THE TOPOGRAPHY

Prepared by Dr. Ing. Jean A. Doumit

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1. Introduction 5
a. Work topographic5
b. The topographic level....................................................................................................................................6

c. The topometric calculations..............................................................................................................................6

d. The topographic drawings or mapping..............................................................................................6
e. Development projects6
f. Implantations ..................................................................................................................................................6
g. Monitoring and control of excessesages6
2. Level details..................................................................................................................................................7

light planimetric details......................................................................................................................7

b. Reconnaissance...............................................................................................................................................7
c. Techniques of the light7
d. Light the relief..................................................................................................................................................8

e. Tacheometry automatic.............................................................................................................................8
f. Light details by GPS ................................................................................................................................9

g. Levelling ..................................................................................................................................................13
3. The topomatice14

a. Automation observationss ..................................................................................................................14

[Link] at the raised point or implante ..................................................................................................................14
c. Management data.....................................................................................................................................14
d. Visualization graphice 14
e. Treatment in real time15
f. Standardization.................................................................................................Error! Bookmark not defined.
g. Clouds 3D points by laser scanningr 15
4. Works specific topographies15
a. Buildings.........................................................................................................Error! Bookmark not defined.
[Link] level15
II. Level facades15

III. Le GPS dans le monde de la construction 15

5. Photogrammetry .................................................................................................Error! Bookmark not defined.
a. Aerial photogrammetry............................................................................................................................17
[Link] photogrammetrye.......................................................................................................................19
c. Pterrestrial photogrammetry............................................................................................................................19
6. The lasergrammetrye ...........................................................................................................................................23

1. Definitions ....................................................................................................................................................23

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 2. Terminology ................................................................................................................................................23
3. The advantages of this technology23
[Link] constraints related to this acquisition method......................................................................................24
[Link] of application.................................................................................................................................24
6. The lidar..........................................................................................................................................................24

7. Forms and dimensions of the lande ......................................................................................................................25

b. Coordinates geographical26
c. History of the Lebanese system....................................................................................................................26
8. Systems of projection27
a. Characteristics generals ..............................................................................................................................27
b. The Lambert systems27
c. Projection UTM (Universal Transverse Mercator).......................................................................................28
d. Triangulation 28
9. Observations topographic...........................................................................................................................29
a. Angles...........................................................................................................................................................29
b. Distances29
c. Denivelees .
d. GPS (global Positioning System).................................................................................................................29
10. Precision of observations29
a. Definitions
b. Errors parasites or faults30
c. Errors systematics 30
d. Errors accidentally..................................................................................................................................30
e. Precision ..........................................................................................................Error! Bookmark not define
11. The mape 30
the topographic mape 31
b. Decoupage.......................................................................................................Error! Bookmark not defined.
c. Accuracye 31
d. Orographye....................................................................................................................................................32
12. Measurement of distances and angles................................................................................................................33
a. Measurement stadimetric (traditional)..........................................................................................................33
b. Measurement electronic..................................................................................................................................34
c. Measurements angles35
13. Chronollogy and system of topographic works in Lebanon...............................................................37
a. Reconnaissance.............................................................................................................................................37
b. Project...........................................................................................................................................................37
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Bibliographye 38

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 Topography course
1. Introduction
a. Topographic work
Geodesy is the science that studies the shape of the Earth; it encompasses
the set of techniques aimed at determining positions
planimetric and altimetric of a certain number of geodetic points and
leveling benchmarks.
Topography is the art of measurement and then representation on a map or a
map of shapes and visible details on the ground, whether they are natural (notably
the relief) or artificial (like buildings, roads, etc.). Its goal is to
determine the position and altitude of any point located in an area
data, whether it is the size of a continent, a country, a field or a
street body.
The topography is based on geodesy, which deals with the determination
mathematics of the shape of the Earth (shape and dimensions of the Earth,
geographic coordinates of points, altitudes, deviations from the vertical...
The topography and the technique aimed at execution, exploitation and
control the observations regarding the planimetric and altimetric position, the
form, the dimensions and identification of geographic objects.
Planimetry is the representation in a flat projection of all the details of
two dimensions of the topographic plan.
The altimetry is the representation of the relief on a plan or a map.

The topographic works can be classified into six main categories according to
the chronological order of their execution.

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 Figure 1.1: pyramid of chronologies of topographic works

b. The topographic survey

It is the set of operations intended to gather elements in the field.
necessary for the establishment of a plan or a map. The phase of a survey
topographic uses the numerical values of all planimetric elements and
Altitude measurements are called topography, topography is the technique of surveying or
of implantation.
c. The calculationstonometrics
They process the observations of angles, distances, and elevations numerically.
to provide the Cartesian plane coordinates: abscissa X, ordinate Y and the
elevations of the points of the terrain as well as the areas.
d. Topographic drawings or mapping
Cartography is the set of scientific and artistic studies and operations.
and techniques intervening from direct observations or the exploitation of a
document in view of developing maps, plans and other means of expression and
provide a classification of maps based on their scale and purpose:
1/1,000,000 to 1/500,000 Maps
1/250,000 to 1/100,000 Small-scale topographic maps
1/50 000, 1/25 000, 1/20 000 Topographic maps at medium scale
1/10,000 Large-scale topographic maps
1/5000 Topographic study plans, urban planning plans
1/1000, 1/500 Parcel plans, cadastral urban planning
1/200 Plans for duty, implantation, subdivision
1/100 Property plan, site plans
1/50 Architecture, formwork, etc. plans.

e. Development project
These are projects that modify the planimetry and altimetry of a terrain:
land development such as consolidation, subdivisions with road study,
road traces, water management: drainage, irrigation, canals, ponds, etc.
f. Implantations
Development projects are generally established based on data.
topographicals, which must be carried out on the ground. The surveyor sets up,
in other words sets up on the ground, the planimetric elements and
altimetric measurements necessary for this implementation.
g. Monitoring and control of offenses
Once constructed, works of art often require monitoring at intervals of
more or less regular times depending on their destination: dikes, bridges,
settlements, etc. the corresponding topographical works lead to
generally on the measurement of variations in the XYZ coordinates

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2. Let me detail
a. Detailed planimetric drawings
Among the multitude of geographical objects that may interest the surveyor,
one can distinguish artificial details: fences, buildings, etc. and details
natural: waterways, woods, etc.
The choice of points to raise is essentially based on the plan to be established: plan
land for which boundary prime, topographic plan which draws up the state of the premises
planimetry and altimetry, technical plans: subdivision, drainage, etc. plans of
inventory that controls the normality of the works, etc.
b. Reconnaissance
Recognition is prepared by researching the available documentation: points
geodetic and network frameworks, leveling benchmarks, photographs
aerial and others, maps, various plans, archives, etc. the study of these documents
allows the surveyor to get a first idea of the site, to imagine a
canvas, to consider the techniques for raising the details to be implemented.
The establishment of the sketch, to the estimated scale, requires measuring.
summarily:
The distances
Step or double step for the shortest in an easy course,
Lost wire measurer,
Electronic binoculars;
The horizontal angles
Hand compasses,
Angle scale
Electronic binoculars
The differences in elevation:
Clinometers that provide the angle of inclination and slope,
Electronic binoculars;

c. High techniques
Optical square
The optical square, or optical right angle, is made up of two prisms.
superimposed pentagons in such a way that two of their perpendicular faces
be in the same vertical plane; it is held in the hand, its vertical axis being
descend to the ground with the help of a plumb line.
Align a point between two given points, moving forward or backward by
report the alignment until the images of the two observed milestones
in the prisms there is coincidence.
Draw a perpendicular line at one end of a given line.
Now the square is vertical to this point and by making with an aid a
landmark, observe in direct view, in the extension of the image of the other
end of the line seen in the prism; if the station point is between the
two ends of the alignment, the operator benefits from the image in
coincidence in the other prism, the manipulation being the same.

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 Radiation
A point radiates from an instrument station is one from which we have measured the
polar coordinates: horizontal angle and horizontal distance.

Figure 2.1: radiation

If the radiation can complete a plot by abscissas and ordinates or by

multilateration, by raising details close to the theodolite and to the roulette by
For example, it is primarily the technique of preferred planimetric surveying.
surveyor, particularly due to the performance of electronic theodolites
(M. Barbant, 2003).
[Link] relief
On a map, the relief is represented by contour points and contour lines.
The benchmark points, obtained by direct, indirect leveling or GPS according to the precision.
sought, specify in particular the lines characteristic natural: ridges,
thalwegs, changes in slope for example, and artificial: axes of the routes, highs
and low embankment, etc. as well as the details that present a particular interest such as the
water line or the axis of a level crossing.
The manual drawing of contour lines takes into account the laws of the
geomorphology; consequently, lift the hair in such a way that between two points
decrease C or thalweg T consecutively constant slope allows interpolation.
Between the characteristic lines, carry out a sowing of points in such a way as to be able to
then interpolate the curves between pairs of points located on the line of maximum
great slope (M. Barbant, 2003).
Automatic Tachymetry
An electronic total station is the combination of an electronic theodolite and
from a meter distance; the infrared distance meter is doubled by a visible laser pulse,
the range varies by 600 m at most without a reflector, to 7500 m on a prism.
The electronic tachometer allows for the prior storage of data.
alphanumeric, the recording and recoding of measurements, the calculations and
real-time drawing on a computer screen.

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 Automatically corrected measures, after the introduction of the additional constant
and the algebraic sum, reduction to the ellipsoid.

Figure 2.2: robotic total station

Since the beginning of the 1990s, servomotorization allows the surveyor

working alone to command the instrument at a distance by radio from the
raised points or implants on which the reflector is placed.
Search and subsequently automatic reflector, which improves accuracy and
increase productivity (M. Barbant, 2003).
f. Detail left by GPS
The purpose of GPS is to provide a terrestrial user, whether by car, airplane, or boat, with their
position, its speed and its instantaneous synchronization in a reference system
global anywhere and at any time. To achieve this goal, it is necessary to be able
constantly observe four GPS satellites simultaneously; for this, we have
of a constellation of 24 satellites distributed across six orbital planes at an altitude
about 20,200 km

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Figure 2.3: the GPS constellation

Satellites receive information from five ground control stations.

figure 9.4 the positioning and synchronization of satellites are ensured by a
permanent piloting from five ground control stations, the main station
is that of Colorado Springs, located in the United States.

Figure 2.4: Control and monitoring stations of the GPS system

The receivers of users therefore use the signals from satellites to calculate their
proper position (Smilles, [Link], 1999).
Navigation and topography receivers are very different:
Navigation receivers operate independently. They measure distances to
starting from the measurement of the travel time of the transmitter-receiver wave;
This measurement is unfortunately imprecise, they present themselves in the form of
small portable devices, they give in real time the position of the
100 meters ahead.
The geodetic receivers shown in figure 9.5 are intended for operation in
differential mode requiring two receivers. In this mode, the calculations of
positions are generally made after the measurements.

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 Figure 2.5: Geodetic receiver

Distances are calculated by measuring the phase of the waves.

Measures are precise. Each receiver is therefore made up of an antenna.
associated with a tripod in such a way as to be able to stand vertically above a point
and a separate calculator, connected by cable to the antenna. The latter records
measurements at regular time intervals. The setup must
place the antenna above the operator to prevent him from
constitutes an obstacle or mask between the satellite and the receiver during its
movements around the antenna (Smilles, J. Lagofun, 1999).
Observation methods
Static: in static mode, the receivers are positioned at each end of the
Baseline, remain stationary during the observations in order to record
sufficient signals to allow resolution. The static methods
are long but are the only ones that provide the necessary accuracy in
overall framework.
Statics: statics is the classic GPS method for measurements of
baseline lines greater than 15 km, static is used for
the establishment of geodetic networks covering large areas. Some
sessions of at least two hours, repeated as necessary, allow
to obtain optimal accuracy for these geodetic works.
Quick static: quick static is the most operational method.
for the realization of a densification framework, with baseline lines
limited to 15 km, for centimeter precision. this method is
currently the GPS solution usable in urban areas or in zones of
vegetation cover
The kinematic mode
A fixed receiver is located at point A, known or unknown, and a mobile receiver.
generally an antenna mounted on a telescopic pole is positioned in
B.
After an initial phase of static initialization at a known or unknown point,
The mobile receiver has enough data to solve the
ambiguities and thus calculate its position relative to the fixed receiver;

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 for the final calculation of WGS84 coordinates, it is enough that at a given moment of the
cinematic chain the mobile receiver passed over a known point, or that one of the
points A or B being known.

Figure 2.6: Kinematic GPS

In quick static, there are two measurement methods:

1. The stop and go (stop-start) is a method very similar to that of lifting
details with a total station. The operator records the information in
stopping at fixed points and content to maintain contact with the
satellites during the travels;
2. La trajectographie ou lerécepteurmobile enregistre les informations en
permanence, every second for example, which allows to trace the
trajectory of the mobile. Thus, we can draw the trajectory of the vehicle
determine the average speed between two measurements (Smilles, [Link])
1999).
The masks
During the acquisition phase, the antenna must capture at least four.
satellites.
The GPS system provides visibility of four satellites at any point on the globe.
but in the absence of obstacles called masks figure 9.7

Figure 2.7: GPS masks

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 The inevitable presence of masks can make it such that at a given moment the antenna
captures less than four satellites; the measurement is then interrupted.
g. Leveling
The technological development of leveling devices is emerging
two essential developments: the introduction of automatic compensators
since the emergence of digital levels. Below is recalled the evolution
leveling technique
The fixed level telescope: the telescope is fixed in relation to the body of the level and
a toric level of director parallel to the axis of the telescope allows the
horizontal adjustment of the screw. The level is very sensitive, adjusted beforehand.
each vision
The automatic level: the introduction of a mechanism is based on
the balance of a liquid that automatically makes the final adjustment
line of sight to the horizontal. It is the principle of the vast majority of
devices sold currently;
The digital level figure 9.8, the readings on the target are automated by
unsystematic decoding of a test pattern with barcodes; the device reads
automatically the level wire and the station-target distance; these values are
displayed and can be stored on a computer medium.

Figure 2.8: digital level

This increases the operator's productivity and eliminates reading errors.

and the transcription of the readings.
The reading on the target is supported by a recognition system.
from a portion of barcode read on a specific target. The image of the target
is used and minimized in the device.
The main advantage is to eliminate any reading errors or
retranscription due to the operator, and to be able to directly chain the
field measurements through computer processing (Smilles, [Link],
1999).

2. The leveling laser

These lasers allow the dematerialization of a horizontal plan by rotation of the
laser beam, that is to say the rotation of a prism around the diode
emitter that remains fixed, the rotational speed is adjustable, sometimes by
remote control. Some possible applications include the following:

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 The guidance of earthmoving machines: a sensor placed on the blade of
the grader allows it to be positioned at a precise elevation level,
The range of these devices is about 400 m.
The establishment of leveling benchmarks, leveling control: the
the laser is stationed at any point; the operator determines a
station height relative to a reference altitude point
known

Figure 2.9: Guiding of machines or leveling by a rotating laser

[Link]
Latonomic Topography + computer science is the term I propose for
design the specificities of the topography of the year 2000, in view of the importance and
speed of developments in computer science.
a. Automation of observations
The measuring levels and electronic levels are carried out without aiming and measuring.
intervention of the surveyor, he can dedicate himself to data entry and processing
thematic data, complex, repetitive, precise measuring operations
being fully automated.
b. Work at the elevated point or implant
Since the surveying point where the topographer installs, working alone, remotely pilots the
measuring system, triggers the measurements, codes and records the results
supplementary data, control numerically and graphically in real time.
c. Data Management
The geometric determination of a point is now quick and easy, the
Additional data is becoming increasingly important.
The surveyor captures all the descriptive geometric data on the ground.
thematic and topological donations, while exploiting existing ones that it has
previously loaded into the instrument.
d. Graphical visualization
The automation of measurements and their numerical and graphical processing in
real-time provide, on a touch screen graphic computer field,
results from the lifting and capturing of additional information.
The advantages of the old raised on the board are thus found with these
graphic tablet: monitoring of progress and quality
work, visual confrontation of the results with the terrain in sight,
correction of omissions and deficiencies, simple representation adapted to the user

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 complex data, easy coding; they accumulate with those specific to
implementation and implementation of GIS.
e. Real-time processing
Computers, equipped with advanced graphical and communication functions, that
the surveyor carries complex software packages on the field
performant.
The automatic controls of data decoherence and the verification of
real-time results eliminate post-processing, changing, to say the least
replacing, the traditional timeline of surveying work: measurements of
exploited terrain later in the office (Smilles, J. Lagofun, 1999).
f. Standardization
The great diversity of instruments and methods of surveying leads to
topographer to implement the system best suited to its current needs,
subject to the condition that a later change in procedures can be made without loss of
dataset without delay.
Furthermore, the implementation of any system must be simple and intuitive in such a way
to allow the transition from one to another without a long learning process prolonged by a
continuous training.
g. 3D point clouds by laser scanner
At the forefront of technology, the 3D laser scanner, in just a few ...
minutes, the thousands of points of a scene: Carrefour, work of art, building, etc.
Point clouds, rendered in detail and color, can be used directly
for visualization or point-by-point measurement, or even converted using software
of adapted treatment in plans, contours, profiles, etc. (Smilles, [Link], 1999).

4. Specific topographical works

[Link]
Indoor left
Measurements are taken with a laser meter, which now replaces the tape measure.
diagonal, that is to say by measuring beyond the details: doors, windows, etc. The dimensions
perimeter of each piece and the diagonals that connect two opposite angles
Method for setting the direction of the walls. Measure at least one diagonal method to
being able to fix the direction of the walls on report, the choice of this diagonal is dependent
from the progression followed from the base or the initial perimeter; better measurement
several diagonals;
II. Left facade
An unlimited number of perfectly identified points, notably with the help of a
laser detector allowing daytime work, easily radiated without reflector at
short distance, in 3D, especially if the desired precision is not very high.
III. GPS in the Construction World
Real-time centimeter GPS significantly improves the precision of methods
traditional vertical control of large structures, more than 60
The precision of my car does not degrade with height.
High-precision GPS systems allow for very precise placement of the
pillars: the onboard computer guides the operator through a screen
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 user-friendly graph, inclinometer and depth controller interfaces
check the positioning in real time.
The establishment of large prefabricated concrete or steel structures is
carried out by GPS with precision, speed and security (M. Barbant, 2003).

5. Photogrammetry
Lphotogrammetry is the technique aimed at determining the dimension, the
positions and shapes of objects from photogrammetric images.
Aerial photogrammetry, which emerged during the First World War, has
Before terrestrial photogrammetry, both have been developed since 1925.
environment, to achieve by the end of this century performances that make it
irreplaceable in many fields, particularly in topography.

Figure: 5.1 aerial photographs (Smilles, [Link], 1999)

L Photogrammetry is a technique for obtaining a representation of

terrain at the scale in three dimensions from simple photographs. These
last can be taken on the ground - restoration of facades, buildings, etc. from
from an airplane or even from a satellite.
We talk about photogrammetry because the obtained images are rendered at a scale.
data, focal function of the shooting lens and the distance to
the Object photography: for example, the height of the plane above the ground for
aerial shots.
During an aerial photogrammetry campaign, the shots are therefore
ensures that there is a longitudinal overlap of about 60% between
two consecutive shots. The observation of an area of terrain is made in
different passes with a cross overlap of 20 to 25% (Smilles,
[Link], 1999).

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 Figure 5.2: Aerial photography mission

One can thus see in relief from two photographs. It remains to be settled.
direct measurement problems on photographs, scaling issues in planimetry and
altimetry measurement.
aerial photogrammetry
It is known that to obtain a map, one first proceeds to the execution of a canvas.
consists of specific points in coordinates and known reference points in altitude.
This framework allows for the exploitation of aerial photographs.
Aerial photography requires the use of metric cameras for taking
views. The common formats of photographs are 18 x 18 or 23 x 23 cm.
The scale of the clichés and the flight altitude depend on the scale of the plan that one
desire to obtain, and the focal length of the camera lens.
For example, for city plans at 1/2000, the photographs are generally
1/8000. If the focal length is 210 mm, the flight altitude will be equal to
0.210 x 8000 = 1680m. This flight altitude is achieved by the pilot using
of an altimeter. (Lapointe, Meyer, 1994)

Figure 5.3: vertical photograph of point M (Smilles, [Link], 1999)

Between parallel bands, the overlap is about 15%, which ensures a

total coverage of the ground surface. Two consecutive ones from the same band a
recovery of 60%.

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Figure 5.4: aerial photography clichés with overlapping areas

The transition from photography to terrain representation is done using

devices for photogrammetric restitution. This operation is called restitution.
In order to allow the implementation of the clichés to ensure their restitution, it is
It is necessary to determine in coordinates and altitude four reference points.
a couple of clichés. This preliminary operation is called stereopreparation.
We distinguish three methods of restitution:
The analogical method, or the restitution of the field is carried out by processes
optics and mechanics with a restoring device.

Figure 5.5: universal photogrammetric device topo map (N. Oucova, 2006)

1 station, 2 oculaire, 3 appuis gauche et droite des clichés, 4 articulation des

clichés to obtain the stereomodel, 5 coordinate graphs, 6 coordinate measuring devices,
The analytical method, the subject of photography is reconstructed by the points to
the help of a computer calculation program.

Figure 5.6: analytical photogrammetry device

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 The numerical method, or photography is digital.
restitution is done using computer software.

[Link] photogrammetry
Earth observation can be carried out at very high altitude: this is the field
of satellites. In this case, the term photography is inappropriate: it is more about
digital data acquisition by remote sensing.
The information acquisition is carried out using a band of 6000 sensors.
light sensors that collect sunlight reflected by the earth.
Each sensor collects light from a quarter of a land surface of at least 10 m.
on the side, it is a band of 60 km wide on the ground. This numerical information is
directly diffuses to ground control stations or stored on the satellite
for a later broadcast.
The advantage of the satellite is a very large area observed from 60 x 60 to 117 x 117 km.2,
which allows for quickly obtaining a small-scale mapping (Smilles,
[Link], 1999).

Figure 5.7: maximum coverage and various lateral of a camera

c. Terrestrial photogrammetry
Terrestrial photogrammetry is widely used in various fields: the
geology, forestry, agriculture, medicine, architecture and the study of
architectural monuments (N. Oucova, 2006).
With convergent terrestrial photogrammetry, it is easy and extremely fast to
measuring facades, archaeological digs or technical infrastructures.
Architects have long delved into the laws of perspective:
The Italian Renaissance was already familiar with the art of establishing plans and elevations.
of a building based on perspective views.
Photography entered a practical phase only after the war of 1870 under
the impulse of Albrecht Meydenbauer. It is to this architect that the name is due.
."photogrammetry". He thought that photography allowed him to obtain, in all
points of the monument and without interruption, a "perspective image"
geometrically accurate.
Photogrammetric surveys of buildings or architectural elements of large
dimensions

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Figure 5.8: Photogrammetric surveys of buildings or architectural elements of large
dimensions.

The straightening is a geometric perspective adjustment of the image.

photographic and the plan established at the desired scale.
Principle of photographic correction. In the geometric perspective.
cliché and the plan, adds a projection giving, on a sensitive medium placed on
the plan. The three plans (cliché, objective, projection).
The corrected photographs can be assembled in the form of a photo.
plan: we can thus obtain the total image of an architectural element of little
relief that could only be recorded in several.

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 Figure 5.9: Devices for rectifying photographic clichés.

Photogrammetry methods dealing with pairs of shots, method

stereophotography.
This intersection method allows for the reconstruction of the building in a
three-dimensional space and offers the possibility of establishing plans and sections
as well as des elevations.

Figure 5.10: devices for stereophotography.

In figure 5.10, the diagram of a stereophotogrammetric shooting in the

As usual, the optical axes form a right angle with the base which is itself
parallel to the school reference plane.

Photography method using a theodolite

The theodolite is used to determine the position of landmarks on the

monuments, these landmarks form the framework on which the restitution will be based.

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 Figure 5.11: Photo-theodolite

The photographic clichés of a theodolite photo are restored using canvases.

landmarks measured in X, Y, and Z.

Figure 5.12: Canvas of reference points determined on the monument in a system of

reference X Y Z.

Digital photogrammetry
Laphotogrammetry uses digital photographs and with the help of
software for correcting photographs and done.
Several photogrammetry software can be found in the most recent markets among them.
are, for example, the Digicode, Photo Modeler and several others, these programs calibrate the
digital photographs taken with ordinary devices and with the help of these programs there
Creating three-dimensional shapes is very easy.

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6. Lasergrammetry
1. Definitions
Lasergrammetry is a growing science or technique that exploits the
3D laser scanner technology (high-density laser measurement, non-contact and
long range). A 3D scanner captures several million points in three
dimensions in a few minutes, the laser measurement can be combined with a socket
from digital photogrammetry.
The most common technologies are triangulation (emission of a laser point.
and recording its image in a sensor), the measurement of the time of flight
(emission of a laser pulse and recording the round-trip time) and the
measurement by phase difference (emission of a frequency-modulated ray by a
harmonic wave.
Depending on the methods, the devices offer ranges varying from a few meters to
more than one kilometer, measurements ranging from one tenth of a millimeter to a few
centimeters, and acquisition speeds ranging from 500 to more than 1,000,000 points at
the second.

2. Terminology
("laser" + "gamma", written or drawn, + "meter", measurement) but other terms
are also used in this new professional activity: 3D scanning, 3D
laser scanning, terrestrial LiDAR (light detection and ranging), laserometry, 3D laser
etc.
3. The advantages of this technology
a volume of information in 3D of extreme density
a great speed of acquisition: several million points can be
digitized in a few hours.
acquisition scale 1/1: distances can be measured directly in
3D in the point cloud.
the assurance of causing no damage to the object during the measurement:
measurements are made without physical contact, using a class I laser (eye
safety) or II.
the possibility of virtually accessing inaccessible areas
physically: laser measurements without a reflector can be carried out at
several hundred meters from the monument.
greater freedom in the exploitation of measures. The survey becomes more
objective and approaches the photographic document
a revolutionary documentation, a 3D archiving of monuments and sites
scanned: the acquired data can be used accurately even
if the scanned object were to be damaged or destroyed.
The possibility of controlling the sensor remotely: via a network cable or a
wireless connection, the scanner is operated from a laptop.

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 4. The constraints related to this acquisition method
3D scanners capture everything they see, including objects
parasites: the vegetation, the passersby, the electrical cables, the rain,
dust. To obtain a clean model, one must start the processing by
a cleaning phase.
The complete technology has a very high cost. The amount of the investment
is still in the range of 100,000 to 175,000 euros excluding VAT for a sensor and a
processing software.
They must be installed on powerful computers (workstations
graphics), whose cost must also be taken into account. This leads to a
3D data dissemination problem ([Link]
5. Scope of application
Industrial engineering (Nuclear site, complex technical installation...)
Complex or inaccessible land lifts (Landslides, Bridges,
Works of Art, Quarries, Dikes...)
Operation of Development, Urban Planning (Rapid, comprehensive 3D simulation
and realistic urban development projects, Preparation of orthophotos,
of cuts with a resolution of a few mm.)
Heritage, Cultural Heritage (3D modeling of monument of
national heritage (within the framework of a lighting project or
renovation), Elevation plan of facade, orthophotos, sections, plans of
complex levels ([Link]
6. The lidar
LIDAR or "Light Detection And Ranging" is based on the principle of
the emission of a discrete or continuous light signal in green, ultraviolet or infrared
from the reception of its portion reflected by any object intercepted along the way
inverse. LIDAR is therefore both an instrument and a method of detection.
based on the geometric properties of the objects to be studied. It appears that,
generally, the emitting source of a LIDAR is a laser, a LIDAR mounted on
An airborne platform - including a helicopter - is often referred to as an ALS.
Airborne Laser System

The LIDAR mounted on aircraft

The LIDAR is mounted on an airplane or a helicopter to scan the surfaces.
and the complaints regarding the purpose of the 3D construction of the real model of the terrain.
The terrestrial devices
The terrestrial devices are the fixed and mobile devices, fixed on a
tripod on a car.

24
 Figures 6.1: fixed scanner and mobile scanner

They are used for the lifting of streets and historical monuments.

[Link] and dimensions of the Earth

a. Geoid and ellipsoid
In appearance, the Earth has the shape of a sphere. In fact, it is slightly deformed.
by the centrifugal force introduced by its rotation around the axis of the poles. It has
so the appearance of a rotational ellipsoid whose minor axis b is the axis of rotation
(the axis of the poles).
The surface of the seas and oceans at rest covering the entire earth is called the geoid.
geoid, sea level extended beneath the continents, is therefore the surface of
reference for the determination of altitudes, in other words the level surface
zero.

Figure 7.1: shape of the ellipsoid, the geoid, and the sphere.

The surface closest to the geoide is a rotating ellipsoid, the earth spinning.
around the axis of the poles, this rotation generates an equatorial circle of radius 'a'
There is not a unique global ellipsoid but several locally defined ellipsoids.
For each country, in Lebanon we use the ellipsoid defined in 1880 by Clarke and
the modified characteristics compared to the initial ellipsoid are the following:
Semi-major axis: a = 6378.24920 km
Semi-major axis: b = 6356.51500 km

25
 Figures 7.2: ellipsoid of revolution (Smilles, J. Lagofun, 1999)

It is the reference ellipsoid currently used as a projection surface.

for the establishment of maps and plans.
[Link] coordinates
The geographical coordinates of a point M, which allow it to be positioned on
the ellipsoids are:
The geodesic length λ, angle of the local Meridian with the meridian
origin: meridian of the Greenwich observatory, longitudes of 0o a 180o
East or West for the international system.
The geodetic latitude φ is the angle that the normal makes at a point to
the ellipsoid with the equatorial plane.

Figure 7.3: geographical coordinates (M. Barbant, 2003)

c. History of the Lebanese system

In 1799, Napoleon Bonaparte began his military campaign for conquest.
from Egypt, Palestine, and Syria. The Map of Egypt and Syria was published
by the War Depot in 1808. The ersatz reference level is based on
astronomical observations in Cairo and Jerusalem, and was referenced to the ellipsoid
Plessis where the semi-major axis a = 6,375,738.7 m
The French expedition to Lebanon (1860-1861) was carried out after the massacre of
Christians in Syria and Lebanon. The first maps of Turkey were on the
Good projection too, but the original projection was the finale of the dome
Hagia Sophia.
26
 The Ottoman Turkish Bonne ellipsoid of Syria, used from 1909 to 1923, had a
projection of the original latitude φ= 28° 58' 50.8188" N and the central meridian λ=
39° 36' East of Greenwich. The geodetic network has been calculated on the Clarke 1880.
where an ellipsoid = 6,378,249.2m, and according to the Army Geographic Service,
of origin near Constantinople (Istanbul). The 1:200,000 scale of the map
General of Asia Minor was published in 1911 under the direction of the Service of the
map of Turkey.
The French created the Topographic Bureau of the Levant in 1918, and after 1920,
the triangulation chain has been extended eastwards along the northern border of the
Syria with Turkey to Iraq. The topographic brigade was commanded by the
Lieutenant Colonel Perrier, he organized the observations of the creation of a
astronomical origin for a reference in the Bekaa Valley in Lebanon.
Bekaa is the origin for astronomical observations.
The pillar of latitude was observed by Captain Volontéen in 1920.
coordinates have been defined for a pillar built at the Ksaro Observatory
latitudeφ= 28 ° 58 '50.8188 ". Longitudeλ= 35 ° 53' 25.26" Est Greenwich, avec
a projection center in Tadmour (Deir el zor) in Syria, triangulation has been
calculated on the Clarke 1880 ellipsoid,
In 1922, the Cadastre and Agricultural Improvement Works of the States, of Syria and
of Lebanon under the French Mandate established SCHEMA OF THE PROJECTION
STEREOGRAPHIC which is based on oblique stereographic projection.
The original latitude φ = 34° 12' N, the central meridian λ = 39° 09' East of
Greenwich.

8. Projection system
[Link] characteristics
A projection system is a plane representation system, correspondence
between a point of the ellipsoid and its geographic coordinates λ and φ, with the
rectangular plane coordinates X, Y of the same point in the reference
orthonormal of the projection.
Projection systems can be classified into three groups:
Conformal mappings that preserve angles; these are the most widely used.
Equivalent systems that conserve surfaces;
The equidistant systems that preserve distances;

b. The Lambert systems

In 1772, Lambert published the mathematical foundations of a conic projection.
as one can schematize by the development in plan of a cone
point S tangent to the ellipsoid.
The meridians are straight lines converging at S, the apex of the cone and the image of the pole;
The parallels are represented by concentric circles centered at S and at
rayon R,

27
 Figures 8.1: direct conical representation (S. Milles, J. Lagofun, 1999)

c. UTM Projection (Universal Transverse Mercator)

In Mercator's representation, the earth is considered spherical. The projection
is carried out on a cylinder of axis passing through the poles and tangent to the equator.
The meridians are parallel lines, equidistant and perpendicular to
the equator. The parallels are lines perpendicular to the meridians.
The WGS 84 system (World Geodetic System 1984): Geodetic system
World Geodetic System (WGS84) is the geodetic system associated with GPS; it has
quickly established as a 'standard' reference for mapping.
The previous realizations were: WGS 72 (associated with the TRANSIT system),
WGS 64 and WGS 60.
A geodetic system should not be confused with a type of projection: it
define a representation of the Earth's geoid.

d. Triangulation
A network of known points in planimetry is necessary to carry out the majority.
topographic work. It is not essential in the case where the work will be
local reference carried out (small sites or isolated sites). the business direction
geographically in Lebanon has established a network of points called 'geodetic'
which distinguishes the triangulation of 1er, 2nd,3emeand 4emeordre.
The determination of geodetic points was made using the triangulation method.
which consists of measuring the angles and some sides of the adjacent triangles whose
The summits are the geodetic points.
Geodetic triangulation consists of determining the coordinates X and Y of the
vertices of adjacent triangles for which we measure the angles and a certain number of
sides. The orientation of a base is done by astronomical determination.

Figure 8.2: chain of quadrilaterals

Calculations are performed in the chosen projection system. The progress of
Computing has allowed for much more homogeneous results.
28
9. Topographic Observations
The topographic images of points S, A, B of the terrain (M. Barbant, 2003).

Figure 9.1: topographic observations

Are the points s, a, b, orthogonal projections along straight verticals and

parallels on the horizontal plane, at zero altitude. The points s, a, b is ensured in
planimetry by their rectangular coordinates X and Y.
a. Angles
The horizontal angle A is measured in the horizontal circle of the theodolite in the
clockwise direction
The vertical angle is generally the zenithal angle V ranging from 0 to 200 gons.
b. Distances
The direct distance or slope distance Dd is the length of the segment of
line joining points in space.
The horizontal distance Dh is the length of the segment on the horizontal plane.
c. Denivelees
The level difference between two points S and A, for example, is the difference in altitudes of
these two points.
It is measured by direct or indirect leveling, using a level or theodolite.
outachéomètre
d. GPS (Global Positioning System)
Global positioning system by satellites, initially used for the
canvas, it allows the determination of detail points in XYZ.

10. Precision of observations

[Link]
Observation: it is the action of observing with the help of an instrument allowing for
measures.
29
 Direct measurement, measuring a distance with a tape for example.
CHAINING: Direct measurement of distances using a tape (replacing
the old surveying chain). The chaining can be done flat: tape laid on the
floor or by horizontal steps.
Terracing: A chainage process in sloped terrain, consisting of
to carry lengths of raban stretched horizontally by successive steps with the help of
of a plumb line.
It is also said JUMP CHAINING.
Indirect measurement, measuring a distance using formulas
mathematics.
The correction is the value that must be added algebraically to the gross result of the
Measurement to obtain the corrected result.
b. Erroneous distractions or mistakes
Often gross uncertainties stemming from inattention or forgetfulness
the operator; to detect the mistakes that we are always likely to make,
We practice checks.
c. Systematic errors
A systematic error is an error that remains constant in absolute value and in
sign or varies according to a defined law when conditions change. They
generally arise from construction defects or instrument malfunctions,
they systematically add up to one another, we generally know
the cause and their order of magnitude. It is only necessary to eliminate them, or to reduce them.
the importance because their effect is composed by addition.
d. Accidental errors
The accidental error is the one that varies unpredictably in absolute value and
as a sign when we perform a large number of measurements of the same value
of a magnitude under practically identical conditions. The errors
Accidental occurrences cannot be calculated in advance nor eliminated by operational mode.
[Link]
The precision of a measuring instrument is the quality that characterizes its aptitude.
to give indications close to the true value of the measured quantity; it is the
overall quality of the instrument from the perspective of errors, the precision of so much
the larger the indications, the closer they are to the true value. In
topography, the precision of an instrument is generally characterized by the deviation-
advertisement by the manufacturer.
11. The map
Cartography is the set of graphic techniques involved from
original lifts or various documents in view of elaboration and production
the cards.
The different works that lead to the base map are in order
chronological
Geodesy
Levelling;
Aerial photography;
Completely topographical;
30
 Drafting the base card;
Drafting of drift cards;
Reproduction and prints.
a. The topographic map
A topographic map is a reduced-scale map representing the relief.
determined by altimetry and the human developments of a geographical area
in a precise and detailed manner on a horizontal plane
Larger scale maps and city plans are not maps
topographic because they do not respect the scale of reduction to represent the
routes. Indeed, the main use of these road maps and plans is location identification
of a road layout. Nevertheless, the map and plan background contains information
perfectly represented topographies, such as surface vegetation,
relief, etc.
In Lebanon, the basic topographic map is that of the Directorate of Affairs.
Geographic at the Lebanese army at 1/20,000 (1 cm on the map represents 20,000)
cm, which is 200 meters on the ground). The limit of the scale value between the map and the
the map is at 1/10,000 (the plan: 1/200, 1/250, 1/500, ..., 1/5,000; the map: 1/10,000,
1/20,000, ..., 1/1,000,000 and even less.
[Link]
The découpage of the base map sheets at a scale of 1/20,000 consists of
121 maps that together form the entire Lebanese territory.
The topographic maps at a scale of 1/200,000 made by the Russians in 1985, of which the
The découpage consists of 6 maps and the maps are at a scale of 1/100,000 made in 1983.
cutting out 15 cards.
Given the scale, the details are represented in the form of signs.
conventional; the cartographic drafting of topographic maps is done in 4
couleurs:
Black for the planimetry;
Blue for hydrography, meaning the representation of waters;
Orange for roads and orography, cartographic expression of relief
Which of the laws of geomorphology describes and explains it;
Green for vegetation.
Based on the base map, the most detailed cartographic document
directly from geodetic observations, photogrammetry, and topographic surveys, we
establishes derived maps by generalization, in other words by selection and
schematization of details.
The cartographic themes show phenomena on a topographic background.
qualitative or quantitative: geological maps, population maps, etc.
c. Exactness
A map must be:
Faithful means to represent the ground without confusion or omission;
Figure the relief using conventions and artifacts;
Exact; a conventional image that cannot be strictly similar to the
terrain, its accuracy is both positional and relational.

31
 Positional accuracy corresponds to centers of conventional signs located
to their exact positions relative to the reference grid, whereas accuracy
relational mainly takes into account the relative arrangement of
phenomena in relation to each other.
Subject to these reserves, the precision of a point depends on that of the system.
projection, of the geodesic canvas, of the topographic data, of the reduction
cartographic and especially the condition of reproductions and prints.
d. Orography
The cartographic expression of relief, or orography, is done through
of point scores, contour lines and conventional signs.
Point scores
Positional accuracy, altitude rounded to the meter.
Contour lines
A contour line is a line that connects consecutive points of the same.
terrain elevation; it is therefore entirely contained within the same horizontal plane
and consequently projected without deformations on the topographic plan.
The equidistance is the difference in altitude of the horizontal planes of two curves.
consecutive; constant for a sheet, it depends on the scale and the relief,
equal to 5m most often for the base map.

Figures 11.1: contour lines (M. Barbant, 2003)

The main curves, in thick solid lines, are all located on the five curves.
from sea level.
The ordinary curves, in average solid line;
The intermediate curves, in fine dashed lines, which are actually just
portions de courbesdestinées à préciserun mouvement localisent de terrain
that ordinary curves do not show.
If the contour lines quite well reflect a smoothed erosion relief, they are
on the other hand, much more difficult to interpret, when they can be drawn,
in the scree, cliffs, etc.; these particular landforms, often localized, are
figures by conventional signs that do not allow measurement.

32
12. Measurement of distances and angles
a. Traditional stadimetric measurement

Figure 12.1: readings on target (M. Barbant, 2003)

A stadimeter is a theodolite telescope whose reticle has two

metric traits, symmetrical with respect to the large horizontal line of the axis
optics, determining two lines of sight forming the angle in the vertical plane
A. Stadiometric
The optical axis and the two stadimetric rays of the theodolite T stationed at the bridge
A graduated rule, called a mire, is maintained vertically at point M.
The estimated reading at the leveling rod is therefore H=0.654m.
l1=0,590m,l20.717m
The optical axis of the theodolite is horizontal, thus perpendicular to the sighting target.
the horizontal distance Dh = 100(l2-1that is 12.7m with the previous values.
With an optical axis of inclination i, or a zenithal angle V

Figure 12.2: reduced distance stadimeter (M. Barbant, 2003)

The horizontal distance is therefore Dh = 100(l2-l1) cos2i or Dh = 100(l2-l1) sin2V.

33
b. Electronic measurement
An IMEL, Electronic Measuring Instrument for Lengths or distance meter,
is a device that most often operates by emitting a wave
electromagnetic that allows the measurement of the phase shift of this wave
reflected by a reflector.

Figures 12.3: distance measurement with an IMEL (S. Milles, J. Lagofun, 1999)

To measure a distance between two points using an IMEL, the operator

Station the device at point A and place a mirror vertically at point B.
A wave train is sent from A' to B': it is its return to point A after
reflections on mirror B/ which allows calculating the distance traveled.
The distance measurement will be made by measuring the phase shift of the returning wave by
reporting the wave. The signal emitted by the IMEL is a series of sinusoidal waves
The wavelength λ corresponds to the straight distance traveled by the wave.
for a time called period.
The reflector or prism
It is an inert slide whose nature depends on the energy power.
send back.
A light beam undergoes three successive reflections before emerging parallel.
himself in the symmetrical position.
The reflector is manually held vertically at a point using a pole.
telescopic rod of a spherical level to ensure verticality.

34
 Figure 12.4: prism reflector ([Link], 2003)

c. Measuring angles
The theodolite is an instrument for measuring angles, essentially consisting of
of three converging axes and two goniometers simply called circles
([Link], 2003) one distinguishes:

Figure 12.5: Theodolite diagram

The pivot, or main axis, is vertically aligned and centered, that is to say
confused with the vertical of the point on the ground;
The tilting axis, or the pin axis, perpendicular to the main axis
thus horizontal at the time of the observations;
The optical axis of the telescope, perpendicular to the tilting axis, sweeps
a vertical dream plan;
The horizontal circle, centered on the pivot, will allow for measuring angles.
horizontal
The vertical circle, or clinometer, centered on the tipping axis, allows for the
measurement of vertical angles.

35
Figures 12.6: optical and digital theodolites

Theodolites are ancient optical instruments, with which the operator proceeds to
an optical reading generally estimating the milligrade and the decimilligrade
for precision theodolites, the micrometer is used differently on the circle
horizontal and at the vertical circle. Once the signal is pointed with the telescope, the operator
frame the index before successively reading the horizontal angle then the angle
zenithal

Figures 12.7: optical lectures document Leila,(M. Barbant, 2003)

The electronic theodolites, with automatic reading, integrate the microprocessor.

managing the course of the measurement and transmitting to the liquid crystal display
the horizontal angle and the vertical angle.

36
 Figure 12.8: electronic lecture document Leica (M. Barbant, 2003).

Electronic theodolites only allow for digital reading of angles.

while distances are calculated by traditional methods
The electronic topographic devices that allow for digital reading of the
angles and distances are called total station or in English 'total station'
the best known brands of these devices are:
Leica, Topcon, Sokkia, Nikkon, etc.

13. Chronology of the topographic work system in Lebanon

a. Reconnaissance
The first step to start a project is recognition or the
The project situation is made on the 20 millimeter maps created by the management of
geographical affairs of the Lebanese army.
If the city or village where the project is located is in the vicinity of the capital of
In Beirut, one can find final cadastral plans at the state land office.
In this case, the topographic works are very easy to apply because of
coordinates found on the cadastral plans.
Meanwhile, in the villages far from the capital, the topographical work for
The establishment of the cadastral plans has not yet been completed due to the war.
and the political problems, in this case we resort to sketches found in the
State office that helps us find the boundary markers on land made by the
old topographic brigades, this case makes topographic work
difficult.
b. Project
The project topographies are:
The survey, the implementation
The collection is the operation of collecting data, this data is in the form of
coordinates (x, y, z) or angles and distances. Sometimes the elevation must be paid.
sketch that makes the work or drawing of the map easier, for example student
dismantling of buildings and structures. The survey aims for mapping.
The implantation is the operation of distributing the data, for example
the implementation of buildings or parcel boundaries. This operation is done at
to start from coordinates or distances and angles. The implantation aims to
registrations on land.

37
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[Link], [Link]. Modern Topography and Trigonometry. Volume 1 - Technique of
measurement and derepresentation. No. 2287, 1999, 540 p.

[Link]. Maitriser la topographie,Des observations au plan. № 2, 2003, 542 р.

L. Lapointe, G. Meyer. Topography applied to public works buildings and

Urban levers. No. 4, 1994, 268 p.

[Link].Géodésiepour la restoration,[Link] 2006, 224 p.

[Link]

[Link]

[Link]

[Link]

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