Orientation to Computing-I

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 Unit-1 (Computer Systems)
TABLE OF CONTENTS:
• Basic structure of computer, working
• Computer associated peripherals
• Memories (Primary and Secondary)
• Basic of GPU basics , CPU and GPU
• PC connection interface
• Introduction to RAID & RAID level

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 Inside a computer

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 Computer System: Basic
Structure

• A computer transforms raw data into

meaningful information,

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 Example:
Raw data: A list of student marks → 45, 78, 89, 66
Processing: Sorting, calculating averages, finding top scorer
Meaningful information: "Class average is 69.5, highest score is 89"

It’s basically describing the input → processing → output cycle.

• So this process made possible by the seamless interaction of :

• its two core components
• - hardware and
- software.

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 Data Processing
The activity of processing data using a computer is called data processing

Data is raw material used as input and information is processed data

obtained as output of data processing

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 Thereby, a computer is an electronic device that can perform arithmetic operations at
high speed

A computer is also called a data processor because it can store, process, and retrieve
data whenever desired

Workflow:
1. Input - User provides data.
2. Processing - CPU processes instructions.
3. Storage - Data stored temporarily or permanently.
4. Output - Results displayed or printed.

Advantages:
- High speed processing
- Automation
- Large storage capacity

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 The System Concept

A system has following three characteristics:

1. A system has more than one element

2. All elements of a system are logically related
3. All elements of a system are controlled in a manner to achieve the system
goal

A computer is a system as it comprises of integrated components (input unit,

output unit, storage unit, and CPU) that work together to perform the steps
called for in the executing program

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 Hardware and Software Overview
• Hardware,
o the physical parts like the CPU and memory,
o executes the commands given by software.

• Software,
o the programs and instructions, in turn controls the hardware's
functions.

• This symbiotic relationship is crucial for any computer operation.

Hardware Software
Physical components Programs and instructions

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 1. Application S/W (Application Software)
These are the programs you directly interact with
For example MS Word, a browser, or a game.

•They don’t talk to hardware directly. Instead, they use the next layer (API) to request
services.

2. API (Application Programming Interface)

A set of rules and functions that allows the application software to communicate with the
operating system.
Example: When you click “Print” in MS Word, it uses an API call to tell the operating system
to send data to the printer.

3. Operating System (OS)

•Manages all the hardware and software resources of the computer.
•Acts as a middleman between software (apps) and hardware.
•Decides how and when different programs can use CPU, memory, storage, etc.

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 4. ROM BIOS (Basic Input/Output System)
Firmware stored in ROM.
•Provides basic instructions that allow the OS to talk to the hardware.

•Handles very low-level operations, like booting the computer, keyboard input, and disk
reading.

5. Computer H/W (Hardware)

The physical components — CPU, memory chips, hard drives, graphics card, etc.
•Executes the actual electrical operations needed for your tasks.

Application Software → API → Operating System → ROM BIOS → Hardware

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 Structure of a Computer System

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 Structure of a Computer System

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 Input Devices
Input devices are the computer's senses, allowing users to feed data and commands into the system.

It accepts (or reads) instructions and data from outside world

They convert human actions into digital signals for processing.

Output Devices
• Output devices are how the computer communicates back
to us.

• They translate processed digital data into a format we can

understand,

• whether it's visual, auditory, or printed.

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 Central Processing Unit
(CPU)

• The CPU, often called the "brain," is where all the

magic happens
.
• It executes instructions and processes data with two
main parts:

o the Control Unit and

o the Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU).

CPU Components
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 Storage Devices

• Storage devices are the computer's memory.

• It hold data and programs permanently or temporarily.
• This ensures data is always available when needed.
• Example:

Hard Drives Long-term storage USB Drives Portable storage

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 What is Memory?
1 2 3

Stores Data CPU Access Storage Types

Holds information Enables fast Both temporary and
and instructions. processor interaction. permanent data.

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 Memory Classification
Overview

Primary Memory Secondary Memory

• Fast, volatile, direct • Slower, persistent,

CPU access. larger capacity.

• RAM and ROM. • HDDs, SSDs, optical drives.

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 Primary storage

Used to hold running program instructions

Used to hold data, intermediate results, and results of ongoing
processing of job(s)

Fast in operation
Small Capacity
Expensive
Volatile (looses data on power dissipation)

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 Secondary storage

Used to hold stored program instructions

Used to hold data and information of stored jobs
Slower than primary storage
Large Capacity
Lot cheaper that primary storage
Retains data even without power

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 Classification of Memory

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 Primary Memory: RAM

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 RAM Characteristics
Volatile Access → RAM loses all stored data when power is turned off.

•Cache Use → RAM can be used for cache memory, which is very fast but expensive.

•Needs Refresh → Some types of RAM need periodic refreshing to retain data.

•They are common and cost-effective.

Key Point
RAM is crucial for active programs because it temporarily stores data and
instructions that the CPU needs quickly.

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 Random Access Memory (RAM)
• It is also called read-write memory or the main
memory or the primary memory.

• The programs and data that the CPU requires

during the execution of a program are stored in this
memory.

• It is a volatile memory as the data is lost when the

power is turned off.

• RAM is further classified into two types- SRAM

(Static Random Access Memory) and DRAM
(Dynamic Random Access Memory).

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 Types of RAM
RAM primarily comes in two forms:
Static RAM (SRAM) and
Dynamic RAM (DRAM).

Each has distinct characteristics that determine their

applications within a computer system.

SRAM DRAM
• Fast, expensive • Slower, cheaper
• Used in CPU cache • Main system memory
• No refresh needed • Requires constant refresh

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 DRAM Vs SRAM

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 Primary Memory: ROM

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 ROM Characteristics

•Non-Volatile → Data in ROM persists even without power, unlike RAM.

•Boot Programs → ROM stores essential startup instructions (like BIOS/firmware)

required to start a computer.

•Types → ROM comes in different forms:

◦PROM (Programmable ROM – can be programmed once)

◦EPROM (Erasable Programmable ROM – can be erased with UV light and

reprogrammed)

◦EEPROM (Electrically Erasable Programmable ROM – can be erased

electrically and reprogrammed, more flexible).
Key Point
ROM provides fundamental system instructions that are necessary for the computer
to boot and function at a basic level. Unlike RAM, it is read-only (not meant for
frequent writing).

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 Read Only Memory (ROM)
• Read-Only Memory (ROM)
• Stores crucial information essential to operate the
system, like the program essential to boot the
computer.
• It is not volatile.
• Always retains its data.
• Used in embedded systems or where the
programming needs no change.
• Used in calculators and peripheral devices.
• ROM is further classified into four types- MROM,
PROM, EPROM, and EEPROM.

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 Types of ROM
• MROM: MROM stands for Mask
Read Only Memory.

• It is a memory chip that is made

with its data.

• These are economical and include

pre-programmed directions.

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 Types of ROM
• PROM: PROM stands for Programmable read-
only memory.
• A PROM is considered a blank chip.
• We can say it is a ROM without any content
inside it.
• Therefore, in such a case, the user can freely
add content.
• But remember once the data has been inserted
into the PROM, it could not be revised.

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 Types of ROM
• EPROM (erasable programmable read-only memory)
• It is memory that does not lose its data when the power supply is cut off.
• The data can be erased and the chip reprogrammed.
• By shining an intense ultraviolet (UV) light through a window designed into the memory chip
it reprogramed.

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 EEPROM:
• EEPROM stands for Electrically Erasable Programmable Read-
Only Memory.
• The concept of EEPROM is somehow the same as the EPROM.
• EEPROM provides the stored data to be deleted electrically.
• Once the data got deleted, it could be rewritten Electrically.

Flash Memory:
• Flash memory is electrically erased and reprogrammed.
• Flash memory can be erased and rewritten faster than ordinary
EEPROM.

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 RAM vs ROM

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 Secondary Memory Overview

Non-volatile Storage
Data retained permanently.

Higher Capacity
Stores large amounts of data.

Slower Access
Compared to primary memory.

Essential for long-term data retention and system files.

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 Types of Secondary Memory

Magnetic Disks Solid State Drives

Traditional Hard Disk Drives (HDD). Faster, flash-based storage (SSD).

Optical Disks Magnetic Tapes

CDs, DVDs, Blu-ray discs. Cost-effective for backup archives.

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 Primary memory, like RAM, is limited and volatile, losing data
when power is off. Secondary memory solves this by providing
large, permanent storage for data and programs.

A hard disk drive (HDD) is a fixed storage device inside a

computer that is used for long-term data storage. Unlike RAM,
HDDs retain data even when powered off, making them
essential for operating systems, applications, and files.

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 1. A video editor is working on a large 4K video file. The editing
software runs smoothly while manipulating the timeline, but the
computer becomes extremely slow when multiple other applications, like
a web browser with many tabs and a photo editor, are opened
simultaneously. What is the most likely bottleneck causing this
slowdown?

A. The computer's ROM is corrupted, affecting system stability.

B. The computer has insufficient RAM to hold all the active applications
and their data simultaneously.

C. The input peripherals, like the mouse and keyboard, cannot keep up
with the editor's commands.

D. The secondary memory (SSD/HDD) is too slow to handle the video

file.

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 1. A video editor is working on a large 4K video file. The editing
software runs smoothly while manipulating the timeline, but the
computer becomes extremely slow when multiple other applications,
like a web browser with many tabs and a photo editor, are opened
simultaneously. What is the most likely bottleneck causing this
slowdown?

A. The computer's ROM is corrupted, affecting system stability.

B. The computer has insufficient RAM to hold all the active

applications and their data simultaneously.

C. The input peripherals, like the mouse and keyboard, cannot keep
up with the editor's commands.

D. The secondary memory (SSD/HDD) is too slow to handle the

video file.

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 2. An office experiences a sudden power outage. After the power is
restored and computers are rebooted, which of the following scenarios is
expected?

A. All installed programs will be gone, but any unsaved work in an open
spreadsheet will be automatically recovered.

B. The computer's BIOS settings will be lost, but the saved files on the
desktop will remain.

C. Any unsaved changes in an open image file will be lost, but the
computer will boot up using the firmware stored on the ROM.

D. An unsaved text document the user was typing will be available, but
the operating system will need to be reinstalled from the HDD.

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 2. An office experiences a sudden power outage. After the power is
restored and computers are rebooted, which of the following scenarios is
expected?

A. All installed programs will be gone, but any unsaved work in an open
spreadsheet will be automatically recovered.

B. The computer's BIOS settings will be lost, but the saved files on the
desktop will remain.

C. Any unsaved changes in an open image file will be lost, but the
computer will boot up using the firmware stored on the ROM.

D. An unsaved text document the user was typing will be available, but
the operating system will need to be reinstalled from the HDD.

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 3. A user is trying to build a new PC. After assembling all the
components, the computer powers on, fans spin, but nothing
appears on the screen, and the motherboard speaker emits a
specific beep code. Where is the instruction set that identifies this
hardware issue during the initial startup phase located?

A. In the Random Access Memory (RAM), which checks the

hardware.

B. In the Read-Only Memory (ROM), which contains the

BIOS/UEFI firmware.

C. Within the CPU's cache, which is pre-loaded with diagnostic

tools.

D. On the secondary storage (SSD/HDD) as part of the operating

system.
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 3. A user is trying to build a new PC. After assembling all the
components, the computer powers on, fans spin, but nothing
appears on the screen, and the motherboard speaker emits a
specific beep code. Where is the instruction set that identifies this
hardware issue during the initial startup phase located?

A. In the Random Access Memory (RAM), which checks the

hardware.

B. In the Read-Only Memory (ROM), which contains the

BIOS/UEFI firmware.

C. Within the CPU's cache, which is pre-loaded with diagnostic

tools.

D. On the secondary storage (SSD/HDD) as part of the operating

system.
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 4. A developer is running three virtual machines (VMs) simultaneously
on a host computer to test a software application. The host computer
has a high- end CPU and a fast SSD, but the entire system, including
the host and all VMs, becomes incredibly sluggish and unresponsive.
The CPU usage is high but not at 100%. What is the most critical
component to upgrade to resolve this specific issue?

A. The primary memory (RAM), by increasing its capacity.

.
B. The secondary storage, upgrading from an SSD to a faster NVMe
SSD.

C. The computer's power supply unit (PSU) to provide more stable

power.

D. The monitor, because a lower resolution display would use fewer

resources.
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 4. A developer is running three virtual machines (VMs) simultaneously
on a host computer to test a software application. The host computer
has a high- end CPU and a fast SSD, but the entire system, including
the host and all VMs, becomes incredibly sluggish and unresponsive.
The CPU usage is high but not at 100%. What is the most critical
component to upgrade to resolve this specific issue?

A. The primary memory (RAM), by increasing its capacity.

B. The secondary storage, upgrading from an SSD to a faster NVMe

SSD.

C. The computer's power supply unit (PSU) to provide more stable

power.

D. The monitor, because a lower resolution display would use fewer

resources.
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 Hard Disk Drives (HDD)
• Hard-disk drives (HDDs),

• It commonly referred to as hard drives.

• It is the default storage component in desktop and

laptop PCs.

• But hard drives are far from being obsolete.

• Modern HDDs are far more advanced and higher-

performing.

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 Hard Disk Drives (HDD)
• Main Components of Hard Disk Architecture:
1. Platters: Circular disks made of glass or aluminum.
– Tracks: Concentric circles on the platter surface.
– Each platter surface has many tracks.
– Sectors: Each track is divided into small segments called sectors.

2. Spindle: Rotates the platters at high speed.

3. Read/Write Head: Tiny electromagnetic device that reads or writes data.

4. Actuator Arm: Moves the read/write head over the platter surface.

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 The WD Black 4TB drive without its
cover

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 Features of HDD
•Non-Volatile: Data remains stored even when the power is off,
making it ideal for long-term storage.

•High Capacity: Can store large amounts of data, with modern

HDDs reaching terabytes in size.

•Relatively Slow: Slower than RAM, with access times in

milliseconds, making it better for storage than frequent data access.

•Cost-Effective: Cheaper than SSDs, especially for high-capacity

storage.

•Reliable: Despite mechanical parts, HDDs are durable and widely

used for enterprise storage.

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 Advantages of HDD Disadvantages of HDD

High Storage Capacity – HDDs offer large storage

Slower Performance – HDDs are slower than SSDs,
options making them ideal for storing huge amounts
especially when handling large or complex files.
of data, including videos, software, and documents.

Cost-Effective – HDDs are cheaper per GB than High Power Consumption – The mechanical parts of
SSDs, making them a budget-friendly option for mass an HDD require more energy to operate compared to
storage. SSDs.

Reliable & Proven Technology – HDDs have been Less Durable – Moving parts make HDDs more prone
around for decades, constantly improving to damage if dropped, making them less suitable
in performance and durability. for portable devices.

Data Retention & Recovery – HDDs retain data Noisy Operation & Heat Generation – The spinning
even when powered off, and data recovery tools can platters and moving parts generate noise and heat,
restore lost files in case of failure. affecting system efficiency.

Easy to Upgrade & Replace – HDDs can be easily

swapped or expanded, allowing users to Limited Lifespan – Mechanical components wear out
upgrade storage capacity without much technical over time, leading to potential failures and data loss.
knowledge.

Widely Compatible – HDDs work with most Slower Read/Write Speeds – While HDDs
computers, operating systems, and external storage handle large sequential data well, random access
devices. speed is much slower than SSDs.

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 Solid-state drives (SSD)
• SSDs use nonvolatile NAND flash memory to hold your files.
• It has no mechanical parts or magnetic bits flying around, as we see in hard
drives.
• By ditching the relative slothfulness of moving parts, solid-state drives
deliver better performance.
• They’re the fastest storage option available by far.

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 Advantages of SSD

•Faster Performance: SSDs provide much higher speed for

booting, loading apps, and transferring files.

•More Reliable: No moving parts mean less wear and tear,

reducing the risk of failure.

•Silent Operation: Unlike HDDs, SSDs make no noise since

they don’t have spinning disks.

•Energy Efficient: Uses less power, making it great for

laptops and battery life.

•Shock & Vibration Resistant: Ideal for portable devices as

they can withstand drops and rough handling.

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 Disadvantages of SSD

•Cost: SSDs are more expensive than regular hard drives.

•Limited Lifespan: Each memory cell in an SSD has a limited

number of write cycles before it degrades.

•Storage choices: Because of the expense, SSDs are often sold

in smaller sizes.

Performance: SSDs' performance degrades over time due to

write cycle limitations.

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 Features of SSD
•Start-up Time: SSDs do not use any mechanical component hence it takes almost negligible
startup time.

•Random Access Times: Accessing data directly from the Flash memory creates a lag-free
experience for its users.

•Data transfer rates: Higher Data Transfer rates of about 100-600 Mb/sec.

•Noise: As they have no mechanical part they create zero noise.

•Operating Temperature Range: SSDs can operate effectively in a wider temperature range
compared to HDDs..

•Boot Time and Application Load Times: SSDs reduce boot time of operating system and other
applications.

•Security features: SSDs offer advanced security features like hardware encryption and secure
erase functions to protect data from unauthorized access.

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 HDD Vs SSD
1. SSDs are much faster compared to Hard Disk Drives.

2. SSDs are much costly compared to Hard Disk Drives.

3. SSDs, if die, they die without any warning so you may lose your data if not
already backed up.

4. SSDs are good for people who need higher speeds as in gaming and real-
time computing etc.

5. Hard Disk Drives are okay for people who require more of storage space
compared to speed.

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 Motherboard:
The Computer Backbone
The motherboard is the foundational circuit board.

It connect every component—CPU, memory, and

expansion slots,

And facilitate seamless data transfer between them

through various buses.

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 Processor
• A processor is an electronic circuit performing computer calculations.
• Executes arithmetic, logical, and I/O operations from the OS.
• Other system processes depend on processor operations.
• Terms processor, CPU, and microprocessor are often used synonymously.
• "CPU" and "processor" are used interchangeably, though not always accurate.
• The Graphics Processing Unit (GPU) is another processor
• GPU and some hard drives also perform processing tasks.

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 The Central Brain: What is a CPU?

Controls Everything Sequential Power Complex Logic

The CPU is the central It excels at executing With fewer, more
processing unit, acting as instructions one after powerful cores, CPUs
the computer's brain, another with incredible handle complex tasks
directing all operations. speed and precision. like multitasking and
logical operations.

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 Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU)

Arithmetic Logic Unit of a computer system is the place where

the actual executions of instructions takes place during
processing operation

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 Control Unit (CU)

Control Unit of a computer system manages and

coordinates the operations of all other components of the
computer system

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 Central Processing Unit (CPU)

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 GPU Basics
• Graphics processing technology delivers unique computing benefits.
• GPUs support machine learning and more.
• GPU means Graphics Processing Unit device.
• GPUs render images, videos, animations too.
• Frees CPU by doing math operations.

Types of GPUs
• Integrated GPUs are built into the CPU.
– They share memory with the processor.
– Common in laptops and basic desktops.
• Discrete GPUs are separate hardware cards.
– They have dedicated video memory (VRAM).
– Free up system RAM for other tasks.

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 What Does a GPU Do?

• GPU – Key Points

• GPU is vital for both personal and

business computing.
• Designed for parallel processing,
suitable for graphics and video
rendering.
• Widely used in gaming, creative
production, and AI tasks.
• Originally built to accelerate 3D
graphics rendering.
• Became programmable and
flexible, enabling advanced visual
effects.
• Now powers HPC, deep learning,
and other intensive workloads.

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 CPU vs. GPU:
Architectural Showdown

CPU: Few, Mighty Cores GPU: Many, Simple Cores

• Powerful, general-purpose cores • Thousands of specialized cores
• Optimized for sequential tasks • Designed for parallel processing
• Handles diverse logical operations • High-throughput memory access

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 PC Connecions and Inerface:

 PC Connection Interface –
Overview

 Connects PC to
internal/external devices

 Supports data, audio, and

video transfer

 Varies by speed, function,

and compatibility

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 There are a variety of USB connectors as illustrated
in the figure below:

Most prominent among these are Type A, Type B, Mini

Type A, Mini Type B, Type Micro A, and Type micro B.

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 Types of Connection Interface
• VGA : A Video Graphics Array (VGA):

• This connector is a three-row 15-pin DE-15 connector.

• The 15-pin VGA connector was provided on many video cards,

computer monitors, laptop computers, projectors, and high
definition television sets.

• On laptop computers or other small devices, a mini-VGA port was

sometimes used in place of the full-sized VGA connector.

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 Types of Connection Interface

HDMI (High-Definition Multimedia Interface):

HDMI is a proprietary audio/video interface.

It is a digital replacement for analog video standards.

HDMI connects a compliant source device (e.g., display

controller) to:
Computer monitor
Video projector
Digital television
Digital audio device

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 NFC (Near Field Communication)

What is NFC?

NFC is like a very short-range Wi-Fi or Bluetooth.

Two devices "talk" to each other when they are very close together (about 10 cm or less).
Example: Tapping your phone to pay at a shop, or using a metro card at the gate.

Types of NFC:

Active NFC
• Both devices can send and receive data.
• Example: Your phone tapping another phone to share files (Android Beam, AirDrop
style).

Passive NFC
• One device only sends data, doesn’t receive.
• It doesn’t even need its own battery or power.
• Example: Your student ID card, metro card, hotel key card — they just send info when
scanned.

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 NFC is like a tap-and-go handshake between devices.

•Phones use active NFC (send + receive).

•Cards/tags use passive NFC (only send).

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 • NFC: Near Field Communication
• Short-range, high-frequency wireless
communication technology.
• Works within about 10 cm range.
• More secure than Bluetooth's longer range.
• Ideal for crowded and public areas.
• Difficult to intercept physical device signal.
• Two types of NFC:
• Active
– Active NFC sends and receives data.
– Used in Android and Apple devices.
• Passive
– Passive NFC only sends the data.
– Passive NFC doesn't need power supply.
– Example: Student ID card with NFC

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 • SATA: serial advanced technology
attachment,
• Also called serial ATA,

• Interface for transferring data between

a computer’s central circuit board and storage
devices.

• SATA replaced the long-standing PATA

(parallel ATA) interface.

• Serial communication transfers data one bit at

a time, rather than in several parallel streams.

• Serial transmission is less susceptible to

interference, allowing SATA to operate at
significantly higher speeds than PATA.

• The serial model also allows for simpler and

slimmer cabling.

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 SATA

PATA

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 • Bluetooth Interface

• Wireless tech for short-range

communication.

• Operates on 2.4 GHz frequency band.

• Connects phones, headsets, and speakers.

• Supports audio, file, and data transfer.

• Low power usage and secure pairing.

• Used in IoT, cars, wearables.

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 RAID
• Introduction to RAID

• RAID: Redundant Array of Independent Disks

• Combines multiple disks for performance.

• Offers data redundancy and fault tolerance.

• Protects against drive failure or data loss.

• Used in servers, DBMS, desktops.

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 • What is RAID?

• Backup-like system across multiple drives.

• Data stored in segments across disks.

• Ensures safety if a drive fails.

• Acts like a safety net for files.

• Logical unit created using physical disks.

• Improves reliability, availability, and performance.

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 • How RAID Works
• Data split across multiple storage
drives.
• May also create duplicate data
pieces.
• Lost data recovered from remaining
drives.
• Similar to sharing and copying a
book.
• Ensures data continuity after disk
failure.
• Varies based on RAID configuration.

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 RAID Controller
• Its job is to manage how strips are read/written across multiple
disks.
• It makes multiple physical disks appear as one single logical
large-capacity disk to the system.

Benefits:
• Improved Performance: Since read/write operations can
happen in parallel across multiple disks.
• Load Balancing: Multiple disks share the workload.
• Scalability: Easy to expand by adding more disks.

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 This is RAID 0 (striping only, no redundancy):
• Data is split across disks for performance.
• However, if one disk fails, all data is lost (no fault tolerance).

This diagram explains how a RAID 0 array works:

1. Data is split into strips.
2. Strips are distributed across multiple disks.
3. RAID controller makes them appear as one single large disk
to the I/O system.

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 • RAID Controller
• Manages multiple drives as one
unit.
• Interfaces between OS and storage
disks.
• Boosts data read/write
performance.
• Adds protection against disk
failure.
• Helps manage drive groups
effectively.
• Like a boss for storage drives.

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 1. Hardware-Based RAID

How it works: Uses a dedicated physical RAID controller card (separate from
CPU/RAM).

Pros:
Best performance (since RAID operations don’t burden system CPU).
High reliability (independent from OS crashes).
Advanced features like caching, battery backup, hot-swapping.

Cons:
More expensive.

Best for: Enterprise servers, data centers, mission-critical systems.

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 2. Software-Based RAID

How it works: RAID functionality is managed by the operating system (no extra
hardware).

Pros:
Low cost (no need for special hardware).
Easy to configure with OS tools (Linux mdadm, Windows Disk Management).

Cons:
Consumes system resources (CPU cycles, RAM).
Lower performance compared to hardware RAID.

Best for: Home setups, small servers, or budget-friendly solutions.

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 3. Firmware-Based RAID ( Hybrid RAID)

How it works: RAID logic is built into the motherboard firmware/BIOS, activated
before the OS loads.

Pros:
• Hybrid approach: combines some benefits of hardware RAID (boots before OS)
with software RAID (relies on drivers).
• Often bundled with motherboards (Intel RST, AMD RAIDXpert).

Cons:
• Still uses CPU resources, so performance is between hardware and software RAID.
• Can be driver-dependent and less portable.

Best for: Mid-range systems, desktops, or when budget is limited but boot-level RAID
is needed.

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 Use Hardware RAID → when you need speed + reliability (enterprise,
production).

Use Software RAID → when you need cheap, flexible RAID (personal/SMB
use).

Use Firmware RAID → when you want a middle ground (bootable RAID on
budget systems).

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 • Different RAID Levels
1. RAID-0 (Stripping)
2. RAID-1 (Mirroring)
3. RAID-2 (Bit-Level Stripping with Dedicated Parity)
4. RAID-3 (Byte-Level Stripping with Dedicated Parity)
5. RAID-4 (Block-Level Stripping with Dedicated Parity)
6. RAID-5 (Block-Level Stripping with Distributed Parity)
7. RAID-6 (Block-Level Stripping with two Parity Bits)

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 RAID 0
RAID 0 – Striping for Performance

•Splits data into smaller blocks.

•Spreads blocks across multiple disks.

•This technique is called striping.

•Allows parallel read/write operations.

•Improves data access speed.

•Provides no redundancy or fault

tolerance.

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 RAID 1
•RAID 1 – Mirroring for Reliability

•Creates an identical copy (mirror) of

each data block.

•Stores the copy on a separate disk.

•Ensures data remains accessible if one

disk fails.

•Offers high reliability and fault

tolerance.

•Requires significant storage overhead.

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 RAID 2
• RAID 2 – Bit-Level Striping with Hamming
Code

• Uses bit-level striping across multiple drives.

• Incorporates Hamming code for error correction.

• A dedicated parity drive handles error

detection/correction.

• Strong fault tolerance, but rarely used due to

complexity.

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 RAID 3
•RAID 3 – Byte-Level Striping with Parity
Or ( Raid 3 - speed and Fault Tolerance )

•Uses byte-level striping across multiple disks

•One disk stores dedicated parity information

•All disks operate in perfect sync

•Parity helps recover from disk failure

•High throughput for large data transfers

•Ideal for video or audio editing

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 What does Parity mean in RAID?

Parity = extra information stored on a special disk, used to rebuild data if one
disk fails.

It doesn’t copy the data exactly (like RAID 1 mirroring), but instead stores a
mathematical summary of the data.

In simple terms:
Parity is like a backup formula.

Instead of storing a second copy of the data, it stores just enough info to
recreate it if one disk dies.

This saves space compared to mirroring (RAID 1).

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 RAID 4
•RAID 4 – Block-Level Striping with Dedicated Parity

•Block-level striping across multiple disks

•Dedicated parity disk stores XOR values

•Ensures data recovery on disk failure

•More reliable than RAID 0 setup

•Slower in write-intensive environments

•Parity disk may cause bottlenecks

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 RAID 5
RAID 5 - Speed and Fault Tolerance

•Builds on RAID 4 architecture

– Enhances block-level striping concept.

•Distributes parity across all disks

– No single dedicated parity drive.

•Improves write performance significantly

– Especially during random write operations.

•Maintains fault tolerance for one failure

– Data can be recovered if one disk fails.

•Balances reliability, performance, and efficiency

– Ideal for various storage applications.

•Commonly used RAID configuration

– Popular in business and server environments.

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 RAID 6
• RAID 6 – Double Parity for High
Fault Tolerance
• Advanced version of RAID 5
• Uses double distributed parity for
protection
• Can tolerate two disk failures
simultaneously
• Ideal for critical systems and large
arrays
• Offers greater reliability than RAID
5
• Slower write performance due to
extra parity

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