Tutorial 7
Mech-2410
Theory of strengthening of metals
HuangXinyue 31st March 2025
Review – Strengthening Techniques
• Principle of strengthening techniques: Restricting or hindering dislocation motion renders a
material harder and stronger
• Grain size reduction
• Solid solution strengthening
• Strain hardening
• Grain size reduction: Increase the number of grain boundaries
• Because the two grains are of different orientations, a dislocation passing into grain B must change its
direction of motion, which is more difficult
• The atomic disorder within a grain boundary region results in a discontinuity of slip planes from one
grain into the other
1
−2
• Hall-Petch equation: 𝜎𝑦 = 𝜎0 + 𝑘𝑦 𝑑 ; 𝜎𝑦 : yield strength; 𝑑: average grain size; 𝜎0 and 𝑘𝑦 : constants
for a particular material
• Not valid for both very large (i.e., coarse) grain and extremely fine grain polycrystalline materials
Review – Strengthening Techniques
• Solid-Solution Strengthening: Strengthen and harden metals is alloying with impurity atoms
that go into either substitutional or interstitial solid solution
• Smaller atom substitution: tensile strains on surrounding crystal lattice
• Larger substitutional atom: compressive strain in the vicinity
• Greater stress needed to cancel some of the strain in the lattice surrounding a dislocation
• Strain Hardening: A ductile metal becomes harder and stronger as it is plastically deformed
𝐴 −𝐴
• Percent cold work: %𝐶𝑊 = ( 0𝐴 𝑑 ) × 100; 𝐴0 : original area of the cross section; 𝐴𝑑 : area after
0
deformation
• Increase in yield and tensile strength; decrease in ductility
9.30 A cylindrical specimen of cold-worked copper has a ductility (%EL) of 25%. If its
cold-worked radius is 10 mm, what was its radius before deformation?
9.30 A cylindrical specimen of cold-worked copper has a ductility (%EL) of 25%. If its
cold-worked radius is 10 mm, what was its radius before deformation?
This problem calls for us to calculate the precold-worked radius of a cylindrical specimen
of copper that has a cold-worked ductility of 25%EL. From Figure 9.19c, copper that has a
ductility of 25%EL will have experienced a deformation of about 11%CW. For a cylindrical
specimen, Equation 9.8 becomes
𝜋𝑟02 − 𝜋𝑟𝑑2
%𝐶𝑊 = × 100
𝜋𝑟02
Since 𝑟𝑑 = 10 𝑚𝑚 solving for 𝑟0 yields
𝑟𝑑 10 𝑚𝑚
𝑟0 = = = 10.6 𝑚𝑚
%𝐶𝑊 11.0
1 − 100 1 − 100
Compute the tensile strength and ductility (%EL) of a cylindrical copper rod if it is cold worked
such that the diameter is reduced from 15.2 mm to 12.2 mm (0.60 in. to 0.48 in.).
Compute the tensile strength and ductility (%EL) of a cylindrical copper rod if it is cold worked
such that the diameter is reduced from 15.2 mm to 12.2 mm (0.60 in. to 0.48 in.).
Recovery, Recrystallization, and Grain Growth
• Recovery: During recovery, some of the stored internal strain energy is relieved by virtue of
dislocation motion (in the absence of an externally applied stress), as a result of enhanced atomic
diffusion at the elevated temperature.
• Recrystallization: The formation of a new set of strain-free and equiaxed grains
• Recrystallization Temperature: The temperature at which recrystallization just reaches completion in 1 h
• Grain Growth: After recrystallization is complete, the strain-free grains will continue to grow if the
metal specimen is left at the elevated temperature
𝑑 𝑛 − 𝑑0𝑛 = 𝐾𝑡
• 𝑑: grain diameter; 𝑑0 : initial grain diameter at 𝑡 = 0; 𝐾 and 𝑛: time-independent constants; 𝑛 ≥ 2
A cylindrical rod of noncold-worked brass having an initial diameter of 6.4 mm (0.25 in.) is to
be cold worked by drawing such that the cross-sectional area is reduced. It is required to have
a cold-worked yield strength of at least 345 MPa (50,000 psi) and a ductility in excess of
20%EL; in addition, a final diameter of 5.1 mm (0.20 in.) is necessary. Describe the manner in
which this procedure may be carried out.
A cylindrical rod of noncold-worked brass having an initial diameter of 6.4 mm (0.25 in.) is to
be cold worked by drawing such that the cross-sectional area is reduced. It is required to have
a cold-worked yield strength of at least 345 MPa (50,000 psi) and a ductility in excess of
20%EL; in addition, a final diameter of 5.1 mm (0.20 in.) is necessary. Describe the manner in
which this procedure may be carried out.
If the brass specimen diameter is reduced from 6.4 mm to 5.1 mm, the %CW is computed as:
𝑑0 2 𝑑𝑖 2 6.4 𝑚𝑚 2 5.1 𝑚𝑚 2
2 𝜋− 2 𝜋 𝜋− 𝜋
2 2
%𝐶𝑊 = 2 × 100 = 2 × 100 = 36.5%𝐶𝑊
𝑑0 6.4 𝑚𝑚
𝜋 𝜋
2 2
From Fig. a and c, yield strength is 410 MPa and a ductility of 8% EL (too low)
Partial diameter reduction (followed by a recrystallization heat treatment in which the effects of the
cold work are nullified): Fig. a, 20%CW → 345MPa; Fig. c, 20%EL → 23%CW
Take the average 21.5%CW:
2
𝑑′0 5.1 𝑚𝑚 2
2 𝜋− 2 𝜋
21.5%𝐶𝑊 = 2 × 100
𝑑′0
2 𝜋
𝑑′0 = 5.8 𝑚𝑚
When a hypothetical metal having a grain diameter of 8.2 × 10−3 mm is heated to 500°C for
12.5 min, the grain diameter increases to 2.7 × 10−2 mm. Compute the grain diameter when a
specimen of the original material is heated at 500°C for 100 min. Assume the grain diameter
exponent n has a value of 2.
When a hypothetical metal having a grain diameter of 8.2 × 10−3 mm is heated to 500°C for
12.5 min, the grain diameter increases to 2.7 × 10−2 mm. Compute the grain diameter when a
specimen of the original material is heated at 500°C for 100 min. Assume the grain diameter
exponent n has a value of 2.
𝑑 2 − 𝑑02 = 𝐾𝑡
𝑑0 = 8.2 × 10−3 𝑚𝑚; 𝑑 = 2.7 × 10−2 𝑚𝑚; 𝑡 = 12.5 𝑚𝑖𝑛
2.7 × 10−2 𝑚𝑚 2 − 8.2 × 10−3 𝑚𝑚 2
𝐾=
12.5𝑚𝑖𝑛
= 5.29 × 10−5 𝑚𝑚2 /𝑚𝑖𝑛
After a heat treatment at 500°C for 100 min,
𝑑= 𝑑02 + 𝐾𝑡
= 8.2 × 10−3 𝑚𝑚 2 + (5.29 × 10−5 𝑚𝑚2 /𝑚𝑖𝑛)(100𝑚𝑖𝑛)
= 0.0732 𝑚𝑚
Tutorial 7
Questions
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