Reproduction

➢ Reproduction is the biological process by which living organisms

produce new individuals (offspring) similar to themselves.
➢ It is a fundamental characteristic of life that ensures the
continuation of a species.

It is not an essential component of life process, yet it is necessary and unique,

why:

▪ Survival: Ensures species continuity by replacing dying

individuals.
▪ Genetic Continuity: Transfers DNA from parents to offspring.
▪ Variation: Creates diversity, aiding adaptation and evolution.

Types of Reproduction
➢ Organisms reproduce in two main ways:
▪ Asexual Reproduction and
▪ Sexual Reproduction
➢ Each type differs in the number of parents involved, the process,
and the characteristics of the offspring.

Asexual Reproduction:
A single parent produces offspring without the involvement of gametes (sex
cells).

Key Features:
▪ Only one parent is involved.
▪ Offspring are genetically identical to the parent (clones).
▪ It is a faster process and requires less energy.
▪ Common in simpler organisms like bacteria, fungi, and
some plants and animals.

❖ Advantage: Rapid reproduction in stable environments.

❖ Disadvantage: Lack of genetic variation, making organisms less
adaptable to environmental changes.
Sexual Reproduction:
Two parents (male and female) produce offspring through the fusion of
gametes (sperm and egg).

Key Features:
▪ Involves two parents, each contributing a gamete.
▪ Offspring are genetically different from parents due to
the mixing of genetic material.
▪ Common in complex organisms like humans, animals, and
flowering plants.

❖ Advantage: Genetic variation in offspring, which enhances

adaptability and evolution.
❖ Disadvantage: Slower process requiring more energy and time.

Now let us dive into each of these two types of reproduction

Before diving into the sexual reproduction, let us understand some important
terminology;

Gametes/Sex cells:
• The cells participating in the formation of zygote
o In male, Sperm cells
o In female, Ova(ovum)
Gonads/Reproductive organs:
• Organ which produces sex cells
o In male → Testes
o In female → Ovary

▪ Oogenesis: The process of formation of ovum by ovaries

▪ Spermatogenesis: The process of formation of sperm by testes.

Chromosomes
➢ Thread-like structures in the nucleus that carry genetic
information (DNA). They control traits and inheritance.
• Humans have 46 chromosomes (23 pairs).
• One set comes from the mother, the other from the father.
• They are like a recipe book for building and running the body.
• Gametes have 23 chromosomes (haploid).
• Zygote/body cells have 46 chromosomes (diploid).
Fertilization (निषेचि)
➢ Fertilization is the process where the male gamete (sperm) joins
with the female gamete (egg cell/ova) to form a zygote, which
then develops into a baby organism.
➢ It is like joining two halves to create a new life.

Types of Fertilization
1. External Fertilization (बाह्य निषेचि)
➢ What happens:
o Fertilization takes place outside the body of the
female.
o Both sperm and eggs are released into water, and
they meet there.
➢ Where it happens:
o Common in aquatic animals (those who live in
water).
➢ Examples:
o Frog
o Fish
o Starfish

Key points:
• Many eggs are produced (because many get destroyed).
• Needs a wet environment.
• Less protection for the young ones.

Internal Fertilization (आं तरिक निषेचि)

➢ What happens:
o Fertilization happens inside the female's body.
o The male deposits sperm inside the female, where
it meets the egg.
➢ Where it happens:
o Common in land animals and many mammals,
birds, insects, and reptiles.
➢ Examples:
o Humans
o Dogs
o Birds
o Lions
Key points:
• Fewer eggs are needed (because protection is better).
• The baby grows inside the mother (in mammals).
• More care and safety for the young one.
 Sexual Reproduction in Human Beings
First of all, let us understand ‘Primary and Secondary Sexual Characters’

Primary Sexual Characters:

• are the reproductive organs and structures present since
birth. For Example;
• In male:
o Penis: The male reproductive organ used for sexual
intercourse and urination.
o Testes: Glands that produce sperm and hormone
called testosterone responsible for secondary
sexual characteristics.
• In female:
o Vagina: The female reproductive organ that
connects the uterus to the outside of body.
o Ovaries: Glands that produce eggs or ova and sex
hormones such as Oestrogen and progesterone.

❖ Organs of body which determine whether newly born baby is baby boy
or baby girl.

Secondary sexual characteristics:

➢ are traits that emerge during puberty and distinguish the
biological sexes, but are not directly involved in reproduction
(unlike primary sexual characteristics such as testes and ovaries).
In Males:
Secondary sexual characters include: In Females:
Secondary sexual characters include:
Facial Hair – Growth of beard and
mustache. Breast Development – Growth of
Body Hair – Increased hair on chest, mammary glands.
underarms, and pubic region. Widening of Hips – Pelvic bones widen
Deepening of Voice – Vocal cords to support childbearing.
grow longer and thicker. Pubic and Underarm Hair – Hair
Increased Muscle Mass – Shoulders growth in these areas begins.
broaden, and muscle development is Onset of Menstruation (Menarche) –
enhanced. Sign of reproductive maturity.
Adam's Apple – Enlargement becomes Fat Deposition – Especially in hips,
visible due to voice box growth. thighs, and buttocks.
Increased Height and Bone Density – Voice Becomes Slightly High-Pitched –
Rapid growth during puberty. But not as deep as in males.

These traits are triggered by sex hormones: testosterone in males and estrogen in females.
 Puberty

➢ Puberty is the natural process during which a child's body

develops into an adult body, capable of sexual reproduction.
➢ It usually starts between ages 8 to 14 in girls and 9 to 15 in boys,
but it can vary.

?
➢ Puberty is triggered by hormones released by the pituitary gland
in the brain.
➢ These hormones signal the testes (in boys) and ovaries (in girls)
to produce sex hormones:
▪ Testosterone in boys
▪ Estrogen and progesterone in girls

Changes During Puberty .

In Girls:
▪ Breasts start developing
▪ Hips become wider
▪ Menstruation (periods) begins — a sign that the body is capable of pregnancy
▪ Ovaries begin releasing eggs (ovulation)

In Boys:
▪ Shoulders broaden
▪ Voice deepens (voice box or larynx grows)
▪ Growth of facial and chest hair
▪ Testes and penis grow larger
▪ Sperm production begins
▪ Erections and nocturnal emissions ("wet dreams")
 Female Reproductive System

The female reproductive system is responsible for:

1. Producing eggs (ova)
2. Providing a site for fertilization
3. Supporting the development of a foetus
4. Giving birth
5. Producing female sex hormones (estrogen and progesterone)

Primary Reproductive Organs

Ovaries
• Number: 2 (one on each side of the uterus)
• Function:
o Produce and release eggs (ova) – process called
ovulation.
o Secrete hormones – estrogen and progesterone.
• Structure: Contains thousands of immature eggs at birth. Each
month, one egg matures.

Secondary Reproductive Organs

Fallopian Tubes (Oviducts)
• Function:
o Transport the egg from the ovary to the uterus.
o Site where fertilization occurs if sperm meets the egg.
 • Special Part: Fimbriae – finger-like structures that help catch the egg after
ovulation.
Uterus (Womb)
• Function:
o Supports and nourishes the fertilized egg (zygote)
which develops into a baby.
o The inner lining (endometrium) thickens each
month for possible implantation.
• Structure:
o Body: Main part
o Cervix: Lower narrow part that opens into the
vagina
Vagina
• Muscular tube leading from the cervix to the outside of the body.
• Functions:
o Passageway for menstrual flow
o Receives the penis during intercourse
o Serves as the birth canal

External Genitalia (Vulva)

Includes:
• Labia majora and labia minora – folds of skin protecting the
vaginal opening.
• Clitoris – sensitive organ involved in sexual arousal.
• Urethral opening – for urine, separate from the vaginal opening.

Hormonal Control
Main hormones:
1. FSH (Follicle-Stimulating Hormone):
o Stimulates egg development in the ovary.
2. LH (Luteinizing Hormone):
o Triggers ovulation (release of egg).
3. Estrogen:
o Develops female characteristics.
o Builds uterine lining.
4. Progesterone:
o Maintains the uterine lining for pregnancy.

▪ Women are born with all their eggs (~1-2 million) but only around 400–500
are ovulated in a lifetime.
▪ Fertilization usually occurs in the fallopian tube.
▪ Pregnancy usually occurs when a fertilized egg implants in the uterus lining.
 Male Reproductive System

The male reproductive system is responsible for:

1. Producing sperm cells (spermatogenesis)
2. Delivering sperm to the female reproductive tract
3. Secreting male sex hormones (mainly testosterone)

Primary Reproductive Organs

Testes (Testicles)
• Function: Produce sperm and secrete testosterone.
• Location: Housed in the scrotum (a sac outside the body to
maintain a temperature slightly lower than body temp, ideal for
sperm production).
• Structure:
o Seminiferous tubules: Where sperm is produced.
o Interstitial (Leydig) cells: Secrete testosterone.
 Accessory Reproductive Organs
Epididymis
o A coiled tube above each testis.
o Function: Stores and matures sperm.
Vas Deferens (Ductus deferens)
o A muscular tube that carries mature sperm from epididymis to
the urethra.
Seminal Vesicles
o Paired glands behind the bladder.
o Function: Secretes a fluid rich in sugar (fructose) which gives
energy to sperm.
Prostate Gland
o Located below the bladder.
o Function: Adds a milky alkaline fluid to semen to protect sperm
from acidic vaginal environment.
Bulbourethral Glands (Cowper's glands)
o Small glands near the base of the penis.
o Function: Secrete a clear mucus-like fluid that lubricates the
urethra before ejaculation.

External Genitalia
Penis
o Male organ for sexual intercourse and urination.
o Contains urethra that transports both urine and semen (not at
the same time).
o Erectile tissue helps in erection by filling with blood.
Scrotum
o Pouch of skin containing the testes.
o Function: Regulates temperature for optimal sperm production.

Semen

• A mixture of:
• Sperm
• Seminal vesicle fluid
• Prostatic fluid
• Cowper's gland secretion

• Ejaculation volume: Around 2-5 mL containing 200–500 million

sperm.
 Sperm (Male gamete)
Size: Small, motile cell
Structure:
1. Head
o Contains nucleus with 23 chromosomes
o Covered by acrosome (enzyme-filled cap that
helps penetrate the egg)
2. Midpiece
o Packed with mitochondria to produce energy for
movement
3. Tail (Flagellum)
o Helps in movement toward the egg

Egg (Ovum – Female gamete)

Size: Large, non-motile cell

Structure:
1. Nucleus
o Contains 23 chromosomes
2. Cytoplasm
o Rich in nutrients to support early development
3. Zona Pellucida
o A protective glycoprotein layer around the egg
o Important for sperm binding
4. Corona Radiata
 o Outer layer of cells that nourish and protect the
egg
Menstrual Cycle

➢ The menstrual cycle is a monthly process in females (usually

around 28 days) during which the body prepares for pregnancy.
➢ If fertilization doesn’t occur, the inner lining of the uterus is shed
— this is what we call a period (menstruation).

Key phases:
• Menstruation: Uterine lining sheds if no pregnancy occurs (3–7
days).
• Follicular Phase: Ovary prepares an egg; uterine lining thickens.
• Ovulation: Egg is released from the ovary (around day 14).
• Luteal Phase: Uterus prepares for pregnancy; if no fertilization,
the cycle restarts

Phases of the Menstrual Cycle (in detail)

1. Menstrual Phase (Day 1–5)

• What happens:
o The endometrial lining (uterus lining) is shed because no
fertilization occurred.
o Blood, mucus, and tissue come out through the vagina —
this is called a period.
• Hormone Level:
 o Estrogen and progesterone levels are low.
• Key Point: This is when bleeding occurs.

2. Follicular Phase (Day 1–13)

• What happens:
o The pituitary gland releases FSH (Follicle
Stimulating Hormone).
o FSH stimulates the ovary to develop follicles —
one becomes the mature egg.
• Meanwhile, estrogen levels rise, helping rebuild the uterus lining.
• Key Point: Egg starts maturing and uterine lining starts
thickening.

3. Ovulation Phase (Around Day 14)

• What happens:
o A sudden surge in LH (Luteinizing Hormone)
causes the release of the mature egg from the
ovary into the fallopian tube.
• Key Point:
o Ovulation = egg released → This is the most fertile
time in the cycle.

4. Luteal Phase (Day 15–28)

• What happens:
o The empty follicle becomes a structure called
corpus luteum.
o Corpus luteum secretes progesterone to maintain
the uterus lining.
o If fertilization occurs, the embryo implants in the
uterus lining.
o If not, corpus luteum degenerates → hormone
levels fall → triggers menstruation again.
• Key Point: Uterus prepares for pregnancy; if none, cycle restarts.

Stages of reproduction
Fertilization
➢ Fertilization is the fusion of the male gamete (sperm) and female
gamete (ovum/egg) to form a zygote (first cell of a new life).
➢ Takes place in the fallopian tube of the female reproductive
system.
➢ Only one sperm out of millions manages to fertilize the egg.
2. After Fertilization: Pregnancy Begins
• Zygote to Embryo:
o The zygote divides repeatedly and forms a ball of
cells called the embryo.
o It travels to the uterus and implants in the uterine
wall (implantation) after about 6–7 days.
• Embryo to Fetus:
o The embryo develops organs and body parts
(called an embryo until week 8).
o After 8 weeks, it’s called a fetus.

3. Development During Pregnancy

• Placenta Formation:
o A special tissue called the placenta forms between
the mother and embryo.
• Functions of Placenta:
o Supplies oxygen and nutrients to the fetus.
o Removes wastes like CO₂ and urea from fetal
blood.
o Protects from harmful substances (partially).

• Amniotic Sac
o A thin, transparent, balloon-like membrane that
surrounds the embryo/fetus inside the uterus.
o Also called the "bag of waters".
o Begins forming soon after fertilization.
o acts as a physical barrier to protect against
infections.
 • Amniotic Fluid
o A clear, slightly yellowish liquid inside the
amniotic sac.
o It surrounds the fetus throughout pregnancy.
o Cushions the fetus from external shocks or
injuries.
o The fetus inhales and exhales the fluid, which
helps lung growth.

4. Duration of Pregnancy
• Lasts about 9 months (280 days) or 40 weeks.
• Divided into three trimesters:
o 1st trimester (0–3 months): Organs begin forming.
o 2nd trimester (4–6 months): Body parts grow; movements
begin.
o 3rd trimester (7–9 months): Final growth and preparation
for birth.

5. Childbirth (Parturition)

• Triggered by hormones and uterine contractions.

• Cervix opens, baby is pushed out through the vagina (birth canal).

Reproductive Health
➢ Reproductive health means keeping the parts of your body that help make
babies healthy and working properly.
➢ It’s also about understanding how your body grows and changes, especially
during puberty when you start becoming an adult.
➢ Taking care of reproductive health means eating well, staying clean,
exercising, and visiting a doctor when needed to make sure everything is okay.

Sexually transmitted diseases (STDs)

➢ Sexually transmitted diseases (STDs) are infections passed from one person to
another through sexual contact, like vaginal, anal, or oral sex.
➢ They’re caused by bacteria, viruses, or parasites and can affect the
reproductive organs or other parts of the body.
Transmission:
• Through unprotected sexual intercourse, sharing needles, or from
mother to child during pregnancy or childbirth.
 Pregnancy

Pregnancy is the process in which a fertilized egg (zygote) implants in the

uterus, develops into an embryo, and grows into a foetus over approximately
nine months until childbirth.
Pregnancy test kit

➢ When a woman becomes pregnant, her body starts producing

hCG, a hormone that When a woman becomes pregnant, her
body starts producing Human Chorionic Gonadotropin
➢ (hCG), a hormone that is released after a fertilized egg attaches
to the uterine lining.

Urine Test Kits:

Absorbent Stick:
o Pregnancy test kits have an absorbent stick or
strip. When a woman urinates on the stick or dips
it in her urine, the hCG in the urine is absorbed by
the stick.
Chemical Reaction:
o If hCG is present in the urine, it reacts with
chemicals on the stick, causing a change in color
or a line to appear. This indicates a positive result,
meaning the woman is pregnant.

Contraception/Birth control
➢ The prevention of unwanted pregnancy is called Contraception.
➢ Need:
• To check the uncontrolled growth of population
• To prevent pregnancy and
• To prevent spread of sexually transmitted diseases
Contraceptive methods:
• Planned Control Population: This can be achieved by
o Educating people about the advantages of small
family
o By raising the age of marriage
• Barrier methods: These are physical devices to prevent
fertilization
o Condom: made up of rubber or latex sheath to
cover penis before coital activity(intercourse)
o Diaphragms & Cervical caps: used by female by
inserting them in their vagina
• Chemical Methods: These include the use of some chemicals
which are spermicidal. They may be tablets, pastes or creams
introduced in vagina before intercourse.

• Surgical methods:
• Tubectomy: A surgical procedure in females where the
fallopian tubes are cut or blocked to prevent eggs from
reaching the uterus.

• Vasectomy: A surgical procedure in males where the vas

deferens is cut or sealed to prevent sperm from entering
the semen

• IUDs:
o It stands for Intra Uterine Devices.
o Are fitted in the uterus to prevent fertilization
o Example:
o Copper T and Loops
 REPRODUCTION IN PLANTS
➢ The biological process by which plants produce new individuals
(offspring) of their own kind, ensuring the continuation of their
species.
➢ Plants reproduce in two ways:
▪ Sexual
▪ Asexual.

Sexual Reproduction in Flowering Plant

➢ In flowering plants, the flower is the reproductive organ.
➢ They bear flowers, fruit-covered seeds and reproduces via
double fertilization.

Reproductive Structure

Sepal :
• It is usually green in colour and protects the flower bud.
• Sepals are collectively called calyx.
Petal :
• It is usually brightly coloured
• it attracts the pollinators for pollination.
• Collection of petals is called corolla.
Stamen
• It consists of anthers and filaments.
• Anthers are bilobed structures containing microsporangia, that
produce microspores, which develop into male gametophytes or
pollen.
• Filaments are supporting structures connecting the anthers to
the flower base.
• Several stamens are collectively called androecium.

Carpel/Pistil:
• It consists of stigma, style, and ovary.
• Stigma: The sticky or feathery top that receives pollen grains
during pollination.
• Style: A slender tube-like structure that connects the stigma to
the ovary, allowing the pollen tube to grow toward the ovule.
• Ovary: A swollen base that contains one or more ovules, each
housing a female gamete (egg cell).
• A collection of carpels is termed as gynoecium.

Accessory Structures:
• Pedicel: The stalk that supports the flower.
• Receptacle: The swollen tip of the pedicel where floral parts are
attached.
• Nectaries: Glands (often at the base of petals) that secrete
nectar to attract pollinators.

Pollination
The transfer of pollen grains from the anther of a flower to the stigma of the
same or another flower.
Types:
• Self-Pollination: Pollen transfers to the stigma of the same
flower or another flower on the same plant (e.g., Pea plant).
• Cross-Pollination: Pollen transfers to the stigma of a flower on a
different plant of the same species (e.g., Sunflower).

Fertilization

After the pollen grain gets deposited on the stigma, it enters the style and
triggers a series of events, eventually leading to double fertilization.

Process:
• After pollination, a pollen grain on the stigma germinates,
forming a pollen tube that grows down the style to the ovary.
• The male gamete (from the pollen) travels through the pollen
tube and fuses with the female gamete (in the ovule) inside the
ovary.
• This fusion forms a zygote, which develops into an embryo.

Double Fertilization (unique to flowering plants):

• One male gamete fuses with the egg cell to form the zygote
(embryo).
• Another male gamete fuses with two polar nuclei to form the
endosperm (nutritive tissue for the embryo).
Ovule :
• Think of the ovule as a tiny bag inside a flower's ovary.
• This bag contains important cells that help make seeds.
• After fertilization, the ovule becomes the seed.
Egg Cell :
• Inside the ovule, there is a single special cell called the egg cell.
• It is the female reproductive cell (just like in animals).
• When pollen (male part) reaches it, fertilization happens, and a new plant
begins to form.
Polar Nucleus :
• In the center of the ovule, there are two special nuclei (centers of cells).
• These are called polar nuclei.
• They don’t directly make the baby plant, but they help form endosperm (plant
food).
Endosperm Nucleus :
• After one male cell (from pollen) joins with the egg cell to make the baby
plant,
• The second male cell joins with the two polar nuclei.
• This makes a triploid cell called the endosperm nucleus.
• This cell becomes the endosperm, which provides food for the growing seed.
 Asexual Reproduction
• It is a type of reproduction where only one parent is involved.
• No fertilization (no joining of male and female cells).
• The offspring (new organism) is exactly like the parent — a clone.
• It happens faster than sexual reproduction and is common in
plants, fungi, and some animals.

Type of Asexual Reproduction

Fission
• Meaning: The organism splits into two or more new organisms.
• Types of Fission:
o Binary Fission
▪ One organism divides into two
equal parts.
▪ Example: Amoeba, Paramecium.
o Multiple Fission
▪ The organism splits into many new
organisms at once.
▪ Example: Plasmodium (causes
malaria).
Binary Fission – Process
(Happens in organisms like Amoeba, Paramecium)
Step-by-step:
• The cell grows big — just like blowing up a balloon.
• The nucleus (center of control) makes a copy of itself.
• The cell starts to pinch in the middle (like tying a string around a balloon).
• Finally, it splits into two new cells, each with a nucleus.

Key Point:
• One parent → Two identical children
• No special organs needed. It happens in unicellular (single-celled) organisms.
Multiple Fission – Process (Happens in Plasmodium and other parasites)

• When conditions are not good (like too hot or dry), the organism
makes a hard outer shell (protective layer).
• Inside that shell, the nucleus divides many times.
• Each new nucleus gets a bit of the cell’s body and becomes a
new organism.
• When conditions become good again, the shell breaks open and
many new cells come out.

Key Point:
• One parent → Many children at once
• Useful for survival in tough times.

Budding
• In budding, a small outgrowth (called a bud) forms on the body
of the parent.
• This bud grows and then separates to become a new organism.
• Examples:
o Yeast (a fungus)
o Hydra (a simple water animal)
Spore Formation
• In this method, the organism produces tiny, lightweight spores
that can grow into new individuals.
• These spores can fly through air and grow when they land in a
suitable place.
• It usually happens in fungi, algae, and some bacteria.
Spore Formation – Process
• The parent organism (like Rhizopus) develops a sporangium — a
round structure at the top of a stalk.
• Inside the sporangium, many spores are produced by the division
of the nucleus.
• These spores have a protective covering, so they can survive in
harsh conditions (heat, dryness).
• When the sporangium bursts open, the spores are released into
the air.
• If a spore lands on a moist surface, it grows into a new organism.

Vegetative Propagation
• In this method, a part of a plant (like root, stem, or leaf) grows
into a new plant.
• No seeds are involved!
• It’s very common in plants, both naturally and by humans (for
farming/gardening).
• Examples:
o Potato (via stem tuber)
o Onion (via bulb)
o Ginger (via rhizome)
o Bryophyllum (via leaves)
o Money plant (via stem cutting)
Types of Vegetative Propagation
• Natural Vegetative Propagation
• Artificial vegetative Propagation

Natural Vegetative Propagation

Artificial Vegetative Propagation
➢ It is a method by which humans grow new plants from roots,
stems, or leaves of existing plants without using seeds.

Main Methods of Artificial Vegetative Propagation

1. Cutting
• A small piece of the stem (or sometimes root/leaf) is cut from a
healthy plant.
• It is planted in soil or water.
• After some time, it develops roots and grows into a new plant.
• Example:
o Money plan
o Rose
o Hibiscus (गुड़हल)

2. Layering
• A branch of the plant is bent down to touch the soil.
• That part is covered with soil, but still attached to the parent
plant.
• After roots develop, the branch is cut off and becomes a new
plant.
• Example:
o Jasmine (चमेली)
o Strawberry

3. Grafting
 • Two different plants are joined together — one gives the roots
(called stock), and the other gives the shoot (called scion).

• They are tied together so they join and grow as one plant.
• This is used to combine best features of two plants (like taste +
strength).
• Example:
o Mango
o Apple
o Rose

4. Micropropagation / Tissue Culture:

• Tiny cells or tissues are taken from a plant.
• These are kept in a nutrient-rich solution in a lab.
• They grow into small plantlets, which are then planted in soil.
• Example:
o Banana
o Orchid
o Sugarcane

Advantages of Vegetative Propagation

• Fast Reproduction
• Same Quality (Clones)
• Can Grow Without Seeds
• More Crops in Less Time
• Useful in Horticulture
o Desired qualities (like beautiful flowers, good
taste) can be preserved through cutting, grafting,
etc.

Disadvantages of Vegetative Propagation

• No Genetic Variation
o All plants are identical. If a disease affects one, it can affect
all (no diversity = no resistance).
• Disease Spread
o If the parent plant is infected, the disease is passed to the
offspring.
• Less Adaptability
o These plants cannot adapt well to changing environments
because they are all genetically same.
• Requires Human Effort or Specific Conditions