correctly installed above.
the mathematical point from the ground. For starting the measurements with the total station (including
measuring the distance) a series of steps are followed:
- the preparation of the device (preliminary operations) for work, which includes a series
of operations concerning the configuration of the total station, adapted to the operator's requirements.
The configuration is done according to the technical book and refers to:
the units of measurement, which are selected from the station menu for distances (meters or
feet - ft = 0.3018m), angles (sexagesimal, centesimal, decimal degrees), parameters
atmospheric (degree Celsius or Fahrenheit for temperature, respectively millimeters column Hg,
pascal or millibar for pressure;
angles, where it must be specified whether the compensator is activated or not
if the increase of the horizontal angle is to the left or right, if the vertical angle
whether it is zenith or tilt, or if it is necessary to activate the declination errors;
the constant of the prism, which is inscribed on it and remains constant throughout
duration of using the same prism;
- parametrii atmosferici:temperatură, presiune, umiditate, care sunt introduș i
on the keyboard or, in some STs, are continuously measured inside the instrument.
the actual measurement of distances, which involves:
determination and recording in memory of working heights for
instrumenti)and for the prism (hp),
the introduction of atmospheric corrections, which are necessary considering that
the speed of the signal changes with the density of air, temperature (measured in the shade), and
pressure. The correction value, expressed in ppm (parts per million, equivalent to
millimeters/kilometer measured), or taken from the nomogram and entered manually, or it
deduce new models automatically based on the atmospheric parameters measured continuously in
instrument (fig. 2.12);
the introduction of the prism constant, inscribed on its rings. Once
memorized, it becomes an additional constant for the measured value,
the positioning of the prism support (marker) vertical and centered on the point
aiming, and directing towards the instrument through the collimator,
the targeting and marking of the prism in its center or at the aiming panel,
the actual measurement, performed on command by pressing the specific key,
which triggers the EDM beam. After a short wait, maximum 3 for distances.
over 1,000m, the display shows the value of the inclined distance, given with 3 decimal places.

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Fig. 2.12 Example of a nomogram for determining atmospheric correction (Sokkisha)

If the result is not displayed, an error message shows the reason: the battery status,
deficient point, incorrect orientation of the prism (the prism does not reflect the radiation towards ST)
unfavorable weather conditions (excessive humidity) etc. Once the measurement takes place, there is also
automatic memory registration.
Note that ST, in the current working mode, measures distances at the same time.
(once) with horizontal and vertical angles.
As overall performance for distance, the average characteristics of the stations
total are:
-measurement range with a single prism: minimum 1-2m, maximum 800m -
1.200m, in average atmospheric conditions,
-maximum distance- about 15,000m, with a panel of 11 prisms,
precision domain: ±(3-5mm + 2ppm)
the horizontal and vertical distance (the difference in elevation) is determined manually or
automaton
The battery ensures 1,000 – 4,000 measurements.
-domeniul de temperatură: -250C +500C
measurements without prism - up to 350m - 500m

The accuracy of measuring distance through waves depends on a series of factors, which have
different influence depending on working conditions. The most important are:
Type of waves used: visible (V) and infrared (IR) -λ= 0.4 m- 1,3 msau
microwave radar -λ= 1cm- 1m. Let’s remember that 1 m = one micrometer or 1
a micron is 1/1,000 of a millimeter (10-3mm) or 1/1,000,000 of a meter (10-6m).
At large distances, the latest ones behave well, modulated on signals with lengths of
small waves, used as carrier waves;
the propagation medium, through pressure, temperature, and humidity, with different effects
depending on the wavelength used. The effect of the medium is greater for EDM with
microwave, becoming important at distances greater than 500m,
the size of the measured distance D, starting from the fact that precision is expressed
in relationships of the type (5mm + 2ppm·D). The first term has a fixed value and takes into account
the internal measurement process, and the other is a function of distance (2ppm·D=
2·D/1,000,000). In current works, over 90% of the measured distances are below
1,000m, at least 95% below 400m. It results that, in these cases, not the errors due to
the atmospheres are the most important, but those related to station decentralization and positioning
prism

68
 the position of the prism reflector, respectively the inclination of the support in the direction of
Measurement. Currently, the vertical maintenance of the stake is done using a tripod with a support.
special (fig. 2.11a),
the constant of the prism, which systematically produces if it is not correct
introduced, what becomes dangerous during the measurement of roads. Its value must be verified.
on the holding circles of the prism is specifically introduced;
the uneven heating of the total station, caused by the direct action of the sun, which
it can lead to deformations of the component parts. The effect disappears when used
topographic umbrella.
Overall, the accuracy of distance measurement through waves depends on both factors
It depends on the operator, as well as on objective factors. Only the fulfillment of all conditions of
Enumerating work ultimately leads to achieving the precision given by the construction house.

2.3.4. Alignment and positioning lasers

For certain categories of work, especially in construction, lasers can be used.

of alignment and positioning. Effectively, it is about achieving an alignment.
the rapid positioning of a point within a local axis system, as well as
the precise measurement of certain distances. The advantage of such determinations is
the laser beam, which becomes visible through its consistency, is projected onto a
support / panel in point form (bright spot) and is reflected by any surface ±
netted.

Alignment lasers are

sites for creating a thesis
rigorous rectilinear necessaries in different
situations (fig. 2.13):
in the industrial halls
the installation of production lines for
the automatic displacement of the parts and

Fig. 2.13 Alignment lasers: a- the assembly from one car to another;
unidirectional, b- with perpendicular beams - in exterior for
supervision of artworks
(pillars, viaducts), controlling the verticality of tall structures, installing formworks, etc.;
-in the underground for guiding the breakthroughs of galleries and/or tunnels on
long runways not from near to near, when deviations can occur;
-in the excavation for the installation of sewer pipes or collector channels;
the drawing of horizontal and vertical directions simultaneously, two horizontals and one
vertical, after the automatic calibration of the device.
The tools used are of different shapes, specific to certain categories of work,
all emitting a laser beam that automatically horizontalizes/verticalizes, having as
source a helium-neon tube, characterized by high power, but also by consumption
energy efficient. Working in a tunnel or at night is more advantageous because
the laser beam, with a diameter of about 8mm, is visible in low light environments;
under these conditions, with such a device, using a detector if necessary, it is possible
it reaches hundreds of meters.

69
 The positioning lasers are
portable rotary and allow determination
the planar position of a point in
the framework of a local coordinate system, at
distances up to 50-60m (figure 2.14). One
such an instrument, installed at the point of
an operator collects through the beam of rays
rotate the data from three brides with codes of
calculate in a few seconds
Figure 2.14 Positioning lasers: a- coordinates plan x, y. Thanks to the work with
portable, b- rotary–working module one single operator, the device is contending
work with the total station, on small construction sites.

The telemeter or laser "roulette" (figure 2.15) is a portable device for

comparable dimensions to those of a mobile phone, allowing for distance measurement
short, under 100m, using a visible laser beam, whose trace is seen as a point.
(spot luminos) to the detail up to which the distance is measured (wall, tree etc).

Figure 2.15. Laser telemetry a-"ruler", b, c -measurement module

The device is fixed with the base on a stable surface and is directed towards the point
dorit (figure 2.15 b, c). The bundle traverses the return road, and is displayed on the screen
the distance formatted from the effectively measured one and the additional value0care
corresponds to the size of the instrument.
Cele mai multe modele sunt utile la releveele interioare, întrucât lucrează într-un
convenient interval of lengths, ensuring an accuracy of about ± 3mm in measurements.
Current. The laser radiations used in instruments of this type are not dangerous for
to see.

70
Self-assessment test in chapter 2: Measuring distances

Define the following concepts through explanations and drawings:

the division of the land into continuous slope sections,
calibration correction
the speed of propagation of electromagnetic waves
laser radiation
constant of the reflective prism

Describe, supporting your drawings and relationships, the stages of measuring distances with
ribbon or roulette.
In a measurement with a 50m tape, the result was 148.65m. Determine
the correct distance, knowing that during the calibration the wheel was found to be shorter by 8 mm
Explain the principles of optical distance measurement
Explain the operating principle of the Bala device.
Explain the principle of the phase method for measuring distance using waves.
Explain the principle of the impulse method for measuring distance through waves.
Enumeraț iș i descrieț i etapele măsurării distanț ei prin unde cu ST.
Show how to work with the laser tape measure.

71
Lesson 8

CHAPTER 3: DETERMINATION OF LEVEL DIFFERENCES

Objectives of chapter 3

The description of the terrain relief is done by determining the height of the points.
characteristics. For this it is necessary to know the vertical distance between points,
called relative thickness and defined already in figure i2.
The term 'determination' was chosen because the level difference can be measured.
direct, as well as calculated, based on other geometric elements that are in mathematical relation with
In this chapter, the basic concepts and the necessary tools are introduced.
I use it in the measurement of level differences.
The measuring methods are presented in the same way as in the previous chapters,
describing the order of operations, sources of errors and mistakes, as well as practical measures that
must be taken to reduce the effect of errors on the measurement results.
The ensemble of operations for measuring, calculating, and representing the relief of a surface.
On the ground or in certain directions, it is called leveling (altimetry). The main goal pursued
In leveling, it is about finding the level differences and altitudes of some specifically chosen points.
in order to ultimately compile topographic plans with the relief of an area represented by curves
of level, or in certain directions - through profiles.

3.1. Level surfaces, quotas, level differences

The ensemble of operations for determining the level differences and the quotas is called
the name of leveling or altimetry. The determination can be made through direct measurements or
indirectly and based on the differences in levels, the elevations of the points can be determined and represented.
relief of the terrain.
At the level of the Earth's crust, each point corresponds to a certain potential.
gravitational. On the surface of a level, it refers to the geometric place of points that have the same
gravitational potential (figure 3.1). Level surfaces have the property that they are at any point
perpendicular to the direction of the local horizontal, given by the plumb line.

Figure 3.1. Level surfaces Sc

72
 The calm surface of the seas and open oceans (which communicate with each other) carries
the name of the geoid surface at zero level and is important for topology and
geodesy, as it is considered a reference surface for elevations.
At the level of the entire globe, the value of gravitational acceleration is variable in
the main function of latitude and altitude relative to sea level. Due to this variation,
The level surfaces are not parallel and concentric. Being equipotential, all points on
the same surface "i" are characterized by the same potential energy, EI= higi, and those from
the surface "j" of energy Ej= hjgjThe mechanical work necessary to move from one surface to another
it is the same, even if points "i" and "j" are located at different latitudes:

L = m gI hi= m gj hj [3.1]

Practically, if the level surfaces are considered restricted territories, of the order of
kilometers, they can be considered parallel and at the same time spherical; if, on the contrary, they
we will consider large regions, for example at the regional, national, or global level
these surfaces are neither parallel nor spherical anymore.
With gi gjit turns out that the roads taken are also different (hi hjand that the surfaces of
The levels are not parallel: the distance is greater at the equator and smaller at the poles (fig. 3.2).

Figure 3.2. The non-parallelism of level surfaces

The altitude of a point on the Earth's surface is expressed in relation to

the distance to other level surfaces.
The distance between two level surfaces, measured in the direction of the local vertical, is
name level. If the level surfaces are arbitrary, then the level is called relative level.
(for example, in figure 3.1., zABthis elevation of point B relative to A, or depending on the elevation
point A). If one of the surfaces is actually the zero level (the geoid), then the altitude is
absolute altitude. Absolute altitudes can be located above the geoid, when they are called altitudes.
altimetric, (e.g. zA, zB), or below - bathymetric contours, for example zC(figure 3.1).
In our country, over time multiple surfaces deemed
reference for quotas. Before the currently adopted system, a reference system was used.
materializing in a point located in the port of Kronstadt (in the northeast of the Baltic Sea, near St.
(Petersburg). Starting from the year 1975, its own quota system was adopted: Black Sea zero.
1975, in which the zero quota was attributed to the multiyear average level of the Black Sea, marked by a
a benchmark (zero fundamental point) located in the port of Constanț a. Starting from the level of this
The vertical position of all points in the national territory has been established. Between the current
reference system (Black Sea - MN) and the previous one (Baltic Sea - MB) there is a connection:

0 MN = 0 (MB) - 0.3124m [3.2]

73
 As shown, in the current topographic measurements, extended over relatively long distances
microscopic, on the order of tens of kilometers, level surfaces can be approximated as spheres
concentric parallels (figure 3.3a), the verticals converging towards the center of the sphere. On
still be confined to smaller land areas, on the order of kilometers, level surfaces can
consider clear horizontal planes, while the verticals are parallel to each other (figure 3.3b); this is
the current case of topographic works.
The level difference serves in this case to determine the position in height of
of points, since the elevation of a new point is found from the elevation of an old one to which the difference is added
of level, according to the relationship [3.3]. The sign of the level difference is considered positive when the terrain
rise between the points considered (from A to B) negative sign when the ground descends (from B to A).

ZA + zAB= ZB [3.3]

Figure 3.3. Approximations made for level surfaces: a - through spheres

concentric, b- by parallel planes

3.2. The influence of the curvature of the earth and atmospheric refraction on the difference in elevation

For determining the altitudes and level differences, in surveying are used, according to
as shown, tools that build a horizontal visa or - by rotating it -
the horizontal plan of the location where they are installed (for example at point A, fig. 3.4). At
large distances but the parallelism between the level surface and the horizontal is no longer maintained
of the place; in this case, it is necessary to bring corrections to the measured sizes.

Figure 3.4. Correction of the difference in level due to terrestrial curvature and atmospheric refraction

74
 The curvature correction can be deduced from figure 3.4, where the level surfaces have
approximate through concentric spheres. The actual elevation difference between the (spherical) level surface of
point A (characterized by radius RAand that of point B (characterized by RB) this zAB.
The device installed in A creates the horizontal level from A, so that at the horizontal distance 'd'
the correction to be made is1With the notations in the figure, it can be written:

d2
RA2 d 2 (R A c1 ) 2;c1 (c1 2R A ) d 2 ;c1
2R A c1
d2
c1 [3.4]
2R

The last relationship shows the dependence of the correction of the penetration of the distance between points and could
write in this form considering that the value of c1it can be neglected, being much smaller (of
centimetric -decimetric scale) compared to the curvature of the Earth (6379 km).
The correction due to refraction is based on the fact that light undergoes a deviation.
removal from normal) when it passes from a denser medium to a less dense one, so
as is the case with the passage through layers of air increasingly distant from the Earth's surface.
In this case, the visa between A and B is deviated at point B” by an amount c.2measured in the direction of
normal in B. The value c2it is called refraction correction (correction due to refraction)
atmospheric) and can be written in a form similar to that of curvature:

d2
c2 k [3.5]
2R

The value "k" is called the coefficient of atmospheric refraction and depends on
pressure, humidity, temperature. Effectively, the value of this coefficient is well known.
only if the carried beams are high (over 4–6 m above the ground). Thus (figure
3.5), it can be considered k = 0.115 between the hours of 10 and 14 and 0.145 between the hours of 7-9 and 15-17. If
The routes of the vises are close to the earth's surface over long distances, the value of the coefficient k
it is not practically determinable, rendering relationship [3.5] unusable.

The total correction can be written,

according to figure 3.4:
d2
c c1 c2 (1 k) 3.6
2R

Her value is positive,

as the values of k are at most
0.16. It is observed that the variation is a function
from the square of the horizontal distance. The variation
with the distance "d" of the total correction from
Figure 3.5. Diurnal variation of the coefficient
the relationship [3.6] shows that, up to 400m,
refractive index, k, for high visas
the values are below 1 cm, being able to
neglect since they are smaller than
inherent measurement errors. Over 400m, in leveling the distances are considered
and the value of the correction can no longer be neglected. In table 3.1, correction values are given.
set, c, valid between the hours shown and for high visas (Boș , 1993).

75
 Table 3.1. The correction values "c" to be applied to the level difference depending on the distance
horizontal between points (according to Boș , 1993)
Hours 10-14, k = 0.115 Hours 7-9 and 15-17, k = 0.145
d (m) c (m) d (m) c (m) d (m) c (m) d (m) c (m)
300 0.006 3500 0.850 300 0006 3500 0.821
400 0.011 4000 1,110 400 0011 4000 1,072
500 0.017 4500 1,405 500 0017 4500 1,357
600 0.025 5000 1,734 600 0024 5000 1,675
800 0.044 5500 2,198 800 0043 5500 2,027
1000 0.069 6000 2,497 1000 0067 6000 2,413
1500 0.156 7000 3,399 1500 0151 7000 3,284
2000 0.277 8000 4,440 2000 0268 8000 4,280
2500 0.434 9000 5,619 2500 0419 9000 5,428
3000 0.624 10000 6,937 3000 0603 10000 6,702

3.3 Principles of leveling (methods for determining the difference in elevation)

The difference in elevation between two points A and B, defined in topography as the distance between
the horizontal planes that contain the two points can be determined in several ways, which
present further at a principal level.
The direct leveling (geometric) is the case in which the difference in level is determined with
the help of an instrument (called a level or leveling instrument), which provides a horizontal line, and a
two vertical stages placed at points A and B (figure 3.6a). The value of the level difference
this date of the relationship:
z AB a b [3.7]

This type of leveling ensures very good accuracy and is used in fields.
approximately horizontal.

Figure 3.6. Leveling: a- geometric, b- trigonometric, with ST

Indirect leveling (trigonometric) represents a method of determining

level differences based on other values (figure 3.6b): distance (horizontal or inclined) and
vertical angle (of inclination, ABzenith sky, zAB):

d AB
z AB d ABtg AB d ABctgzAB [3.8]
tgzAB

This type of leveling can be applied in any kind of terrain, but it ensures greater precision.
weaker than the direct one.

76
 Barometric leveling establishes the correlation between atmospheric pressure and
the altitude above sea level, considered as a reference (for us, the level of the Black Sea).
The instruments used can be barometers (in case they indicate only the pressure value).
atmospheric altimeters (in the case where it indicates altitude above sea level, based on
the existing correlation between pressure and altitude). Barometric leveling is a process
very easy and quick to determine the quotients and the differences in level, but the precisions achieved (of
metric order) makes it usable in topography only for expedient determination, for informational purposes.
It can be used in technical situations, or in those stages of design where precision
the aforementioned is sufficient.
Hydrostatic leveling at the base of the communicating vessels principle (in two chambers
that communicate with each other and are under atmospheric pressure, a liquid is at the same
level). The instruments built on this principle generally consist of two tubes of
glass, connected to each other by a rubber tube. The instruments, commonly used for
transmit readings of angles (especially in construction works), achieving millimeter precision.
Photogrammetric leveling is an operation in which elevations or differences in level are
determine on a 3D virtual model of the terrain, created using two photographic images
The view of the same landscape from different places. It is a highly efficient operation and ...
executed with the help of specialized instruments, named stereorestituters. Levelling
Photogrammetry is the current method used for drawing contour lines on plans or maps.
obtained photogrammetrically. The obtained accuracies mainly depend on the scale of representation and on
the height 'h' from which the photographic images are taken, resulting in values on the order of
(0.01–0.02 %) h.

3.4. Geometric leveling (direct)

Geometric leveling is a characteristic of precision determinations and terrains

approximately horizontal and can be achieved with the help of some tools that are capable of
to build a horizontal gaze or, by rotating it, a horizontal plane. The tools are
The mentioned level measuring devices are differentiated by precision and construction type into:
simple instruments (without telescope) and actual topographic levels, with telescope.

3.4.1. Levels without a telescope

They are simple tools, easy to use and with good precision for certain categories
of construction works (transmission of dimensions, profiles for forest roads, torrents, etc.).
A leveling rod is a graduated ruler (2-4m) to which a blade is attached on one edge.
spirit level. The level is mounted in such a way that the horizontal direction (when the bubble is between the markers)
it should be parallel to the edge on which it is placed. Such an instrument can be constructed
quickly and easily from a mason's level (plumb line, bob) attached to a board with graduations
decimeters and centimeters (figure 3.7a). The instrument can be used for determining
differences in level in cross-sections of roads, torrents, collection ditches and
draining the water, using another graduated ruler (or ostadie) in a vertical position. The blade can
used for longer distances, repeating the operation several times (figure 3.7b). For
the preparation of the profile, the data is recorded in a table, including horizontal distances and differences
of level.
The level with a rubber tube (level hose) consists of two glass vials,
Legate through a rubber tube, having up to 50m in length (figure 3.8a). It operates on
the principle of communicating vessels is most often used for transmitting certain quotas, especially in

77
construction (figure 3.8b). Since the water rises to the same level in both vials, it can be
construi, prin puncte, un plan de aceeaș i cotă atunci când unul din capete rămâne fix ș i celălalt
this is done in various parts of the construction (tracing the dimension of a foundation, of the belts over the floors, of the
the level of the concrete in the formwork etc). To function properly, it is important to ensure that, during filling
with water, so that air does not completely enter the rubber tube. Using the same principle can be
determine the level difference between two points M and N (figure 3.8c) by constructing the horizontal
of point N and measuring with a vertical ruler the vertical distance MN

a b
Figure 3.7. Use of the leveling rod: a- at short distances, b- at long distances

a b c
Figure 3.8. Level hose: a- transparent tube with vials, b- transmitting a level,
c-measuring the height difference MN

[Link] with a theodolite

Theodolites are the actual topographic or geodetic instruments that

I use gravity to create a horizontal level, ensuring the necessary precision for
the determination of level differences. They are mainly composed of a telescope equipped with
reticulated plan, which contains reticular and stadimetric wires, for optical distance measurement.
The levels have a horizontal circle (limb), which allows for their use, under certain conditions, for
performing elevations in plan. The characteristic of the levels is that the axis of the lunette can be brought to
horizontal position, determining a horizontal plane by rotating the telescope around the vertical axis.
Depending on how the horizontalization of the sight axis is done, the levels with the telescope can
on the classics or compensators.

[Link]. Classic levels

A classic level is one where the careful (precise) horizontal alignment of the telescope axis is ensured.
face with the help of the toric level, either in the form of a simple one (figure 1.14), or as a contact level
(figure 1.15). The most widely used instruments (figure 3.9) also include a
fine threaded screw. The leveling rings form a common body, being attached to the hub
through a joint and the fine screw. The level also has a vertical axis V-V' around which
A spherical level can be rotated, used for approximate leveling.

78
 The basic condition for
the correct functioning of the level is
the visa form, L-L', should be rigorous
parallel to the tangent at the level, T-T'
when the bubble is between reference points. When
this is between references (T-T' is
horizontal), the line of sight also becomes
horizontal. In this type,
the horizontality visa must
verified at each new inspection,
when checking the position of the bubble relative to
points or contact between ends
Figure 3.9. The classic level–
at the contact levels.
basic schema
The classic levels have been
adds a series of improvements, which have
as a result of increasing the accuracy of determination and the yield of works. Thus, in some
the instrument, the image of the contact level is visible in a mirror located in an eyepiece
mounted next to the eyepiece of the telescope or even in the field of the telescope (figure 3.10). Another improvement is
it refers to the measurement of millimeters on the centimeter scale (figure 3.11). In front of the objective
A flat parallel-faced blade was installed on the lens, intended to deflect the light rays that it ...
I travel obliquely. The blade can rotate by operating a graduated drum, outside the sight.
By acting on this drum, the blade apparently deviates the image of the level wire until a
full centimeter, and the quantity is read on the drum micrometer with a precision of one tenth
of a millimeter. In this way, the subjectivity of the operator is removed, as millimeters are
measure and do not estimate. The reading consists of the whole centimeters, taken at the stage and
of millimeters and tenths, from the graduated drum.

a b
Figure 3.10 The image of the level of Figure 3.11. The role of the flat-faced blade
contact: a) în ocular, lângă lunetă, parallels in measuring millimeters
b) in the field of the telescope

Figure 3.12. Ni 030 Zeiss level 1.- tambur micrometric, 2.-nivelă torică, 3.-nivelă sferică,
4.-pârghie de blocare a miș cării orizontale, 5.-ș urub de miș care fină orizontală, 6.- dispozitiv cu placa cu feț e
parallel planes, 7.-ambush, 8.- contact level, indicating the position of the saddle

79
 Among the classic levels, the ones that are more widespread with us are from the Zeiss company - Ni-030 (figure
3.12), Ni–020 and Ni–060, from the company Sokkisha: PL1, from the company Wild: N3, NK2. These
levels can ensure sub-millimeter accuracy at 1 km of levelling (Ni 030, NK 2, PL 1) and
millimeter (Ni 060, N3).

[Link]. Automatic (compensatory) levels

The compensatory levels are instruments through which obtaining the horizontal visa can be done.
face automatic, through a device called a compensator, if it has been previously
It is approximately leveled with a spherical level. In this case, the instrument is no longer a toric level.
The horizontalization is done automatically with each viewing, so there is no longer a need for verification.
the horizontal alignment of the sight axis at each reading. This results in a greater efficiency of
site works, estimated to be about 40% larger than those of the classic ones.
The principle of operation is as follows: for the case of a tilted telescope.
horizontal with a small angle, the horizontal will no longer pass through the center of the reticular fibers, but
it intersects the reticulated plane at a distance (figure 3.13a). It is observed that:
a = f sin [3.9]

Figura 3.13. a- principiul de compensare, b-compensare optică, c-mecanică

Since the value read on the level must correspond to a horizontal sight, it
install a compensator at point K, which is at a distance from the grid plane. The role of this
The compensator is or brings the image of h’in h’, following a deviation by the angle. (because in
it is called an optical compensator - figure 3.13b), or to displace the center of the reticular fibers,
h, înh'(mechanical compensator - figure 3.13c). In this case, the distance from the center of the grid is
can write:

a = f sin = d sin 3.10

Because the spherical level already performs a rough calibration of the instrument, it results in
that the angles and at low values and in this case it can be written successively:

f
f =d after =C 3.11
d

80
 The value C is a constant for a given instrument called a simplifier.
angular or multiplying power of the compensator and depends on the placement location of
of the compensator (the position of point K). Most levels have C = 2. In figure 3.14 there are
Present two of the most commonly used automatic levels.

a b
Figura 3.14. a–Nivelul automat Ni 050 Zeiss, b–Nivelul automat Koni 007 Zeiss
a)1: colimator, 2: lunetă, 3: manș on de focusare, 4: ocular, 5: fereastră de citire la limb, 6: pene de
calare, 7: ambaza, 8: pârghie de acț ionar pene, 9:ș urub de fină miș care orizontală, 10: limb;
b)1: obiectiv, 2: ocular, 3: manș on de focusare a imaginii, 4: tambur gradat cuplat cu lamelă cu feț e
{"1":"plane","2":"parallels","3":"5: blocking of horizontal movement","4":"6: fine tuning screw"}

Lesson 9

[Link]. Digital Levels

In principle, digital levels (numeric or electronic) are tools that

ensures the automatic reading and recording of height and horizontal distance on the stage.
In fact, the device is a compensating level meter to which a camera has been attached.
digital, the instrument being accompanied by specific scales, which are graded on one side normal, and on
the other barcodes.
Through a simplified, automated working module, ensured by the safety of the works, guaranteed by
elimination of errors, reading practices and ultimately through their precision, these types of
levels have been enforced in topographic practice. Due to the still high price, their introduction to
we are just at the beginning.

81
 Fig. 3.15 Digital level: a- sight, b- optical scheme (Leica)
The structure of a digital level includes the same parts as in the compensatory ones:
the main axis VV', which in the working position must be brought vertical, the sight axis
orizontalizată automat cu ajutorul compensatorului optic ș ipartea mecanicăcuambaza,
the device casing, the screw for securing movement in the horizontal plane, of fine movement s.a. (fig.
3.15). The tripod, the stages, and the annex devices are obviously added.
The electronic part includes a camera C with a CCD imaging device and
image analysis, the PR processor and the INT display interface (fig. 3.16). The CCD arrangement
(Charged-Coupled Device = charge-coupled circuits) has the property that it can convert
light in electric loads, in turn being linked to analog/digital A/D converters.
The image of the CCD surfaces is stored in memory, regardless of whether they have generated or not.
electric charge. The system as a whole constitutes one of the essential parts at the digital levels.
modern, the most well-known nettopographic application of theirs being digital cameras.

Fig. 3.16 Digital level: a- operating scheme, b- working module

The operation of the system is based on the transfer of information from the stage to the device.
assumes:
Capture the image by viewing the vertical stage on the front with barcodes.
eventual focusing of the lens on some models;
the formation of the image of the city, on the CCD arrangement, by creating a certain
configurations of these elements, either loaded or not with electric charge. The image taken with
digital camera from the level meter C+Passed through the analog-to-digital A/D converter;
processing the information in the PR processor, which compares the snapshot with
the entire stage preserved in memory and detects the spot on the mirror aimed at by the operator. Through
the correlation of the two images determines the horizontal distance to the stage and the height Ha
visa;
displaying the result on the level meter display, serving as the INT interface.
The advantages of measuring with a digital level meter are numerous and evident in relation to
the other types mentioned so far:
The working module is simple and only involves approximate leveling and stage targeting.
without worrying about the scoring with the reticular fibers and the triggering of the measurement, which activates
automatically the compensator, displaying and recording the height to the stage and the distance to the stage;
the measurement time is reduced to half compared to the compensatory level meters,
through a less rigorous staging puncture and over a shorter duration, of a maximum of 3-4
seconds between command, display and memory;
the precision is ensured, sub-centimeter, at stage readings, of ±(0.4-0.9mm), while at
determination of the horizontal distance up to 100m of ±500ppm (± 5cm/100m). A program
suitable for allowing the repetition of measurements, direct display of the average and the maximum deviation for
appreciation of the result;

82
 The mistakes, stemming from reading and entering data, are eliminated through recording and
automatic transfer to computer.
The usefulness of electronic meters is not diminished by certain restrictive conditions.
atmospheric refraction legislation, insufficient visibility, covering at least 70mm of the stage
(at least 30 code elements necessary for image processing), avoiding a free zone at the end
stadiums larger than 20% etc.
The stages, coupled with the digital level meters, are of a special construction: on one side
there are graduated bars, while on the other hand, there are regular centimeter graduations, which makes them
sporeș te utilitatea, întrucâtinstrumentul poatefi folosit atât cunivel digital, cât ș i ca nivel
compensator.

The barcodes, in turn, are drawn through

procedee riguroase,cu precizie de ±0,001mmș i diferă
from company to company, being usable only with
its own instruments. For example, the sight of the Leica company
it is composed according to a pseudo-random aperiodic code
contains 2000 elements in a space of 4050 mm, and
at the Zeiss mirror, the code modulation is based on a
a certain black – white alternation in each segment of 2
cm (fig. 3.17).

Nivelurile digitalede mare precizie, remarcate

here, I am from the SDL series Sokkia and Zeiss DiNi 11, which
ensures, according to the prospectus, ±0.3mm/km at
leveling with double stations, Reni 002 Zeisscu
Fig. 3.17 Marsh with codes of +/- 0.2mm/km etc.
bare for various
digital levels

3.4.3. Accessory devices

The geometric leveling performs precision gutters or ordinary types.

double the demiresaustadii, the same used in the tachymetry works for measurement
distances. As shown, these can be 3m or 4m, made of wood or aluminum,
foldable or telescopic. All are numbered decimetrically and are graduated in grouped centimeters.
câte cinci pentru facilitarea citirii. Nivelurile de înaltă precizie apelează lamire speciale,din
Metals with Invar strips. These ensure the equality of divisions on the stage, stability.
the variations in temperature and humidity ensured (the invar strips have a coefficient of
practically null dilation) and double auscultation, meaning two adjacent rows of gradations, dardecalated with
a constant quantity that ensures the control of measurements from a single view and identification
reading errors.
It is recommended that, in the interest of measurement accuracy, the operator should choose and
use a suitable quality adhesive for the leveling instrument itself.
The auxiliary devices used in geometric leveling works, especially in those that
with high precision, they serve to ensure the maintenance of the bride in a vertical position at the moment
graduation citations. For this purpose, reference is made to (fig. 3.18):
anti-tilt devices that ensure stability in a vertical position, verified with the help of a level
spherical mounted on the bride;

83
 frogs or wooden shoes for maintenance
at the same height as the bride for the readings back
and before. Such support is made of metal,
portable, having on the upper side unreferred
bride installation on the bottom corners for
fixing in the ground by pressing;
sun umbrella, used on sunny days
with scorching heat and large temperature variations, but also with
humidity conditions, for the protection of the device and of
operator.

Fig. 3.18. Auxiliary of levels: Such auxiliaries that can improve

the assembly of the spherical level, sensitive safety of leveling determinations
in the mirror on the frog and the spoof geometric, will be used as such especially in
precision and high-precision works.

3.4.4. Verification and correction of levels

The purpose of the leveling destination is to create a horizontal visa, therefore the verification and
The eventual correction is made for this purpose. The main conditions to be fulfilled are:
1. The main axis should be vertical. To determine the level difference, it is necessary.
you must horizontalize as accurately as possible, because the tilt of the rotation axis VV' leads to
which affects the vertical displacement of the sight axis of the scope. This error is often overlooked,
since a correct riding ensures the verticality of the main axis. Possible errors may occur
and from the disturbance of the spherical level. If the level is equipped with a toric level, it is checked and
first correct the tori level and then check and possibly correct the spherical level.
correct the deviation of the bubble by bringing it into the reference circle, using half of the displacement of the screws
calibrating, the other half being removed from the three adjustment screws (§. 1.3.6).
The axis of the sighting telescope must be parallel to the tangent to the toric level when the bubble
it is between benchmarks. To verify this condition, the following steps are followed:
a) it is positioned with the level on a roughly horizontal terrain, exactly in the middle
The readings are carried out at a distance between A and B.1and b1on vertical stages (figure 3.19a).
If the stated condition is met, the value of the level difference will result:

(a)
z AB a1 b 1 [3.12]

Dacă viza nu este perfect orizontală, ci face un unghi with horizontal, the linear error
the two stages will be equal (the distances are equal), while the difference in level will be
(1)
z AB (a1 e) (b e) a11 b 1 3.13

Figure 3.19. Checking the levels: a- the level at equal distances from the two stages, b-
the level near one of the stages

84
 In conclusion, installing the level at equal distances from the two stages leads to
determining the correct level difference, regardless of whether the condition from is met or not
statement. We will consider this value as the reference value.
b) to highlight whether there is a non-horizontal nature of the visa, it is parked as much as possible
near one of the stadiums, as much as viewing allows, that is, at the minimum focusing distance of
the glasses. The readings are done2and2at the two stages, assuming that on the nearby stage the effect of the error
angular this is negligible, and at a distant stage it is double, 2e.
If the level difference is given by the relationship:

(2)
z AB a2 b2 3.14

if it is equal to that in the first stage, then the visa is horizontal, the condition from the statement being
fulfilled.
If the values are different, then the error it exists and can be written:

(1) (2)
z AB z  2e
AB a2 (b2 2e) 3.15

In this case, the vertical antagonist screws of the telescope's reticle will be acted upon.
until the distant stadium reads the value:

b2' a2 z(1)AB [3.16]

In this way, the value owed by the non-horizontal nature of the visa has been eliminated on stage. Although
Apparently simple, the operation requires meticulousness and must be repeated several times.
The instruments are quite sturdy and less susceptible to rectification, so the operation does not
it must be repeated often.
If the level is automatic, the horizontal alignment check of the sight line is done in a way
similar, meaning staying in the middle of the distance and then at one end of the alignment.
It is to be noted that if one remains at a level equidistant from the two stages,
the level difference is real, unaffected by any potential non-horizontal alignment of the sight.
3. The reticular fibers must be properly arranged. This operation is performed either
checking the horizontality of the leveling line, or the verticality of the main line. In case of
the rectification of the reticular plan position is difficult, it can be worked with and misaligned, but it is necessary
be careful that all readings on the stage are taken at the intersection of the reticular lines.

4. The focusing system must be

function correctly. If the system of
focusing does not work correctly, that is if
the focusing lens of the scope does not move
perfect axial, intervening or an error due to
the shift of the aiming axis of the scope, causing
errors in carrying out readings on stages and therefore at
determining level differences. Then
Figure 3.20. Checking functionality when stationed at equal distances from
correct the focusing system of the scope In stages, the errors will be equalized and will reduce.
When the distances are different, the error has
effect on the measurement, the greater the distance is.
The existence of this error, in a roughly horizontal terrain, a semicircle is drawn with a string.
with a radius of approximately 30m (figure 3.20). In the first stage, it is stationed with the level in

85
the center C is determined by repeated visits to the correct (reference) level difference between
the points marked with 1–7. Since the distances are equal, in this case it is not necessary
activating the focusing system. In a second stage, the device is stationed with the equipment calibrated in a
Point M, located at a distance of 5-10 m from point 1. The marked points are targeted again,
the readings are taken and the level differences between points are determined, this time acting
the focusing system, as the distances vary. In the case of the differences in level
Considered as a reference, the ones determined from point M are differences that exceed the precision.
the instrument, it does not meet the requirement from the statement and must be rectified at a center of
the representative of the construction company.

3.4.5. Working module in direct leveling. Measures to increase accuracy

Geometric leveling is used in those works where it is required to determine

precision of level differences and elevations. Given points A and B between which it is requested
determining the level difference zABthe level is installed at point S, chosen at equal distances
relative to A and B, and vertical stages are installed at the two points. The distance between A and B is
the levels are named, and the distance between levels and stages is called the portee. The position of point S, which
it is not a proper station point (with a marker/stake and mathematical point) it can be anywhere (on
alignment or not), but necessarily in such a way that the spans are equal (figure 3.21).

Figure 3.21. Working mode in Figure 3.22. Working mode in leveling

the geometric leveling with double stations geometric with intermediate stations

The instrument is calibrated and then the values are read at the vertical stages, in line with the wire.
levels, usually in millimeters. The reading order is that in which the distance AB is traversed.
If one departs from A to B, then the elevation difference results:
zAB= a–b [3.17a]

If the direction of travel is from B to A, then:

zBA= b–a , [3.17b]

and the level difference will result in negative, respecting the proportions from figure 3.21.
The measurement control is done by changing the station (double stations). The level is installed in
By also keeping the equal portees, with a new horizontal viewing plan, the readings are redone.
on A to B, resulting in:
'zAB= a' - b'

If the two values are close within the allowed tolerances (e.g. 2mm
for ordinary works, with centimeter graded stages), then the value of the difference is determined

86
 (z) = the angle of vertical inclination (zenith), measured from the apparent horizon
(respective verticals) from A
zB the elevation of point B relative to the zero level surface,
S = the height of the signal installed in B,
c2the effect of atmospheric refraction

Pentrucazul folosirii unui teodolit sau un tahimetru clasic, cu notaț iile din figură se
can write:
zAI c1+ dtg = zB+ S + c2 3.19 a

zA+ I + c1+ dctgz = zB+ S + c2 [3.19 b]

The result of point B:

zB= zA+ dtg +I–S + (c1–c2) [3.20 a]

zB= zA+ dctgz +I–S + (c1–c2) 3.20 b

The relative quota of B with respect to A (the level difference) results in:

zB- zA= zAB= dtg + I–S + c = d ctgz + I–S + c 3.21

In this relationship, the horizontal distance between A and B is determined from the plane coordinates.
known of his Aș i B:
d AB (x B x A) 2 ( y B y A) 2 [3.22]

Trigonometrical leveling at long distances is considered a general case of

indirect leveling. If the level surfaces are approximated with horizontal planes, they can be
different cases are distinguished, as the slope value between A and B is positive (figure 3.24a)
negative sau (figure 3.24b).
zAB= dtg + I–S + c = d ctgz + I–S + c for 0 [3.23a]
zAB= - dtg + I–S–c = d ctgz + I–S–c for 0 3.23b

We can write for the general case:

zAB= dtg + I–S c = d ctgz + I–S c 3.24

a b
Figure 3.24 Trigonometric leveling at large distances: a - positive slope angle, b
negative angle of inclination

88
 In the case of using a total station, when the instrument and the targeted signal have heights
differentirespectivesthe difference in level between two points is obtained by analogy with the case
previously presented (fig. 3.25):

z AB lAB cos zAB h i hp c and zB z A z AB [3.25]

or, if the horizontal distance is used,

z AB d ABctg zAB h hi and

s
zB z A z AB 3.26

Fig. 3.25 Triangulation leveling with the total station

3.5.2. The trigonometric leveling at short distances

It is considered when the distances are less than 400 m (case in which the correction of
the assembly due to the curvature of the earth and atmospheric refraction is less than 1 cm and
neglect).
With a classic level instrument, the difference in level is obtained (figure 3.26) by sighting on a stage.
vertical to a degree equal to the height of the device and the measurement of the generator number and the
of the inclination angle. Depending on the sign of the inclination angle (+ sau ) results:

zAB= dtg = dctgz [3.27]

Figure 3.26. Trigonometric leveling at short distances

89
 With a total station installed at the heightiand a prism located at heightpif
measures the inclined distance and the vertical angle, values with which it is obtained (figure 3.25)

z AB lAB cos zAB h hi p and zB z A z AB [3.28]

then, depending on the horizontal distance between points,

z AB d ABctg zAB h hI s
and zB z A z AB [3.29]

3.6. PRECISION OF LEVEL DIFFERENCES DETERMINATION

The difference in level is a basic quantity in topography and geodesy; precision

its determination is imposed by the type of work in which it is used. Depending on this precision,
the operator is required to choose the appropriate tool and method.
The leveling can and the level with rubber hose are considered as tools.
simple, very easy to build and use, and that is why they are mainly used in construction sites.
construction. The obtained precisions are good if the working rules are followed. Thus, the width
ensure 2 cm at a distance of 100 m, while the hose level ensures precision of the order
millimeters for transmitting dimensions.
Barometric leveling uses instruments for direct determination of
atmospheric pressure (barometers) or of altitudes (altimeters). Barometers can be of various types.
many constructive types (with mercury, aneroid, electric) and can achieve accuracies of about 0.1
mbar. The operation of the altimeter is based on the fact that atmospheric pressure changes with
1 mm of Hg (or 1 mbar) for every 10–11 meters traveled vertically. The altimeters possess
a device that has both a graduated scale in torri or millibars and another that indicates heights above
sea level, up to about 3000 m. The precision of determination is of the order of (1–2)m.
Barometric leveling has many applications in meteorology, atmospheric physics, aviation.
ground measurements.
Regarding the leveling topographic methods, the precision is dependent
of the type of leveling used, being higher in the case of geometric leveling than that of the other
trigonometric.
Geometric leveling, the accuracy depends on that of the instrument and on the size.
porteii.
The precision of the instrument is determined by the sensitivity of the leveling devices. , and of the power of
magnification of the scope, M. I made a mistake1due to the sensitivity of the level, that is the non-horizontal nature of the visa
Due to the non-framing of the level bubble between points of reference, it is given by the relationship:

m 1= 0.15 , 3:30 a.m.

I would have been wrong2Due to the stage magnification is inversely proportional to the power of magnification:

m 2= 2c/ M, [3.30b]

unde2cit represents the normal visual acuity, that is, the minimum angle under which the eye can still perceive
distinguishes two close parallel lines. With these relationships, the horizontal error caused by
the instrument becomes:

90
 mv m12 m22 3.31

This represents an angular error in the vertical plane. If ordinary values are given.
for the most commonly used levels in practice, for example = 50cc and M = 24X, the following is obtained
the values of the errors1 8cc,m2 8cc and an angular error in the vertical plane,v 11cc.
The size of the gate influences the accuracy of determining the level difference according to the size
linear reading errors on stages, mc, due to the effect of angular error mvat a distance "d".
According to figure 3.27 and for small angles, it results:

mc= d tgmv d sinmv= d mvsin1cc = d mv/ 3.32

From the relationship [3.32] it follows that,

for a given instrument (mv)and for a
maximum reading error on the stage (m)c,
maxthemaximum size can be determined
a gate that ensures not exceeding
maximum errors. If it continues
the previous example, (mv= 11cc)and it
we considerc, max= 2mm (the common case
of the technical works), it results in a size
Figure 3.27. Errors in geometric leveling maximum of the door, dmax:

mc, max
d max 115 m 3.33
mv
In practice, since there are also a number of other errors (the non-verticality of the stage, refraction,
unequal burden), it is recommended that no more than approximately 80 sqm be adopted for size
even for more precise instruments, with superior technical characteristics, it does not
It is recommended to use field gates larger than 100m. According to the propagation law of
of errors, if the precision is determined for a level difference,dn (which results from two
reading), it results in:

mdn mc2 , 3.34

and even if the determination is made from two measurements (with dual stations), the error mddn it will be:

mdn
mddn mc 3.35
2
Overall, using the double working procedure, with centimeter graduated stages
and with instruments for current technical use, accuracies of the order of centimeters / 1km are achieved
of the route, and with precision levels values are reached in millimeters or sub-millimeter order.
(0.2–0.7) mm / 1km.
In the case of trigonometric leveling, the method of error propagation can be written
simplified if the relation [3.23a] is used, (d·tg valid for short distances. The relationship is
differentiate, considering it as a function of two independent variables (though ), each being
affected by random measurement errorsdrespectively taking into account the law of
propagation of random errors in indirect measurements:

91
 2
mtrig  dtg  '  z d '
2
md   z ' m
2
 tg m 2d 
d
cos 2
m
3.36

If the values of the angle of inclination are given, the relationship can be customized for:

a) approximately horizontal lands 0)– in this case, due to the function tg 0 and
cos 1, it results that the error made is practically a function of distance:
m
mtrig d 3.37

b) strongly inclined lands (for example 50 gon) – in this case tg 1, and I am cos
0.5; it follows that within the error, the error due to the slope of the terrain also plays an important role. Of
this must be taken into account practically when determining level differences in land
inclined (a good verticalization of the stages) and in establishing tolerances.
If we refer to trigonometric leveling at large distances, in the calculation relationship
intervene the height of the signal and the instrument in the station, at which the measurement error occurs
appreciate her 1cm. The size of the correction to be made is determined if the sights are high.
above the ground and if the measurements are taken during lunchtime, when the value
the atmospheric correction coefficient is known.
Overall, for trigonometric leveling, the average accuracy of determination of
the level differences are about 20 cm / 1 km.

92
Self-assessment test at chapter 3: Measuring distances Determining differences
of level

Define the following concepts through explanations and/or drawings:

leveling
level surface
zero level surface,
quota, relative quota, absolute quota
curvature correction, refraction correction
leveling frog,
geometric leveling with double stations,
short/long distances

What do you understand by the level 'Black Sea 1975'?

Explain the main methods of determining level differences.
What is a leveling rod used for?
Draw and explain the functioning for the case of a classic level.
What are the advantages of compensatory levels?
Describe the operating principle of a digital level.
Enumeraț iș i descrieț i etapele parcurse în verificarea ș i rectificarea nivelurilor.
What measures have been taken to increase precision in direct leveling?
Show, through figures and relationships, how the trigonometric level with stations unfolds.
total.
Analyze the sources of errors and the errors produced in geometric leveling.
Analyze the sources of errors and the errors produced in trigonometric leveling.

93
Lesson 10

CHAPTER 4: ERRORS IN TOPOGRAPHICAL MEASUREMENTS

Objectives of chapter 4

The study of errors in topographic measurements mainly aims to:

the knowledge of the sources that generate errors and their effect on the results;
the formulation of the laws of propagation, respectively of accumulation of errors in
measurements;
the specification of the laws for error reduction based on the number of measurements,
eventual elimination of some of them;
appreciation of the measurement results, instruments, and operators;
establishing working conditions (instrument, number of measurements, methods), which
to ensure the required accuracy;
the deduction of tolerances and work anomalies based on objective criteria;
module for compensation (adjustment) of random errors and elimination of them
identified systematics.
From this enumeration, it results that only by possessing this knowledge, the operator
can correctly choose the work method and the necessary equipment to ensure
required precision, as well as appropriate yield.
This section presents mathematical demonstrations aimed to support
some specific aspects of errors. They do not always represent the target of exposure, but only a
method of reaching conclusions regarding the issue addressed.

[Link]. TYPES OF MEASUREMENTS AND RESULTS

In topography, as in all processes of quantitative knowledge of the world

Surrounding, measurement is the main working tool. By measuring
it is understood that experimental process from which information results in the form of a
numeric report between the value of the measured size and the value of another size
considered as a unit of measurement:
A
m 4.1
a

It is important to emphasize from the beginning that every measurement is always

accompanied by errors. Therefore, knowledge about errors aims to understand
these are the most important errors, the sources of errors and how they propagate. Only
by understanding these concepts, operators can prevent the occurrence of errors or can limit
the propagation of others in an unfavorable way for the measurement outcome.
Determination of the topographic elements necessary for the preparation of plans or maps
(angles, distances, level differences) are determined by measurements, resulting in
values of the measured quantities.
The types of measurements encountered in surveying can be classified according to various
criteria.
Depending on the method of obtaining the result, the measurements can be:

94
 -direct, when the result is obtained by applying the tool of
measure beyond the size to be measured, according to relation [4.1]. Such examples can be:
measuring distances with a tape or measuring tape, measuring angles with a theodolite.
indirect, when the result is obtained based on other measured elements
directly, through a calculation relationship (for example: the level difference through
trigonometric leveling, distance using tachymeters and stadia etc.
-conditioned, when the measurement result must meet certain
conditions (for example measuring the horizontal angles in a horizontal turn).
Depending on the conditions under which they were executed, the measurements can be:
of the same accuracy (of the same weight), in the case where they are performed by
the same operator, with the same instrument, the same method, under the same environmental conditions.
In this case, there is no reason to grant one or the other of the results a
trust different from the others.
- of different precisions (of different weights; weighted), in the case when
at least one of the elements listed above is not the same during the measurement.
in this case there is a basis for considering some of the results to be more reliable than
the others.

Let's assume that a number of 'n' measurements have been made on a quantity.
and the individual values M resulted1, M2, M3, … Mi, … Mn.
Regarding the value of the measurement result, it can be:
real (true), X0, what is a notion without practical character, rather
philosophical. In practice, it will never be possible to reach the knowledge of true value or
It is real, and it is appropriate for this, since any measurement is accompanied by errors.
-individual, MiWhat is any of the values mentioned?
the media of the measurements, which is different, depending on whether the measurements are or not
different weights. It can be demonstrated that the average of the measurements is the most
probable series of measurements.
If they are of the same weight, then the average is given by the arithmetic mean:
n
Mi
M 1 M 2 . . .  M i ...Mn i 1
M 4.2
n n
If the measurements have different weights (different confidences), then the average of the values
this is the weighted average:
n
M i pi
M 1p1 M 2p2 ...  M n pn i 1
Mp n
4.3
p1 p2 ...  pn
pI
i 1
Example:-the measurement of a quantity by the same operator, with the same method, the same
Instruments under the same environmental conditions represent measurements of the same weight (confidence).
The result in this case is expressed by the arithmetic mean of the values, if they are sufficient.
appropriate to each other (in tolerance)
measuring a quantity a different number of times, but using the same method, with
the same instrument and operator and under the same conditions represents a weighted measurement. The result
the final will give more confidence to the case with more measurements. Let's assume a distance that has
measured in two lines, resulting in: 175.414m from 3 measurements and 175.426m from 5
measurements. In this case, the average of the results is a weighted one, calculated according to the relationship:
3 175,415 5 175,426
M 175,422m
3 5
Regarding the range of values obtained from measurements on the same
sizes, it is useful to define another series of concepts with which we currently operate
measurement theory

95
 -cart, this is the difference between two individual values of the string
measurements:
= Mi- Mj, i j 4.4
the maximum discount, maxthis is the difference between the maximum value and the minimum value from
the series of measurements:
max=
Mmax- Mmin,
tolerance, T - the maximum allowable deviation within which it must fit
the measurement results to be accepted.
Accuracy represents an estimate of how close a measured value is to the actual value.
considered as a reference;
Precision, sometimes referred to as repeatability or reproducibility, refers to
the degree to which measurements, repeated under the same conditions, yield close values. A precision
it is considered good if the spread of values obtained from measurements is small;
Conversely, precision is low if the dispersion is large.
The illustration of the significance of accuracy and precision can be suggestively done through
the assimilation of the measurement results with those of the target shooting, in which case the center of the target
represents the value considered as a reference (figure 4.1). It can be observed that a precision
high does not guarantee good accuracy.

a b
Fig. 4.1Acurateț eș i precizie: a- acurateț e bunăb- preciziebună

[Link]: DEFINITIONS, CLASSIFICATIONS

From measurement practice, it is observed that it is not possible to reach knowledge

the true or real value of a size, but only a greater value can be determined
more or less close to the real value.
Indeed, if a number of measurements have been made on the same size
and the values M resulted1, M2, M3, … Mi, … MnIt is observed that these values are slightly
different from each other.
First, understand the difference, in size and sign, between a resulting value.
of measurements and another considered as a reference (correct).
A primary classification of errors can be made based on the reference value.
considered. From this perspective, the errors can be:
real error, if the true value is considered as the reference value
(real), X0, according to the relationship:

i= Mi –X0 4.4

apparent errors (residual), if the reference value is the average of the determinations:

96
 vi= Mi-M 4.5a
vi= Mi–Mp [4.5b]
The real error is a purely theoretical notion, since the real value, of which
it depends, it is practically inaccessible to practice. The residual (apparent) error can be defined differently
if the measurements are (M) or not (Mp) of the same trust (weight).

From the viewpoint of the sources that produce them, the errors can be:
instrumental, due to small imperfections that appeared during operation or in
the construction of the measuring device (calibration errors, construction errors)
-personal, provoked by the imperfection of the operator's senses,
-medium, which shows the influence of the external environment on the measurement results
(the existence of the strong sun, fog, low temperatures, etc.).
The measurements are affected equally by all the categories of errors mentioned.
Some may, under certain conditions, have harmful influences that can lead to the exit from
tolerance.

From the perspective of sizes, errors can be:

mistakes, which are gross mismatches that can distort the size
the results of the measurements. Their chance of occurrence is statistically small and
this chance can still decrease if a series of appropriate measures are adopted
each working method (repeating the measurement, determining it by another method). In
In topography, there are extremely few determinations that are not accompanied by checks, which
it is possible, on one hand to avoid mistakes, and on the other hand, to obtain results
higher in accuracy, given by the average of the measurements. If in a series of measurements
there are errors (meaning there are individual values that are out of the tolerance range) and
these are detected, the respective values move away from the line and do not participate in
average. If the mistakes are not detected, it is mandatory to repeat
measurements. Errors arise from the operator's inattention, malfunctions of
the measuring instrument, the lack of knowledge of the working method or the instrument. In
Special causes due to the human factor are the most frequently encountered, originating from
fatigue or on the background of prolonged monotony.
minor (properly speaking), being tolerable mismatches, inherent to the process of
measurement. Knowing the errors and how they propagate leads to reduction
their effect on the measurements.
If the value of the error is known, the calculations can be corrected by adopting a
equal sizes and of opposite signs, called correction:

c=-e 4.6

The application of corrections is made during the offset operation.

It should be remembered, as very important, that:
1. the correction of the values from measurements does not mean that they have been removed
the errors made, but rather the values were conveniently adjusted, so that the results
to meet certain conditions;
2. the error values in a series of measurements are calculated only if the results
the measurements are close enough to each other (if they are within the range of
tolerance

The source that causes them and the propagation law, the errors can be:
-systematic, whose source remains the same over time
measurements. In this case, the source of error causes errors of the same magnitude and

97
the same sign. Therefore, systematic errors are very dangerous as they propagate
after the multiplication law (they have a cumulative effect), one can quickly reach exceeding
tolerances:

est= eonx n [4.7]

underwearonitrepresents a unit systematic error (which occurs in a single measurement),est

this is the total systematic error, it represents the number of measurements. In case of
systematic errors are detected, their effect can be eliminated from measurements. If
systematic errors are due to the instrument, their elimination can be done by
calibration (comparing the working instrument with one considered a standard).
- accidental (random), where the causes that provoke them are multiple and
variable during measurements, the errors having different magnitudes and signs and therefore a
some of them have the chance to decrease, their effect diminishing. Overall, the propagation
these errors are subject to the laws of probability.

4.3. RANDOM ERRORS IN DIRECT MEASUREMENTS

OF THE SAME WEIGHT

4.3.1. Properties of apparent (residual) errors

Direct measurements of the same weight represent a common case of measurements.

topographic, being those in which the same instrument, the same method and are measured with the same.
the same operator, under the same external conditions.
Apparent errors are of particular practical importance since the average
the measurements to which these are reported are at hand, being easy to calculate.
These errors present two important properties in assessing the precision of measurements.
a) The sum of the residual errors is zero. This property results from the definition
residual errors ([4.5]).
It is a quantity for which measurements were made, obtaining the values
individualIThe arithmetic mean of the measurements is given by the relationship [4.2], and the relationship of
the calculation of residual errors is:
v1= M1M
v2= M2- M
. . . . .
vi= Mi-M 4.8
. . . . .
vn = Mn - M

v1+ v2+ . . . + vI+ .. . + vn = M1+ M2+ . . . + Mi+ . . . +Mn - nM 4.9

If the relationship [4.9] is divided by it results:

n
vi
M 1 M 2 . . .  M i . . .  M n
1
M 4.10
n n

98
 In the second member, the two terms are equal, according to [4.2], so their difference
this is zero, which means that vi since n ≠ 0. This property is used
in the calculation and verification of residual errors.
b) The sum of the squares of the residual errors is minimal. This requirement is expressed
in the relationship:
n
vi2 min [4.11]
i 1

The relationship can be written as a function in which the variable is the reference value in
report used to calculate the errors, M:

f(M) = (M1–M)2+ (M2–M)2+ . . . +(Mi–M)2+ . . . + (Mn –M)2

The minimum of the function is obtained when the first derivative is zero and the second derivative is
positive

f'(M) = -2(M1–M) -2(M2-M) - . . . -2(MI-M) - . . . -2(Mn–M) 4.12

f ”(M) = 2n 0

From relation [4.12], it results that the derivative I of the function is zero for the value:

M 1 M 2 . . .  M i . . .  M n
M ,
n

that is exactly the definition relationship of the arithmetic mean. This shows us the sum of the squares
the residual errors are minimal only when they are reported relative to the value of the average
arithmetic. Any other value considered as a reference would result in residual errors.
I am bigger. In error theory, the most probable value of a series of measurements is
the one for which the sum of the squares of the residual errors is minimized; it has been demonstrated therefore
because this is the arithmetic mean.
This property is based on the principle of strict compensation through the method
the smallest squares (MCMP). As a result of compensation through this method, the following are obtained
most likely results.

4.3.2. The mean squared error of a single measurement

Apparent errors characterize the accuracy of measurements as they indicate the distance to
the average of the listed measurements. Measurements are accurate when the values are
grouped around the mean value (so the apparent errors are small in absolute value) and more
a little more precise when the spread is greater (the errors are larger in value
absolute).
Precision cannot be characterized using the sum of residual errors or their average.
since this is zero, according to the first property (§4.3.1). Moreover, it does not
can be characterized either by the sum of the apparent error modules, since this sum does not
highlight the errors with large absolute value compared to those with small absolute value
giving all the same importance. Therefore, a value was introduced that
characterizes the error of a single value from a series of measurements, called error
standard (regulated by STAS 2872/74) or mean square error of a
single measurements:

99
 vi2
mo [4.13]
n 1

Since it characterizes the precision of a measurement, the standard error can be

considered equivalent to the precision of the measuring instrument. In practice, the standard error
it represents the error we make if we accept one of the values as a reference
individual from a series of measurements.

4.3.3. The mean square error of the arithmetic mean

This size is a statistical indicator, characterizing the dispersion of the mean.

arithmetic obtained from a series of measurements on the same quantity. Practically, it
characterizes the imprecision of the arithmetic mean, defined by the relation [4.14], where X0
represents the true value of the measured size.

m = M–X0 [4.14]

As it stands, the relationship is not operational due to the value of X.0, which is not
accessible to practice. To find a convenient expression, one starts from the expression
real errors, which accumulate and divide by n:

1=
M1–X0
2= M2–X0
...........
I= Mi–X0
...........
n= Mn–X0

( i
) M 1 M 2 ...  M i ...  M n
 X0 M X 0 m [4.15]
n n

The relationship is still impractical, containing both the true value and errors.
real. The relationship is squared and the double products are neglected, which having signs
alternative, the chance to reduce:

2
2
1  2
2  ... i ...
2 2
n i
m 2

n2 n2
2
i
n 2 m2 [4.16]

Using the definitions of true errors and residuals [4.4] and [4.5a]
results successively:

Mi= i+ X0= vi+ M; i= vI+ (M–X0)

i= vI+ m 4.17

To remove the alternating signs, the relation [4.17] is squared and

summarize for the n values in the measurement series:

100
 2
1 v12 m 2 2mv1
2
2 v22 m 2 2mv2
.....
2
i vI2 m 2 2mvI
.....
2
n vn2 m 2 2mvn

2
i
v 2 nm
i
2
 2m(v v .. v) 1 2 n

i
2
v 2 nm
i
2
[4.18]

From relations [4.16] and [4.18] it results:

n 2 m2 v 2 nm
i
2
; m 2(n2 n) v2 i

vi2
m 4.19
n ( n  1)

Relationship [4.19] is used to calculate the mean square error of the mean.
arithmetic. Practically, this represents the error we make if we consider
the true value of the arithmetic mean of the measurement array.

4.3.4. Reducing random errors with the number of measurements

From relationships [4.13] and [4.19] the connection between the quadratic error of the mean results.
arithmetic and standard error:
m0
m [4.20]
n

This expression shows how errors decrease depending on the number of

measurements. The graphical representation of the dependence from relationship [4.20] shows that a reduction
the significant error is only calculated for the first measurements: at n = 4, the average error is
reduce to half, and the reduction to a quarter of the error is made for n = 16 measurements
(Figure 4.2). Repeating the measurement a greater number of times (more than 4-5 times)
it is practically unjustified, since the accuracy gain achieved is small. Therefore, if you
to achieve a certain measurement accuracy (m), it is preferable to choose a
instrument with good precision (m)0).
The relationship [4.20] can solve a series of practical problems, such as:
the selection of the measuring instrument (m0) to achieve the required accuracy (m)
from a certain number (n) of measurements,
establishing the number of measurements (n) to be made with a certain instrument (m0)
to achieve the required precision (m).
Although the occurrence of errors is purely random, it has been found that random errors
follow certain laws, determined by mathematical probabilities. These laws allow for
we know the probability of the occurrence of an error of a certain value or having the value
within a certain range.

101
 Figure 4.2. Reduction of random errors with the number of measurements

4.3.5. Distribution of random errors. The Gaussian curve

Let's consider that a very large number of operations have been performed on the same quantity.
direct measurements, of the same weight, resulting in the individual values M1,M2, .. ,Mi, . ...
MnFor this sequence of values, from which we assumed errors have been eliminated, it is possible
calculate the arithmetic mean and, based on this, the values of the residual errorsi.
The error values, with positive or negative signs, are plotted on the x-axis of a graph, while in
The frequency of occurrence of errors of a certain size is plotted (figure 4.2).

Figure 4.3. The Gaussian Curve Figure 4.4. Shape of the Gaussian curve
the precision of the measurements

The enveloping curve obtained is given by a relationship established for the first time by
Carl Friedrich Gauss. It represents the normal distribution of random errors.
and is also known as Gauss's decurba or Gauss's bell, being given by
the relationship

h 2 2
y e h v [4.21]

The formula above represents an indicator of measurement accuracy.

the base of the natural logarithm, and introduces random error. The curve exhibits a maximum at
the axes of ordinates and has two inflection points. The precision index characterizes
the precision of the measurement: the higher the value, the longer the curve gets
inverse. The elongated curves denote a pronounced clustering of errors around the value zero,
that is, a precise measurement, since very small errors have the highest frequency.
Flattened curves, specific for smaller values of h, indicate measurements more
slightly neglected, where the frequency of small errors is close to that of larger errors
(figure 4.4).

102
 Relation [4.21] allows for determining the probability that the error has the value
in the interval a-b, given:
b b
h 2
Pab ydv e h v dv 4.22
a a

Based on the distribution function and its graph, it was possible to determine that the distribution
errors are made according to the following principles (laws):
the limiting principle: random errors cannot exceed, in absolute value, a
a certain limit, which corresponds to the error produced by the simultaneous action of all causes
there are errors,
the principle of causality: errors with a small absolute value are more numerous than
errors with high absolute value,
the distributive principle: if the number of measurements is large, the positive errors
sunt la fel de numeroase ca acelea negative,
the probabilistic principle: the arithmetic mean of random errors tends to zero
when the number of measurements is large.

4.3.6. Probable error, limit error, relative errors

The study of error distribution allows for the assessment of the chances of occurrence of certain errors.
random, which is relevant to the practice of measurements for establishing tolerances. In
Table 4.1 contains such values (given according to the accuracy of the device)
measure) and their probability of occurrence.

Table 4.1. The chance of occurrence of accidental errors

2
The error m0 m0 2m0 2.5m0 3m 0
3
The chance of occurrence 1/2 1/3 1/23 1/90 1/500

The table above presents importance:

the probable error, mp, what is the corresponding probability of occurrence
suddenly at two measurements (50%),

2
mp m0 [4.23]
3
-the limit error, mlimthis corresponds to a probability of occurrence of a
at 500 measurements (1/500) and it is the largest error we can expect in
during a measurement. Its chance of occurrence is very low; this error is also
name maximum fear of.

mlim= 3 m0 [4.24]

From the table, it can be observed that the probability of making an error is equal to the accuracy.
the device has an error equal to 2m once every three measurements0the chance of occurring
one time in 23 measurements, and an error of size 3m0the chance of occurrence once every 90
measurements.
If the size of the error is dependent on the measured size, then
impose the calculator on the unit of measurement. For example, in the case of measuring
of distances, the absolute error made is not always relevant to
the precision of the measurement. If, for example, a distance of 50m was measured with a precision

103
of 1cm and another of 500m with the same precision, then differentiation can only be done just
by the relative error,

m
mrel 4.24
M

where m represents the error made, in absolute value, and M is the measured value. In
In the above case, the relative error is for the first example 0.01/50 = 2x10-4, and in
the second case 0.01/500=2x10-5which shows that this is more accurate than the first.

4.4. PROPAGATION OF ERRORS IN INDIRECT MEASUREMENTS

AND DIRECT

This is the case of an indirect measurement of a quantity, u, which is deduced from

old elements measured directly (for example from 2 elements, x and y):

u = f(x, y) 4.25

Each of the sizes measured directly has errors; in this

the issue of determining the error is raised you, it affects their value. They are made
the notations:
x, y - the error that accompanies the determination of the respective sizes x
u – this is the error that accompanies the determination of the size.
With these, the relationship can be written as:

u + u = f(x+ x, y+ y) 4.26

The function f is developed in Taylor series and only the term of the development is kept.
Order 1. Terms of order 2 and higher can be neglected because the values and and are
small
1 f f 1 f2 2
f
f(x+ x, y+ y) = f(x, y) + x y 2
x 2
 y2 . . .
!1x y 2! x x2
f f
f(x+ x, y+ y) = u + u f(x, y) + x y [4.27]
x y

Considering the relationship [4.25], it follows:

f f
u x y 4.28
x y

The increases and they are actually random errors and are not known as
size and sign, so we can replace them with the average errors mxand myIn order to escape
the alternating signs are squared, and the error we can consider it an error
average total, mt:
2 2
f f
mt mx  m 4.29
x x y

104
 The relationship [4.29] represents the law of propagation of random errors in
indirect measurements.
If the sizes are measured under the same conditions, then the differentials from
the relationship [4.29] becomes:
f f
1, 1 4.30
x y

In this case, the previous relationship becomes the law of propagation of random errors.
in direct measurements:

mt mx2 m y2 [4.31]

If the measurement errors are equal to each other, we addx=myit reaches the law
of error propagation in direct measurements of equal weights:

mt m2 4.32

It is observed that the relationship [4.25] was considered in its simplest form,
of two variables. The relationships are similar even if the quantity is
function of multiple variables (x, y, z, t, ...).

Self-assessment test at chapter 2: Measuring distances

Define the following concepts:

measurement
direct measurement, indirect measurement, conditional measurement
measurement of the same weight / of different weights,
tolerance
the precision of a measurement,
the accuracy of a measurement
error, apparent error, instrumental error
mistake
systematic error
the mean squared error of a single measurement,
the mean squared error of the arithmetic mean,
- eroare probabilă, eroare limită, eroare relativă

Provide practical examples of conditioned measurements

Demonstrate the properties of apparent errors.
Show the practical importance of the error reduction law with the number of
measurements.
List the principles of probabilities.
To determine the error produced in measuring a rectangular area at
each side was measured with a tape measure with an accuracy of ± 2cm.

105
Lesson 12

CHAPTER 5: CONCEPTS OF GEODESY AND CARTOGRAPHY

Objectives of chapter 5
The object of topography, as has been shown, is the elevation in plan, which
it involves carrying out a set of works resulting in the return of the land on plans and
profile, both in digital and analog format. It is essentially a process carried out in more
many steps - of design work, measurements, calculations and representations - using equipment
diversified which, in the modern understanding, provides nearly complete automation of
main operations.
In principle, the surface of the land is represented in the projection on a plane.
Horizontal, situated in a certain position, all distances being reduced in the same proportion, given by
reporting ladder. The problem, apparently simple, becomes complicated in the case of extensive surfaces, including
the area of the national territory, due to the curvature of the Earth and the unevenness of the terrain. In order to
ensures the unity and homogeneity of the elevations, including their connection with neighboring lots, is required
the compliance with certain precise standards in the execution of the works. In recent years, the framing
the requirements of the European community have brought and will bring new changes to the old standards,
some still in force with us.
The complex activity of a surveyor can sometimes take place in such territories.
stretched, when it is found that knowledge from some border areas is needed,
interference with other disciplines. We refer in this context to cartography and geodesy, disciplines
scientific measurements of the earth, with specific fields of activity and working standards, well
precise.
The realization of topographic surveys on such large areas is dependent on the first ones.
two activities that provide the basis and infrastructure for the works. Under these conditions, from
the vast knowledge of the two mentioned disciplines, each with its own subject of study, has been selected
only some notions and aspects of geodesy and cartography are presented, which interfere with
the activity of the surveyor and what is within his competence. Only the knowledge and mastery of them
allows them to understand and to know how to use them.

5.1. GEODESY AND CARTOGRAPHY. TRAINED

THE DIMENSIONS OF THE EARTH

Geodesy is the science that deals with the measurement and representation of the surface.
of the Earth, its shape and dimensions. The practical importance for topography is
because geodesy establishes and provides various reference surfaces and
the point networks (geodetic networks) that serve as support for the elevations
topographic. Solving geodesy problems is based on measurements
geometric, astronomical, gravimetric, which take into account the curvature of the Earth.
Cartography is the discipline that deals with the representation of the Earth's surface.
on a flat or extendable surface in a plane. The representation of the curved surface of
the Earth's surface on a flat (or unfoldable in plan) is the subject of study of
projection systems.
The shape of the Earth, ignoring its irregularities, has been since
antiquity considered to be round. Great thinkers from antiquity (Pythagoras, Thales
from Miletus, Eratosthenes) supported this. The last of them determined for
for the first time, in the year 246 BC, the diameter of the Earth's radius (considered as a sphere)

106
using the measurement of a meridian arc, by the position of the Sun in the sky at a moment
bi the size of the shadow of an obelisk.
Eratosthenes observed that on the day of the solstice
In summer, the sun reflects perfectly at noon in a ...
a deep well from the city of Siena - Egypt (now Aswan),
that is, it is located at the zenith of this site.
the same day at the same hour, the obelisk in the city
Alexandria (presumably it would be on the same meridian as
Siena casts a shadow whose size has
allow to calculate the angle angle α made by
the rays of the sun vertical to the place, representing a
50-a part of a circle - 7012’ = 7,20(figure 5.1).
This means that the angle at the center of the sphere
The Earth is contained within its sides a 50th part
from its circumference. The distance Siena–
Fig. 5.1. Determination of the Earth's radius Alexandria was measured, resulting in l ≈ 794 km,
of Eratosthenes (246 BC) which means a circumference of approximately
794x50 = 39.700km and a radius of 6.320km.

Around 1600, Snellius first used the method of triangulation.

for which various lengths were determined using chains of triangles that have at least one
common [Link] demonstrated that, theoretically, the shape of the Earth must be one
corresponding to a solid of revolution, namely an ellipsoid.
Since the Earth is not a homogeneous body, having different densities in various directions.
different, its shape is a unique one, called geoid. It can be defined as cao
surface of the same gravitational potential, which coincides with the calm surface of
of open seas and oceans and is characterized by the fact that at each point the normal
this is represented by the direction of gravitational acceleration (given by the plumb line).
The notion of geoid was introduced in 1873 by Listing and designates a surface
complex, which cannot be expressed by a mathematical equation. Starting from this
considering, it was necessary to adopt simpler figures that could be expressed
mathematics that differs as little as possible from the geoid.
The surface of the geoid (which is also called a reference surface or level surface)
zero) serves as a reference in determining quotas. Also, on the geoid it
transposes the topographic surface of the land (the real surface, which is the subject of
measurements and representations) through vertical designs.

5.2. REFERENCE SURFACES

The reference ellipsoid is a conventional geometric surface with respect to which

the surface of the geoid is defined. The ellipsoid is obtained by rotating a plane ellipse around
the direction of one of the axes. The equation of the meridian ellipse (figure 5.2) can be written as a function of
the values of the semi-axes a and b:

x2 y2
 1 [5.1]
a2 b2

Since the 18th century

meridian arcs were measured at
different latitudes, resulting in different
dimensions for the meridian ellipse of
the reference ellipsoid. A size
importantă care caracterizează elipsa
Figure 5.2 The elements of the meridian ellipse
esthetic torture

107
 a b
f [5.2]
a
In our country, various ellipsoids have been used over time, the criterion of
the choice is that of achieving the best approximation of the geoid in the national territory area
(table 5.1).

Table 5.1. Parameters of some ellipsoids used in Romania or worldwide

The name Year Semi-axis sea Turtle, f Usage
the ellipsoid of determination a, [m] in Romania
Bessel 1841 6377397,115 1/299.1 1873–1916
Clarke 1880 6378243.000 1/293.5 1916–1930
Hayford 1909 6378388.000 1/297.0 1930–1951
Krasovski 1940 6378245.000 1/298.3 1951–present
WGS 1984 1984 6378137.000 1/298,257 GNSS positioning
GRS 1980 1980 6378137.000 1/298,2572 propus (Stereo 2010)

On the land portion, the geoid surface is above that of the ellipsoid, and on
the surface of the seas or oceans the surface of the ellipsoid is above that of the geoid
(figure 5.3). The surface of the ellipsoid serves as a reference for determining
geographic-geodetic coordinates of first-order points in the geodetic network
of triangulation. These points are projected from the topographic surface with the help of
normals to the ellipsoid.

Figure 5.3. Physical (topographic) surface, the geoid and the ellipsoid

The ellipsoid represents one of the reference shapes of the Earth. Although it is a
geometrical surface, not all determinations on the ellipsoid are made easily. Given
the reduced flattening of the ellipsoid (approximately 1/300, according to table 5.1), in certain
situations can approximate the ellipsoid with a mean sphere, which is, geometrically speaking, a
more convenient surface for a series of calculations. For this sphere, it can be
calculate average radius (figure 5.4):

R R pRn [5.3]

In relation [5.3] and figure 5.4 Rprepresents the radius of curvature of the meridian ellipse that
thirteen through point P and the two poles, and Rn this curvature radius of perpendicular ellipses
(normal) on the plane of the previously considered ellipse.

108
 The average radius of the sphere is equivalent to
variable with latitude, increasing from
equator towards the poles. At our leveling it
is considered to have 6379 km. For the whole
a sphere equivalent can be established
of the same area or of the same volume
with the reference ellipsoid used. In
in this case, the radius of the equivalent sphere can be
consider approximately the date of the relationship [5.4]
where the notations have the meaning from the figure

Figure 5.4. Determining the radius

The resulting value is 6371.2 km
medium spheres
a  a b
R 5.4
3

The sphere of average radius (or the Gaussian sphere) is practically used for calculations.
specific support networks or projection systems (spherical excess, convergence
of the meridians, reduction to chord, distortion of distances). For limited sections,
the equivalent surface of the sphere can also be used as a reference surface for
the representation of portions of the ellipsoid.
For the case of small surfaces, the position can be determined with some approximations.
points directly in the projection plane. This is the case, for example, of topographical networks.
(of desire and uplift), which is calculated directly in the projection plane adopted through
the projection system.

5.3. COORDINATE SYSTEMS

The representation of points on the surface of the Earth on planes or maps is done
only in relation to a reference system, through specific coordinates.
The position of a point P on the globe is determined by its coordinates on the geoid when it is
astronomical coordinates on the reference ellipsoid, when they are called
geodetic coordinates.
The astronomical coordinates are longitude and latitude. They are defined
the vertical face that passes through P, given by the plumb line (figure 5.5).
The astronomical longitude of point P is noted with Pand is defined as
dihedral angle formed by the plane of the origin meridian (meridian 0) with the meridian that
It passes through the considered point. Longitude can be east for points located in the east.
from the 0 meridian (which passes through Greenwich, London), with values between 0oand 180osauce
west, with values between 0oand 180o, for points located to the west of the zero meridian.
Astronomical latitude, Pthis is the angle formed by the vertical of the place with the plane
equatorial. The latitude can be northern for points located north of the plane
the equator or southern, for points located to the south.
The height of a point is considered in relation to the geoid surface, regarded as
zero level surface.
Geodetic longitude and latitude, LPand BPthey are defined similarly on
the reference ellipsoid. The height of a point relative to the ellipsoid, H, is obtained by adding to
the point quota, Z, the distance between the geoid and the ellipsoid.

109
 The astronomical and geodetic coordinates have very similar values. The difference is
it is due to the angle made between the vertical line drawn through the same point on the ellipsoid and on the geoid,
difference called vertical deviation. If denoted by the deviation component on
latitude and with component along longitude, the transition relations from the coordinates
Astronomical to geodetic can be written:

B= - ; L = - sec 5.5

Figure 5.5. Astronomical coordinates Figure 5.6. Coordinates

rectangular

The rectangular coordinates, X and Y, define the position of the point in consideration in a
projection plane (figure 5.6.). The projection plane system in force at the new axis X
date of the projection in the plane of the meridian of 25oeastern longitude, and the Y axis is
perpendicular to X at the intersection point with the parallel of 46o.

5.4. REDUCTION OF SOME GEODETIC OBSERVATIONS TO

REFERENCE SURFACE

Some sizes measured between points on the topographic surface of the earth,
At large distances, they must be corrected, meaning brought to the reference surface (to the ellipsoid.
or in the projection plan). Other sizes are determined by substituting the ellipsoid with
Gauss sphere.
Among the corrections that may hold greater importance in the works
The topographic ones are those for centering the sight, spherical excess, and convergence of the meridians.

5.4.1. Correction of visa centering

Let's assume two geodesic points A and B, marked by pyramids.

marked by ground markers. Let's assume that the signal projection from B is eccentric
relative to the terminal, and the signal from A coincides with the terminal (figure 5.7). If on the ground it is
It stops at point A and aims at the signal from B; to pass the aim to the point, it must
the correction brought With the notations in the figure, it follows successively:

sine sin Dbs Dbs

; sin1cc
cc
sin ; cc
sin
cc
[5.6]
Dbs D D D

110
 In figure 5.7 the value b-s it is measured in the field with a pocket compass, results
from the difference in orientations, Db-s it is measured with a pocket tape measure, and it is determined
from the coordinates of the terminals in A ș i B. For example, for D 0.12m =
b-s
cc
122.31 degrees equals 9670 meters, it results in = + 9 Therefore, if the aim is from point A towards
signal B, to bring the visa to terminal B, 9 is addedccto the reading towards B.

Figure 5.7. Centering correction of the sighting devices

5.4.2. Spherical excess

The values of angles measured on the physical surface of the Earth are different from
the projects designed in a horizontal plan, the difference being highlighted especially for views
long, on the order of kilometers. If the interior angles of such a sphere are measured
of the triangle with long sides ABC, the sum of the angles, assumed to be unaffected by errors,
exceeds 200gon by an amount called spherical excess.

+ + = 200 + [5.7]

To evaluate the size of the spherical excess, the notations in figure 5.8 are considered.
using the equivalent Gauss sphere of radius R. The vertical planes in which it tilts
theodolite's telescope installed in turn at the three stations determines by intersection with the sphere
three circles, which in the visible hemisphere give rise to the surfaces S1(area of triangle ABC)
S2,S3,S4Each measured angle corresponds to one zone in the viewed hemisphere.
the surface is a function of the angle (figure 5.8):

2 R2 S 1 S 2
200
2 R2 S 1 S 3
200
2 R2 S 1 S 4
200
[5.8]

Figure 5.8. Spherical excess

The area of the entire visible hemisphere is given by the relation:

S1+ S2, + S3+ S4 equals 2 R2 5.9

111
 If the relationships [5.8] are summed up and divided by 2 R2results successively:
2 R2
S1 S 2 S 3 S 4 2S 1    
200g
2 R2
2 R 2 2S1     ;
200g
200g S1 2000000cc S1
  200g ;
R2 R2

cc S1 cc
[5.10]
R2

Spheric excess expressed in seconds, is therefore proportional to the size

the surface of triangle ABCde on the sphere (S1With the help of the spherical excess, the directions
Determinants on the physical surface of the Earth can be projected onto the projection plane.

5.4.3. Convergence of the meridians

If the distance between the observed points is large and it unfolds approximately from-
along a parallel, the direct azimuth of the direction and the inverse azimuth differ by a
quantity called the convergence of the meridians. Azimuth is understood as the angle measured in
sense or orientation between the direction of geographic north and a direction in the plane (figure 5.9). According to
the definition, the convergence of the meridians is given by the relationship:

= AMN(ANM 180o) 5.11

a b
Figure 5.9. Convergence of meridians defined a-on the equivalent sphere, b-in plane

If points M and N are kilometers apart along a

parallels are linked through direct observation, triangulation or polygonal surveys,
there is a possibility of exceeding the tolerance in closing on orientations, the measurements have
This is correctly executed. This is due to the convergence of the meridians.
distances that do not exceed 30–40 km, the expression of convergence can be determined with
the help of figure 5.9a. In this case, the arc MN of length can be expressed by the difference
of length, but depends on the distance MV and the angle of convergence .

112
 2 r
l 5.12a
3600
2 MN
l [5.12b]
3600

The value of length MN can be replaced by r/sin. using the triangle

right triangle VMO (with a right angle at M). If this value is substituted in [5.12b],
the relationships [5.12] are equalized among themselves and take into account that the angle of convergence and the difference
they are small in length, it results successively:

2 r 2 r
l
3600 3600sin

’’ ’’
= sine [5.13]

The relationship [5.13] shows us that, for distances of up to 40 km, the convergence
the meridians are a function of the difference in longitude between points M and N and of
average latitude, , the points. From the viewpoint of latitude, it is observed that,
for the same difference in longitude, the value of convergence is minimal at the Equator
(sin = 0) increases as the points are closer to the poles.

5.5 CONCEPTS REGARDING CARTOGRAPHIC PROJECTIONS.

THEIR CLASSIFICATION

The representation in a plane of curved surfaces is done through the use of a

projection system. This issue has been a concern since ancient times for
scientists who tried to establish the mathematical laws of transition
measured elements on curved surfaces (in our case on the equivalent sphere or on
ellipsoid) on a plane or on another developable surface in the plane. The adoption of a projection
cartographic, that is, the way to transition from the curved surface of the Earth to a
flat surface, leads to the deformation of the measured elements (angles, distances)
surfaces or shapes). Regardless of the chosen projection system, it cannot be preserved
deformed only one or at most two of the measured elements. Points and lines
where no deformations occur are called points of zero deformation. In mode
practically, first the transfer of points from the terrain's topographic surface is done on
the reference ellipsoid or equivalent pseudosphere and then the transition of points from
the surface of the ellipsoid on a flat or developable surface in the plane (cylinder, cone), through
adoption of a cartographic projection.
The projection of points from the ellipsoid onto a plane is called geodetic projection, and of
on the equivalent sphere on the plane - cartographic projection

There are numerous criteria for classifying cartographic projections, but a few
they are more useful for practice.
Thus, according to the nature of the deformations (of the elements that change through
projection), there are projections:
conformal, which preserves angles undistorted but distorts surfaces
and the distances,

113
 equivalent, which maintains the size of the surface unchanged, but modifies
the angles and the distances,
-arbitrate (equidistant), where distances remain undeformed only after
certain directions, but distorts angles and surfaces.

After the type of geometric surface using which the transition to the plane is made,
there are azimuthal, cylindrical, conical, polyconic, polyhedral projections. a. These projections
It can be recognized by the appearance of the networks, that is, the image it projects.
the network of meridians and parallels.
Azimuthal projections are those where the transition of points is made directly onto a
plan, which is secant or tangent to the equivalent sphere. Depending on the point of view.
ales (the point from which the projecting rays are considered to originate), azimuthal projections
they can (figure 5.10):

-gnomonics, when the point of view is

at the center of the sphere, O (Pg),
-stereographic, as is the case with
Romania, if the center of perspective, S, is located
diametral end of the tangent point (Ps);
orthographic, when the designers have their
the origin to infinity, meaning they are perpendicular to
the projection plan (Po).
Depending on the position of the plane in relation to
sphere, azimuthal projections can be secant planes
sautangent.
It is observed that all directions that pass
at the point of tangency is preserved during the transition
Figure 5.10. Azimuthal projections from the sphere to the plane, and the distances are distorted
on the tangent plane the more so as they are farther away from
the point of tangency.

Cylindrical projections (figure 5.11)

those are the ones where the portion on the sphere that
will be represented and designed more
first on a cylinder tangent to the sphere, then
cylinders unfold on the plane. Such a
proiecț ie a fost folosită la noi în ț ară până în
the year 1970 (Gauss–Krüger projection). In
in her framework, the Earth was divided into zones of
0
starting from the prime meridian
six each

Figure 5.11. The principle of projection in (Greenwich), with an axial meridian, at

the middle of each zone. The equivalent sphere or
Gauss-Krüger cylindrical system
the reference ellipsoid is wrapped with a
cylinder tangent to the axial meridian. After
the design of points on a cylinder, the cylinder is cut along the generators that pass through the
Two police officers unfold on the plan.
Conic projections use a cone tangent to the sphere as an intermediate surface.
between sphere and plane. The points are transferred onto the cone, then it unfolds after being cut along a
generators.
The choice of a specific projection system is made based on various criteria, of which there are several.
amintesc: forma, mărimea teritoriului de reprezentat ș i scopul reprezentării. Nevoile
engineers or military are particularly satisfied with compliant projections, which maintain

114
the similarity of figures, and in cadastre equivalent projections are preferred, which preserve
constant size of the surfaces.
The elements that characterize a projection system are: the nature of the projection,
the system of plane coordinate axes, the law of deformation of distances, the reduction to chord
the division of the map into sheets.
In Romania, it was used from the end of the 19th century until the First World War.
worldwide, equivalent projection Good, using the Bessel ellipsoid as the reference ellipsoid
for Eastern Muntenia and Moldova and the Clarke ellipsoid for Western Muntenia
Oltenia. In 1930, the stereographic projection on the secant plane and the Hayford ellipsoid was adopted.
but in 1951 the Gauss - Krüger cylindrical projection and the Krasovski ellipsoid were adopted.
in the 1970s, stereographic projection returned to the secant plane on the ellipsoid
Krasovski, with improved elements compared to the one from 1930. In 2010 it was developed.
the project proposal for transitioning to a new projection, also stereographic, but
renouncing the Krasovsky ellipsoid and using the officially adopted ellipsoid in the Community
European - GRS 80. The project is nearing completion, so currently (year
2014) the stereographic projection introduced in 1970 is valid.

5.6. STEREOGRAPHIC PROJECTION 70 ON A SINGLE SECANT PLANE

Time analysis of the ancient Gauss-Kruger cylindrical projections has shown that, compared to
our configuration creates a series of disadvantages, which have led to
the necessity of adopting a stereographic projection that would better address the issues
dedicated to the needs of practice.

5.6.1. Nature of the projection, the axis system

Stereographic projection 70 is an azimuthal (on the plane), perspective (se

I use the laws of linear perspective), shape (preserves angles). The plane of
the projection is secant, being lowered by 3.502m compared to the tangent plane to the equivalent sphere.

Figure 5.12. The coordinate axis system in the Stereo 70 system

Almost the entire surface area can fit within a circle with a radius of
approximately 400km. The center of the circle is also considered the origin of the system.
the rectangular axis X0Y is located to the N of the city of Făgăraș , at the intersection of the parallel
0
from 46 northern latitude at the 25th meridian0eastern longitude (figure 5.12). It results

115
that the entire country is divided into four quadrants. The OX axis has a direction towards N, while the OY axis
it is directed towards the east.
To simplify calculations, in most cases a false system is used.
the axe, whose origin is translated in the same plane 500km to the south and west; in this way
the points referenced in the system are either false or only positive coordinates.

5.6.2. The law of deformation of distances

At the crossing of measured distances

on the sphere in the projection plane occur
size modifications of these.
simplification, first consider a
tangent plane to the sphere of radius R.
The deformation the difference is considered
between the length on the sphere, d, and the one that
corresponds to the projection, d’(figure 5.13).

= d’ –d = 2Rtg 2R = 2R(tg - )
[5.14]

Starting from the relationship [5.14], we

develop functionality in McLaurin series
(this variant of the Taylor series, in case of
Figure 5.13. Deformation of distances particular in which the function is continuous and
in stereographic projection on tangent plane is continuously differentiable at zero, as it is
case functionitg). Series development
McLaurin is done, in the general case of the function f(x), using the values of the function and
higher-order derivatives at zero:

x x2 x3 x n (n)
f(x) f(0) f'(0) f''(0) f'''(0) ... f (0) ... [5.15]
1! 2! 3! n!

If it develops into a Maclaurin series function from the relation [5.14] it can be written
successive, considering that sin(0) = 0 and cos(0) = 1:

1 2
2sin0 3
1 2sin 20
tg tg(0)   2  ....
1 cos20 1 2 cos30 1 2 3 cos40
3
2 5
   ... [5.16]
3 3 5

Only the first two terms have been retained from the development, as the larger it is
the range of the term, the smaller his contribution to the value of the sum. Taking into account
from this relationship [5.14] it follows successively:

3 3
2R(   ) 2R 5.17
3 3
The relationship [5.17] expresses the value of the deformation as a function of the angle. the cart
this is, in practice, very difficult to determine. That is why it is expressed function of higher values
easy to determine (d,R) and then replace in [5.17]:

116
 d
d 2R ; [5.18a]
2R
d 3
d3
2R [5.18b]
3 8R312R2

The relationship [5.18b] provides the value of the deformation of the distance when the edge passes onto the sphere.
tangent plane equivalent. Most often, the interest lies in the deformation
unit of distance (1km) at the crossing on the plane This value is obtained
differentiating the distance function defined by [5.18b].

'
3d2 d2
u 2 [5.19]
12R (d)
4R 2

The above relationship shows us that the unit of distance (1km) is deformed.
proportional to the square of the distance to the tangent point (O).
Considering the actual conditions for our country, for various values of
distance results:

d = 0 km u= 0; d = 100 km u= 7,1 cm/km; d= 200km u= 25,6 cm/km;

d = 300 km u= 56,3 cm/km ; d = 400 km u= 98,3 cm/km

These values indicate the unit deformation for a tangent plane to the sphere
equivalent.
The Stereographic 70 projection system, however, uses a secant plane for the purpose of
to reduce the deformations of distances in the areas farthest from the center of the system
of the axis. This plan is secant to the equivalent sphere at a depth of 3.502m, giving
birth through the intersection of a circle with a radius of 201.72 km (figure 5.12). On this circle
the unit deformations are zero, which is why it is also called the circle of null deformations.
Figure 5.14 illustrates the position of the secant plane in stereo projection 70.

Figure 5.14. The position of the secant plane in Stereographic Projection 70

For the case of the secant plan, taking into account the observations above, the deformation
unit becomes:

d2
u  0.256m 5.20
4R 2
By substituting for various values of the distance, the following deformations result.
unit: d = 0 km u = - 25,6cm/km; d = 100 km u = - 18,5cm/km; d= 200 km
u 0 cm/km (the circle of no deformations has a radius of approximately 200 km); d = 300

117
km u 31 cm/km; d = 400 km u 73 cm/km. From the relationship and figure, it can be observed that
The unit deformations are negative inside the circle of zero deformations (the distances
decreasing from sphere to plane) and positive outside (distances are converted more
from sphere to plane). Overall, the value of deformations in the territory is lower.
than in the case of the tangent plan. As shown, the unit deformations are smaller and
as in the old Gauss-Kruger projection system.

5.6.3. The law of reduction to chord

String reduction refers to the distortion of the directions passed from the sphere.
equivalent on the projection plane. All directions on the sphere are projected onto the plane as
curved lines, except for those that pass through the opposite point of the stereographic S. These
Directions are projected through lines that pass through the origin of the coordinate axes O.
The arbitrary direction 1-2 on the sphere will be projected onto the plane through a curve, forming a
spherical triangle with the directions O-1 and O-2 passing through the origin (figure 5.15). Under the conditions
In statements, the only side of the triangle affected by the spherical excess is side 1-2.
According to figure 5.14 it follows:

A12plan A12sphere [5.21a]

2
A21planA sphere
21
 [5.21b]
2
If the distance between 1 and 2 is large enough
(in terms of kilometers), it must be taken into account
the size of the spherical excess, given by the relation [5.10].
The size of the surface can be calculated using the relationship:
0 0 1
1 1
S x1y11  x1y2 x2y1  [5.22]
2 2
x2y 21
Under these conditions, the relationship [5.10] becomes:
cc
S
Figure 5.15. Reduction cc cc
 x1y2 x2y1  5.23
directions to the string 2R 2 4R 2

With the value from relation [5.23], the azimuths in the plane are determined from the relations [5.21],
eliminating the effect of spherical excess.
It is noted that, in the case of this determination, the coordinates of points 1 and 2
the relations [5.23] are those that are real, which are not affected by the translation by 500 km on
southwest direction.

5.6.4. Dividing the map into sheets

The national territory cannot be represented on a single map, as it might

results in large, impractical dimensions. Therefore, the map is divided into plan sheets (trapezoids),
which have reasonable sizes from the perspective of their practical use. To use them
uniquely locate or to easily bring them together for obtaining the representation
In larger areas of land, the plan sheets have specific names depending on the scale.
what they are composed of. The rules that underlie the naming of the plan sheets are defined by
the rules of nomenclature of plans and maps.
With the introduction of the Stereographic 70 projection system, in order to connect with
the ease of new plans with the old ones has been considered to maintain the division into sheets
maps from the Gauss–Kruger system. Thus, the map sheets from Stereo 70 are

118
delimitations of the projections of the same meridians and parallels, hence it maintains the same
nomenclature like in the old system, except for the sheets at a scale of 1:2000. In this way they have
the withdrawals made until 1970 remain valid, and can be supplemented with new ones.
The aspect of the network of meridians and parallels projected on the plane (which bounds the sheets of
the plan) is specific to stereographic projection: the meridians project as straight lines
concurrent at a point, while the parallels are arcs of concentric circles.

Lascara 1:1,000,000
the whole globe is divided
of 6oalong the meridians and
zone of 40along
of the parallels. Fuseless are
number with Arabic numerals,
starting from 1 at the meridian
the meridian of Greenwich, and
the capital letters from
equator to the north. In the area
territory Romania
nomenclature of the sheets that include
the national territory is: K-34, K-
35, L-34, L-35, M-34, M-35
Figure 5.16. The appearance of the network at a scale of 1:1,000,000. (figure 5.16)
nomenclature of plan sheets

For the immediately lower stairs, the nomenclature is created starting from
1:1.000.00, respecting the following rules (figure 5.17):
- the scale 1:500,000, the large trapezium (for example L-35) is divided into four sheets
by the means of the sides, noted with A, B, C, D; such a trapezoid is L-35-B,
- the scale 1:200,000, the large trapeze (L-35) is divided into 36 trapezes by
dividing the sides into 6 equal parts. The trapezoids are numbered with Roman numerals from
the I the XXXVI; such a trapezoid is L-35-D-XXIV,
- the scale 1:100,000, the large trapezium (for example L-35) is divided into 144 sheets by
dividing the sides into 12 equal parts. The trapezes are marked with Arabic numbers from 1 to
144; such a trapezoid is L-35-143.

Figure 5.17. Nomenclature of plan sheets for scales 1:1,000.00 – 1:100,000

119
 For scales ranging from 1:100,000 to 1:5,000, it is also maintained
Nomenclature according to Gauss-Kruger. The nomenclature of the sheets at this scale is obtained
starting from the nomenclature of the plan sheet at 1:100,000 in which they are contained (figure 5.18).
The scale 1:50,000 trapezoid at scale 1:100,000 (for example L-35-17) is divided.
into four parts, numbered A, B, C, D (L-35-17-B); these in turn are divided into 4
parts for 1:25,000: a, b, c, d (L-35-17-C-c) and such a part in 4 for the scale
1:10,000: 1, 2, 3, 4 (L-35-17-A-a-3). For obtaining the plan sheets at scale 1:5000,
the initial trapezoid is divided into 16 on each side, resulting in 256 sheets, which are numbered
with Arabic numerals (L-35-17- 253). The scale 1:2000 shows the differentiation from the numbering
in the Gauss - Kruger system. In the old numbering, the trapezoid was divided by 5,000 into 9
numbered parts a, b, …, i; in the Stereo system, the sheet nomenclature at 1:2,000 is obtained
dividing the sheet into 4 parts at 1:5,000, numbered 1, 2, 3, 4 (L-35-17-253-1).
For the identification of a sheet, a schematic representation is used (the skeleton)
maps), which includes the method of successive division of the plane sheets as well as the network of
meridians and parallels that create the geographic framework.

Figure 5.18. Nomenclature of plan sheets for scales 1: 100,000 – 1:5,000

5.7. STEREOGRAPHIC PROJECTION 2010

5.7.1. Generalities, characteristics

Currently, the official positioning of the geodetic network points is in the system
Based on the Krasovski ellipsoid, the stereographic projection plane '70.
In order to align ourselves with the requirements of the European community, it is essential to legislate.
a new reference and coordinate system (RCS) with two components:
- The European Terrestrial Reference System ETRS 89, based on the GRS 80 ellipsoid;
the projection system 2010 adopted by ANCPI and presented in the form
of the project in October 2010.
The implementation and practical realization initially had a deadline for completion.
October 2012 - a date already surpassed. The new system, which will replace the current one
now, defined by the Krasovski ellipsoid and the stereographic projection of 1970, integration will succeed

120
full of national geodetic networks and all projects, in the European system
SRC has obvious operational advantages, opening new perspectives especially for
positioning using satellite navigation systems.

The main characteristics of the stereographic projection 2010 are:

official name: "oblique stereo quasistereographic projection 2010";
the reference ellipsoid: GRS 89, adopted by the countries of the European community;
The pole of projection O, in geographic coordinates, has the position φ = 46.0; λ = 250;
-the projection plan is secant;
the circle of zero deformations (the intersection of the projection plane with the sphere) has its center
in the plane projection of the pole O and radius = 201.718 km;
the origin of the coordinate system is to the north of the city of Făgăraș ;
The coordinate axes of the plane system are: ON with the positive direction towards North
and with a positive meaning towards the East;
to have positive coordinates throughout the country, a system is chosen
of coordinates ("false coordinates") with the origin at 500,000.0m to the South and
500,000.0m to the West.

Se observă că, în ansamblu, există oidentitatea celor mai importante caracteristici

with those of the stereographic projection '70.

5.7.2 Dividing the map into sheets

The division of the map into sheets and the nomenclature of the resulting sections is done in a concept.
different from Stereo 70, replacing the trapezoids curved limited by meridians and parallels with
squares with sides parallel to the coordinate axes.
Punctul de plecareîl constituieaxele de coordonateONș i OE, care împart harta
Romania is divided into four quadrants marked NE, NW, SW, and SE (figure 5.19). The plan sheets are
definite by parallels drawn in the E-W and N-S directions, generating lines, columns, and sections
squares of specific scale dimensions.
The basic scale is 1:100,000. At this scale, the resulting sheets produce parallel lines.
the axis at an interval of 50.0 km, resulting in six to the North and six to the South numbered
with Arabic numbers from 1 to 6 and eight columns for East and West, marked with Roman numerals
from I to VIII (figure 5.19).
The nomenclature of these basic sheets, whose size becomes 50x50cm, includes
the quadrant, the line number and the column number. For example, the sheet NE-5-II, shaded in
Figure 5.19 is located in Bukovina.
The scale 1:250,000 sheets are obtained by bringing parallels to the axes at intervals of 100.0 km.
resulting in map sheets measuring 40x40cm, which actually consist of four defined sheets
the scale 1:100,000.
The nomenclature consists of the names of the dial, the lines, and the columns of the sheets.
1:100,000 from which they are composed. For example, the sheet SE-1-2-V-VI, hatched in the figure.
5.19 covers an area in Banat.

121
Figure 5.19. Division of the map into sheets and nomenclature for scales 1:100,000 and
1:250,000

a b
Figure 5.20. Division of the map into sheets. a- scale 1:50,000 (NE-5-II-B) and 1:25,000 (NE-
5-II-D-c); b- scale 1:10,000 (NE-5-II-B-34)

The map at scale 1:50,000 results from dividing those at scale 1:100,000 into four.
formează pătrate cu latura de 25km) ș i sunt notate de la stînga la dreapta A, B, C, D,
each section measuring 50cmx50cm. The sheets are obtained by dividing at a scale of 1:25,000.
half on the lines and columns of the previous sheets (results in 12.5km x 12.5km) and the notation from
left to right with a, b, c, d.
The corresponding nomenclature for the scale 1:50,000 is NE-5-II-B respectively NE-
5-II-D for 1:25,000 (the hatched sections in figure 5.20a).
The base scale 1:10,000 sections are obtained by dividing the sides into five equal parts.
map sheet at a scale of 1:50,000 (results in squares with a side of 5km). Two twenties are obtained and
five sheets of paper marked 11, 12, ..., 55, as the elements of a matrix, in the sense of
absolute increase in the values of coordinates x and y (figure 5.20b).

122
 The nomenclature of section 1:5,000 is obtained starting from the sheet from which it originates.
scale 1:50,000 is the result of division, for example NE-5-II-B-34 (figure
5.20b).

The following four sheets of plans are obtained by the successive division of those at scale.
immediate below, then applying the corresponding nomenclature (fig.5.21, tab. 5.2)

a b c

Fig. 5.21. Division of the map into sheets: a- scale 1:5,000 (NE-5-II-B-34-b) b- scale
1:2.000(NE-5-II-B-34-23); c- scale 1:1.000(NE-5-II-B-34-23-A) and 1:500(NE-5-II-
B-34-23-D-c)

The division of the map into sheets at scales 1:5,000 – 1:500

Table 5.2
Previous plan sheet Division on No way The resulting sheet Real dimensions Dimensions sheet
Numitor nomenclature lines col. I obtain. scara nomenclature (kmxkm) (cmxcm)
10,000 NE-5-II-B-34 2 2 4 1:5,000 NE-5-II-B-34-b 2.5x2.5 50x50
10,000 NE-5-II-B-34 5 5 25 1:2.000 NE-5-II-B-34-23 1,0x1,0 50x50
2.000 NE-5-II-B-34-23 2 2 4 1:1.000 NE-5-II-B-34-23-A 0.5x0.5 50x50
1.000 NE-5-II-B-34-23-D 2 2 4 1:500 NE-5-II-B-34-23-D-c 0.25x0.25 50x50

Self-assessment test in chapter 5: Concepts of geodesy and cartography

Define the following concepts through explanations and/or drawings:

geodesy
cartography
the geoid,
the reference ellipsoid,
stereographic projection
near zero deformation,

Show through drawing and explain the meaning of geodetic coordinates.

In what situations is the centering correction of the visas taken into account?
In what situations is spherical excess taken into account?
In what situations should one consider the convergence of meridians?
Classify cartographic projections according to various criteria.
What is the practical utility of dividing the map into sheets?

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Lesson 14

CAPITOLUL 6 REȚELE GEODEZICE

Objectives of Chapter 6

The main objective is to present some basic knowledge about

geodetic networks, knowledge that surveyors often need in their activities
Practice. In principle, these networks are made up of a set of points located and
durable marks on the physical surface of the Earth, whose position is determined by
precision, within certain reference systems.
For terrestrial measurements, they have well-defined functions, distinguishing themselves into:
geodetic networks, which effectively serve to determine the shape and dimensions
The Earth ensures the connection with neighboring countries and constitutes the infrastructure of the works.
topo-photogrammetric. They are determined centrally by specialized institutions in
rigorous precision conditions;
geo-topographic networks, with common aspects of the two disciplines, as works
current, within the competence and obligation of the topographic operator, even if partially
executed by others, on command.
The approach to knowledge is differentiated, corresponding to this course, the networks
Geodesy is presented only in principle, with the absolutely necessary concepts for
understanding things.
According to their role, at the national level, three major categories of networks are distinguished:
actual geodesy, of different orders and importance, with multiple functions,
denumită frecventreț ea geodezică. Punctele, folosite curent în lucrările topografice,
in the spatial position defined by coordinates X, Y, Z given in the reference systems
own, previously mentioned;
leveling geodesy, structured into several orders and which provides the basis
elevations, respectively determining altitudes;
the gravimetric network, on which the dynamic methods of determination rely
I formed the dimensions of the Earth.
As distribution and positioning in space, the points of the three mentioned networks
coincide, they are different. Abstracting from the gravimetric network, entirely separate and in
outside of our concerns, the actual geodetic one and the leveling one are
independent, in the sense that they do not have common points.
The functions of geodetic networks, regardless of their nature, are to effectively serve certain
practice purposes, as support for all topographical elevations, regardless of
surface and requirements. To maintain the unity of these works, the integration into the network
Geodesy is mandatory, its points serving both as the starting base and also as
closure or control, with the respective constraints. Likewise, the geodetic networks
are used for scientific purposes related to determining the shape and dimensions
Of the Earth, of the crustal movements, the connection with the neighboring networks, etc.
The utility of these networks must be viewed, in turn, in a differentiated manner: those proper-
they are commonly used in current works, and in those (geodetic) level differences
it is used less frequently, only in specific altimetry operations.

6.1. GENERALITIES, TYPES. THE TRIANGULATION NETWORK

A geodetic network represents the set of points on the surface of the Earth.
for which the coordinates are known in a single reference system.

124
 Geodetic networks can be:
- geodetic triangulation of the state geodetic accuracy, which has as its main
scope of determining the shape and dimensions of the Earth as well as establishing a framework
lifting unit works in plan,
of the leveling network of the state, which contains points that stand at
the altimetry database of the elevation works in plan,
-gravimetric, which contains points where the value is determined precisely and
the direction of gravitational acceleration and which serve as a whole for determining
formed the Earth.
The state networks (the triangulation and leveling network) constitute the unified support.
and mandatory support for all categories of topographic works. These networks
are made up of 4 orders: I, II, III, IV and have been determined by state institutions,
specialized in geodetic works. The points of the networks are most often
insufficient for current work in topography, so it is necessary to increase them
by points of order V. The density with points of order V is the competence and of
the duties of the survey operator. First to fourth order networks together with fifth order networks
(the network of desire) forms the support network.
Information about the points in the geodetic or densification network (description of the points,
their location and operator access, coordinates) are found in the databases of
National Agency for Cadastre and Land Registration (ANCPI) or at the offices of
cadastre at the level of each county (OCPI).
The national geodetic network exists in two versions designed for the same purpose.
but in different concepts:
the geodetic triangulation network, also known as state, existing, official,
become classical, developed centrally after 1956, which is still being used
complete with points of order V determined by various users in their areas
of interest;
the national GPS geodetic network, in progress, based on determinations in
the global satellite positioning system, framed within the European one and which will become
functional upon its finalization.
As previously stated, these networks are presented here only for informational purposes.
principles, forming the subject of study in geodesy.
The general conditions to be observed in the establishment of geodetic networks of interest
national, in order to meet the aforementioned objectives, are:
ensuring the connection with the European network and the successive development, based on the principle
the transition from higher order to lower order, resulting in a set of points with
the harmonious integration of the new among the old;
the rigorous determination of the position of these component points within a
reference system, according to European standards, using equipment and methods of
appropriate work for each stage;
characteristic density of each category of network, defined by the number of
points reported relative to the surface, or the distance between them, allowing for continuation
normal of the works;
the homogeneity of the network, which requires the uniform distribution of points over
the entire area and their determination under the same conditions, to effectively serve as support
subsequent works;
the accessibility and sustainability of points by choosing certain locations
convenient, wounds and marking them in a lasting way.
Overall, a homogeneous and unitary national geodetic network must result.
throughout the entire country, which together with the technical standards in force should provide support
sure of topographic-photogrammetric works, regardless of the area where the work is carried out.

125
 As shown, the geodetic triangulation network is made up of points.
grouped into four orders: I, II, III, IV, based on the distance between points and precision of
determination of the points.
First-order geodetic triangulation is the basic network, determined by
astronomical-geodetic methods, with approximately constant density throughout the territory
national. The network points serve for scientific purposes, in establishing connections with
the triangulations of neighboring countries and represents the basis for determining the second to fourth order points.
First-order points have coordinates determined both on the reference ellipsoid
(B, L), as well as in the projection plan (X, Y), and the elevation is determined relative to the geoid.
The first-order point network is compact, extending across the entire national territory. It has
initial contents 374 points gathered in 657 adjacent triangles and combined with 6
patrol with both diagonals observed (figure 6.1).

Figure 6.1. First-order triangulation network

Second to fourth order triangulation contains points whose coordinates are obtained only
in the projection plan through the successive densification of the first-order network. This is achieved thus
) grows from
the principle of the homogeneity of precision in determination: although angular errors (m
Order I to IV, the position errors (md) remain approximately the same, as the distances
the points decrease as the order increases (figure 6.2). The network of order II–IV
it was achieved through intersections.

Figure 6.2. Angular errors (m and position (md) in geodetic networks

Punctele de triangula ț ie geodezică de ordinI–IVformează o re ț ea a cărei

the density is 1 point per 20 km2which averages out to 5 geodetic points on
plan sheet at scale 1:25,000 in Stereo 70 projection. The elevations of the points in this network
is deduced through trigonometric leveling at great distances or, if possible, through
Geometric leveling. The first to fourth order network points are signaled and marked.
durable in the field in accordance with existing standards.

126
 y y1
tg 6.1
x x1
logtg log(yy1 )  log(x x1 ) [6.2]
1 1 1 1
d dy dx [6.3]
cos tg
2
y y1 x x1
If tg is replaced in [6.3] prin sin /cos without cu (y-y 1)/Dș i cos cu (x-
x1D, where D is the distance from 1(x1, and1) the P, then for the direction 1-P (fixed point–
variable punctuation) results in:

x x 1 y y 1
d 1P dy dx [6.4]
D2 D2

For the reverse direction P-1 (new point–old point), the relative coordinates are
change only the casing, to achieve the same effect:

y1 y x1 x
d P1 dx dy 6.5
D2 D2

For practical reasons, each member is divided by 10, resulting in the variation in
decimeter. The coefficients a and b from the relationship [6.6] are called directional coefficients or
direction constant.

y1 y x1 x
a ;b  [6.6]
10D2 10D2

In this way, the relationship that links the variation of the orientation, of the variation of the coordinates
divine
for a fixed, old point (1) and a variable, new one. (P):
from P to 1: d = adx + bdy
from 1 to P: d = - adx–bdy [6.7]

for both variable points:

de la P la 1: d = adx + bdy - adx1–bdy1
from 1 to P: d = adx1+bdy1- adx–bdy 6.8

Real surveys, taken in the field from the old point to the new point, do not go through
temporary point (Pp) and neither by the definitive one (Pd), whose coordinates are
currently unknown. The coordinates of the provisional point have resulted as an average of
intersections (figure 6.4a). Corrections to be made for the value of the orientation of the field visa
up to the direction of the definitive point (Pd) can be expressed by the relation [6.9]:

v=d + = adx+ bdy+ [6.9]

The term it can be determined (figure 6.4b) as a difference between the orientation
direction 1P (calculated from coordinates) and the orientation value measured in the field:

= P- t 6.10

Equations of the form [6.9] can be written for any visa taken into account for the point.
P, resulting in the system of error equations, viare the corrections x and y.

128
 v1 a 1dx b dy1 1

v2 a dx
2
b dy2 2
[6.11]
.......
vn a n dx bn dy n

If there are two new points, the equations can be written in general form:

vi ai dx1 bdyi1 ci dx2 d i dy2 I 6.12

Figura 6.4. a: Poziț ia punctului provizoriuș i definitiv, b: notaț ii pentru scrierea

equations

The solution of the equations leads to the determination of the most likely corrections.
yes, if the system is compatible. In addition, a specific condition must be set in the MCMP:
the sum of angular errors should be minimal. The last condition is met when the derivatives
partial with respect to the unknowns cancel. Considering, for
simplification, only two equations from [6.12], are squared, the relationships are summed up and
differentiate successively with respect to the two variables, resulting in the system of equations
normal

(a12a)dx22(a b a b)dy
1 1
(a 2  2a ) 01 1 2 2
2 2
[6.13]
(a1b1 a2 b2)dx (b1 b2)dy (b 1  b2
1 ) 0
2

The solution of the system is done by substitution, resulting in the corrections dx and dy.
These, applied to the coordinates of point P, lead to the determination of the most probable
positions of P:

xdP x  dx;ydP y dy [6.14]

The control of calculations is very important, as they are complex. In

In the first phase, the control of the directional coefficients [6.6] and the free terms is performed, which
it must satisfy the relationships [6.13]. The final control involves determining the orientation
definitive from coordinates and comparing the value with the one obtained, for example, from the relationship:

d p d p  adx bdy [6.15]

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6.3. GEODETIC LEVELING NETWORKS

Reț eaua geodezică de nivelment, saureț eaua nivelmentului de stateste formată

from points that constitute the basis of leveling raises of any type. These points
they are different from those of the triangulation network.
The points' quotas from the leveling network are determined in the 'Sea' system.
Black 1975." The fundamental landmark that defines this quota is a point in the port
Constanț a, established in 1975, after prolonged observations of the average level.
multiyear surface elevation. The system replaces the one located in the Baltic Sea, at the port
Kronstadt and in relation to which the levels were called "above the Baltic Sea." The difference between
The reference point of Constanț a and Kronstadt was determined through precise leveling, resulting in that
"zero Black Sea 1975" is lower than "zero Baltic Sea" by 0.3124m. In this
Yes, it is possible to transition from the given quotas in older works compared to the Baltic Sea.
(mdMB) at the face of the Black Sea (mdMN).
Depending on the precision of network determination, there are:
high precision networks (general geometric leveling networks of first and second order)
made up of the points of the first and second-order network. These have the role of establishing, throughout the entire
national territory, a strict and unique system for subsequent leveling surveys, as well as
a scientific role for studying level surfaces and determining the mean level of
the geoid, etc;
precision networks, composed of points of order III and IV, which densify those
previous ones, serving to meet the level base of topographic elevations and for
technical, engineering studies.
First-order leveling forms closed polygons with perimeter expansions of
1200–1500 km, with the determinations being made with a mean square error of 0.5 mm/1 km
of leveling. In order to be used for scientific purposes, first-order leveling
they must be repeated, on the same routes, at intervals of no more than 25 years, and in the fields
where there are seismic movements, measurements are taken more frequently. The polygons start from
The zero fundamental repere develops along the main communication routes.
(figure 6.5).

Figure 6.5. The polygons of the first-order leveling network, Black Sea 1975.

130
 Second order leveling consists of leveling traverses supported on
first-order leveling points, giving rise to polygons with a perimeter of 500–600
km, where the mean squared error is 5 mm / km.
The third-order leveling point network is developing internally
of first and second order polygons, so as to form polygons or traverses with lengths of
50 km, having a mean squared error of 10 mm / km.
The fourth-order leveling network is a densification of the general leveling network.
of orders I, II, and III. The network develops in such a way as to form closed polygons with
a perimeter of approximately 100 km, or crossings of 50 km, with a mean squared error
of 20mm / km.
The work instructions provide, for each order, the necessary tools.
work module, for marking points and the reading deviation in the station.
As far as possible, leveling network points are included
triangulation network points, which receive precise elevations in this way. If the land
this is settled, the geometric leveling method is used. In areas where the land is
accidented, the leveling network is made up of the trigonometric leveling network
geodetic, including triangulation points, whose elevations are determined by leveling
trigonometric, with a mean squared error of up to 20 cm/km.
From the point of view of the method of verification, leveling networks can be:
-framed (supported), when the route along which the levels are determined
it is between two points of known altitude. [Link] ZB(figure 6.6).
closed at the departure point, in case the route departs and arrives at the same place
points of the leveling geodetic network (figure 6.7).

Figure 6.6. Geodetic leveling network framed (supported): a-

top view, b- vertical profile view

Figure 6.7. Closed geometric leveling geodetic network at the point of

plecare: a-vedere în plan, b- vedere a profilului vertical

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 6.4. NATIONAL GPS GEODETIC NETWORK

The problem of establishing a modern, efficient geodetic network in our country is

considering that in the last 20 years:
Geodetic triangulation (classical), although it was designed and accomplished at a level
corresponding to the 1960s, is currently surpassed morally and physically, as the ellipsoid
Krasovski will soon be unusable, the determinations no longer correspond in accuracy and
homogeneity, part of the points are practically left without signals, and the terminals are
disappeared by 40%;
the necessary plans for the unified introduction of the cadastre, which concerns the entire
foundation functions of elevation, but also other interested activities, cannot be obtained without hours
modern national geodesy, of corresponding, uniform, and homogeneous precision;
compliance with European standards, including connection to the geodetic network
GPS international, which allows for the mutual transfer of basic data, is a condition
natural post - European integration;
modern electronic equipment offers remarkable possibilities that put into a
new light on the development of works and the achievement of these objectives, through generalization
use of satellite positioning systems and total stations;
Under these conditions, the realization of a modern geodetic network appears as a
a necessity, but also a natural requirement, fully justified by personal needs as well as by
international obligations, unjustifiably postponed requirement for over a decade.

Fig. 6.8 Schema for the implementation of GPS networks

Table 6.1. Structure of the National GPS Geodetic Network

(according to ANCPI, 2005)
Precision Number
Types of measurements position of Origin
nării(cm) points

Geodynamic measurements CEGRN in

AA 0.3 8
global and regional Romania

A 7 Epoch points
Primary, measurements 6 Permanent stations
regional geodynamics 0.5 2 Additional points
and deformations of epoch
15
B Secondary links to
Primary network,
geodynamic measurements 1.5 approximately 300
Determinations
locals
ANCPI or
Precision engineering.
48 stations
C
Tertiary, available for 4750 permanent
cadastral works, GIS, 2.0 (1pct/
engineering works. 50 km2)

132
 As a structure, the new network, based on GPS technology, was designed to group
these points into three classes that will be determined centrally in a succession
normal, moving from a higher class to a lower one (fig. 6.8). In this spirit
the first determinations are made starting from the European Reference System,
resulting in class AA respectively EUREF Network Romania and then further through
desire, primary national network, secondary tertiary (tab. 6.1).
In the end, when it officially becomes operational, it should result in a geodetic network.
modern national GPS in design and implementation, integrated into the European one, determined in
unitary modules with points distributed evenly across the national territory, sufficiently dense to be
operational for those who continue to use it, regardless of the intended purpose and field of
activity.

Self-assessment test in chapter 6: geodetic networks

Define the following concepts through explanations and/or drawings:

geodetic network
support network
looms network
high-precision leveling network,
framed network

133
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BOȘ , N. 1993,Topografie, Ed. Didactică ș i Pedagogică Bucureș ti

BOȘ , N. 2003,Cadastru general, Ed. All Beck, Bucureș ti

BOȘ , N., IACOBESCU O., 2007, Modern Topography, Ed. CH Beck Bucharest

IACOBESCU, O. 2004, Topography, University Publishing House of Suceava

RUSU. A., BOȘ N., KISS A., 1982, Topography–Geodesy, Didactic Publishing
Pedagogical, Bucharest,

VOROVENCII I., 2006,Topografie, Editura Universităț ii Transilvania din Braș ov

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