Syllabus

3.5 India's Nuclear Program

•​Introduction, necessity, salient features,
•​Recent Nuclear Policies,
•​Nuclear Tests,
•​Nuclear Thermal power generation- principle, construction, working and
environment.
•​Nuclear waste, nuclear accidents etc.
•​Nuclear power plants in India
•​Use of nuclear technology like consumer products, food and agriculture, medicines etc.

India
India's Nuclear Programme
•​1945, Jun 1 : Tata Institute of Fundamental Research (TIFR)

)
- Mumbai

23
- Homi J. Bhabha : 1st Director
•​1948, Aug 3 : tomic Energy Commission of India (AEC)
A
- Homi J. Bhabha : 1st Chairman

20
- Dr. Kamlesh N. Vyas : Current C hairman
•​1954, Aug 3 : Dept of Atomic Energy (DAE) (works under PMO)
•​1983, Nov 15 : Atomic Energy Regulatory Board (AERB)
- AERB's main function : To ensure protection from
radioactive emission or atomic energy radiation in India [रा यसेवा मु य 2021]

7,
- Previous Chairman : Shri. G. Nageswara Rao
- Current an : Dinesh Kumar Shukla (2023, J an 2 -)
Chairm
•​1987, Sept : Nuclear Power Corporation of India Limited (NPCIL)
- Registered as a Public Limited Company under Companies Act, 1956

K
- Objectives of operating atomic power plants and
implementing atomic power projects for generation of electricity

Atomic Energy Commission (AEC) of India

•​ 1948, Aug 3 : Formed
•​Preceding agency Dept of Scientific Research
•​HQ Mumbai
AN
(R
•​Parent dept : Dept of Atomic Energy (DAE) (which is under direct charge of PM)

> 5 research centres

1. BARC (Bhabha Atomic Research Centre) Mumbai 1954
2. IGCAR (Indira Gandhi Centre for Atomic Research) Kalpakkam (TN) 1971
KE

3. RRCAT (Raja Ramanna Centre for Advanced Technology) Indore (MP) 1984
4. VECC (Variable Energy Cyclotron Centre) Kolkata 1977
5. AMD (Atomic Minerals Directorate for Exploration and Research) Hyderabad 1948
IR

> Chairpersons
1948-66 1. Homi J. Bhabha
1966-71 2. Vikram Sarabhai
1972-83 3. H.N. Sethna
SH

पोखरण I
1983-87 4. Raja Ramanna
1987-90 5. M.R. Srinivasan
1990-93 6. P.K. Iyengar
1993-2000
7. R. Chidambaram पोखरण II
2000-09 8. Anil Kakodkar
T

2009-12 9. Srikumar Banerjee

2012-15 10. Ratan Kumar Sinha
EE

2015-18 11. Sekhar Basu

2018- 12. Dr. Kamlesh N. Vyas

> Nuclear Fuel (Reprocessing) Complex (DAE)

1971 #1 - Hyderabad
N

2014 #2 - Kota, Rajasthan (Rawabhata nuclear plant)

VI

> In VISION 2020, DAE envisages a series of four 500 MWe FBRs (three, five, six)

Nuclear Research Reactors

A. BARC (Bhabha Atomic Research Center) Mumbai

Enriched
1956, ऑगस्ट UK च्या मदतीने Asia's 1st Uranium fuel
1. APSARA
nuclear reactor supplied initially
by UK
2. CIRUS
(Canada 1960, जुलै कॅनडाच्या मदतीने
India Reactor
Utility
Services)
3. ZERLINA 1961, जान

4. PURNIMA
(1,2,3) 1972-84-90

India's largest
nuclear
5. DHRUV 1985,ऑगस्ट research
reactor

B. IGCAR (Indira Gandhi Center for Atomic Research) Kalpakkam

(TN)
Prototype Fast
Breeder

)
Reactor (PFBR)

23
Fast
Breeder Test
Reactor
(FBTR)
Only place in world where all 3
KAMINI

20
fissile isotopes viz., U-235,
(Kalpakkam Pu-239 and U-233 are used as
Mini reactor) fuel in reactors

Operational nuclear power s in India #7

plant

7,
K
AN
(R
KE
IR
SH

Total
Power stations Plant Reactor Type Units Comments
capacity
(MW) #Rank
Kudankulam
कुडनकुलम Nuclear Highest
T

( तमिळनाडू ) 2000 #1 VVER-1000 1000 × 2

Power Station capacity in
(KKNPS) India
EE

Tarapur 1969 Oct : 1st

तारापूर ( महाराष्ट्र ) BWR 160 x 2
Atomic Power 1400 #2 Nuclear
Station (TAPS) IPHWR-540 540 × 2
power plant in
India
रावतभाटा Rajasthan CANDU 100 × 1
( राजस्थान) Atomic Power 1180 #3 CANDU 200 x 1
N

Station (RAPS) IPHWR-220 220 × 4

One more
Kakrapar
IPHWR-220 220 x 2 IPHWR-70
VI

काकरापार Atomic Power 1140 #4

IPHWR-700* 700 x 1* 0
(गुजरात) Station (KAPS) under
construction
Kaiga
कैगा ( कर्नाटक) Generating 880 #5 IPHWR-220 220 x 4
Station (KGS)
Narora
नरोरा ( उत्तर प्रदेश) Atomic Power 440 #6 IPHWR-220 220 × 2
Station
(NAPS)
TN : Only state
Madras Atomic
मद्रास ( कल्पकम) to have 2
Power Station 440 #7 IPHWR-220 220 × 2
( तमिळनाडू ) nuclear power
(MAPS) plants
#7 Power Plants 6780 MW 22 Reactors
7480* MW 23* Reactors
> India currently has 22 nuclear reactors in operation in 7 nuclear power plants
•​Total installed capacity of 6,780 MW
•​23 nuclear reactors total installed capacity of 7,480 MW (IPHWR-700 at Kakrapar 3)
•​Supplied 3.22% of Indian electricity in 2017
> Around 10% of the world's electricity is generated by about 440 nuclear power reactors

> Nuclear power is the 5th-largest source of electricity in India after coal, gas, hydroelectricity and wind power
> Nuclear power produced a total of 43 TWh in 2020-21, contributing 3.11% of total power generation in India (1,382
TWh)

India's nuclear testing series

Test site Pokhran Test Range, Rajasthan
Devices fired

)
Code Name PM Tests (nuclear bombs
exploded)

23
1974, मे 18 H.N. Sethna
(बुद्ध पौर्णिमा) Raja Ramanna
Pokhran–I Smiling Buddha Indira Gandhi 1 1 (AEC
(BARC Director) Chairman)

20
1998, मे 11-13 Operation Atal Bihari A. P. J. Abdul Chidambaram
Pokhran–II 3 5
Shakti Vajpayee Kalam (DRDO) (AEC
Chairman)

11 मे : National
Technology Day

7,
India's three-stage nuclear power programme

K
AN
(R
KE
IR

Stage Reactor Input/Fuel Output Moderator Coolant

SH

For a homogeneous reactor •​ India is largest

Pressurized Heavy water (Deuterium Oxide, using natural Uranium (U-238),
U-238 Pu-239 moderator must be heavy water producer of heavy water in
Heavy (Natural Uranium) D2O) is used as moderator and (graphite, ordinary water, carbon)
Stage 1 (Plutonium) + coolant (fuel) [ राज्यसेवा मुख्य 2020, [ राज्यसेवा मुख्य 2020] world
Water
Heat •​ BARC is involved
Reactor 2021]
in production of heavy water
[PHWR] [ राज्यसेवा मुख्य2021]
Pu-239
(Plutonium) Fission energy
T

Fast Breeder Moderators not Liquid Sodium

Stage 2 U-238 Additiona
Reactor [FBR] (Natural Uranium) required (Na)
l Pu-239
EE

(Plutonium)
Thorium
Based Th-232 In 3rd stage, U-233 fuel will be obtained from
(Natural Thorium) Heavy nuclear transmutation of Th-232
Stage 3 Advanced Pure Water [ राज्यसेवा मुख्य 2020]
Thermal Water
Breeder (D2O)
N

Reactor
VI

> Correct order of reactors used at each stage to fulfil

India's 3-stage Nuclear Power Programme fromulated by Dr. Homi Bhabha
1. Pressurised heavy water system reactor - using Uranium as fuel
2. Fast breeder reactor - using Plutonium as fuel
3. Advance nuclear power system reactor - using Thorium as fuel
PFA UPTo 3-stage Nuclear Program

[Link]

Nuclear Fuel Reserves

> Top countries by uranium production > Top countries by uranium reserves
(%age of World Production) (2019) (%age of World Reserves) (2019)
1. Australia (28%)
 1. Kazakhstan (39%) 2. Kazakhstan (15%)

2. Canada (22%) 3. Canada (9%)

3. Australia (10%)

> 2011, Mar Large deposits of uranium were discovered by

Atomic Minerals Directorate for Exploration and Research (AMD) of India
•​Tummalapalle belt in Andhra Pradesh
•​Bhima basin in Karnataka
> Major Uranium resources sites
•​Andhra Pradesh Tummalapalle
•​Jharkhand Jaduguda, Bhatin, Narwapahar, Turamidh, Banduhurang, Mohuldih, Bagjata

)
•​Telangana Lambapur, Pedagattu, Chitrial

23
•​Meghalaya KPM (Domiasat), Wahkyn, Wahkut
> Large deposits of Thorium (518,000 tonnes) in the form of monazite in beach sands of coastal regions of South India
> Thorium nuclear fuel found in plenty in monazite sands of Kerala's seashore

20
Nuclear agreements with other nations
> Uranium supply [2015]
•​Canada is the third country to supply Uranium to India, after Russia and Kazakhstan
•​As per the 2015 agreement, it will provide 3000 metric tonnes of Uranium over the coming 10 5 years

7,
> Countries which have signed nuclear fuel supply agreement with India till 2012, Mar 28
•​America (U.S.A.)
•​France
•​Russian Federation

K
•​Kazakhstan
> India has signed civil nuclear agreements with #14 countries:
•​Argentina

AN
•​Australia
•​Canada
•​Czech Republic
•​France
(R
•​Japan
•​Kazakhstan
•​Mongolia
•​Namibia
•​Russia
KE

•​South Korea
•​United Kingdom
•​United States 123 Agreement
•​Vietnam
IR

World
Disarmament
Non-Proliferation Treaty (NPT)
SH

Treaty on the Non-Proliferation of Nuclear Weapons

•​1968, Jul 1 : Signed
•​1970, Mar 5 : Effective
•​Objective
- Non-proliferation to prevent spread of nuclear weapons and weapons technology,
T

- Right to peacefully use nuclear technology to promote cooperation in peaceful uses of nuclear energy, and
- Disarmament to further goal of achieving nuclear disarmament and general and complete disarmament
•​Parties 191
EE

- China
•​Non-parties:
- India
- Israel
N

- North Korea thdrawn)

(wi
- Pakistan
VI

- South Sudan
•​ India, Pakistan, Israel have declined to sign NPT on
grounds that such a treaty is fundamentally discriminatory

Comprehensive Nuclear-Test-Ban Treaty

(CTBT)
•​1996, Sep 10 : Signed
•​Effective : Not in force
•​ Bans all nuclear tests, for both civilian and military purposes, in all environments
•​Signatories 185
•​Ratifiers 170
•​Signed but not ratified
 - China
- Egypt
- Iran

- Israel
- USA
•​ Not signed
- India
- North Korea
- Pakistan

)
> Verification regime of CTBT is designed to detect any nuclear explosion conducted on earth.
This verification regime consists of following international monitoring systems :

23
•​Seismic monitoring (भक प)
•​Infrasound monitoring (अव³वनी)
•​Hydroacoustic monitoring (जल³वनी)
•​Radionuclide monitoring (अणक क य करणो सार)

20
Misc
> Sensitive Nuclear assistance includes
•​Assistance in design and construction of Nuclear Weapons

7,
•​Interstate transfer of weapon grade fissile material
•​Civilian Nuclear assistance
•​Construction of power reactors and research thereon

K
Multilateral Export Control Regimes
> Voluntary and non-binding agreements created by major supplier countries
that have agreed to co-operate in their effort to prevent and regulate transfer of certain military and dual use technology

AN
India is not a
1974 : A
Nuclear For control of member -
response to 48 participating
Suppliers nuclear related consistently
1974 nuclear Govts
Group (NSG) technology blocked by
tests by India
(R
China
1985 :
For control of
Prompted by
chemical and
Iraq’s use of 2018, Jan 19 :
Australia biological 43 members
chemical India - 43rd
Group (AG) technology that weapons (including EU)
member
could be
KE

during Iran-Iraq
weaponized War
(1980-1988)
For control of
1987, Apr :
rockets and
Missile Established by
other aerial
G-7 countries
IR

Technology vehicles
– USA, UK, 2016 : India -
Control capable of 35 countries
France, 35th member
Regime delivering
weapons of Germany,
(MTCR) Canada, Italy,
mass
SH

destruction and Japan

On Export
Controls for 42 member
Conventional 1996, Jul : states 2017, Dec 7 :
Wassenaar Arms and Formally comprising India - 42nd
Arrangement Dual-Use established mostly NATO member
Goods and and EU
T

Technologies states
EE

Nuclear
Technology
Electromagnetic Radiations

क्ष
गुणधर्म अल्फा किरणे (α) बीटा किरणे(β) गॅमा किरणे (γ) किरणे(X-rays)
N

स्वरूप Electromagnetic Electromagnetic

He++ e-
Radiation Radiation
वस्तुमान 4.0028 u 0.000548 u
VI

वस्तुमान रहित
प्रभार +2 -1 प्रभाररहित
वेग( 1/5 ते 1/20 1/5 ते 9/10 प्रकाशाएवढा
प्रकाशाच्या
वेगाच्या)
विद्युत क्षेत्रातील ऋणप्रभारित पट्टीकडे धन प्रभारित पट्टीकडे कोठे ही आकर्षित
विचलन आकर्षित आकर्षित होत नाहीत
α कणांच्या
कमी (0.02mm α कणांच्या 100
10,000 पट जास्त
विधान शक्ती जाडीचा Al चा पत्रा) पट जास्त (2 mm
(15 cm जाडीचा
जाडीचा Al चा पत्रा)
शिसाचा पत्रा)
 Gamma
radiation can be
But beta blocked by a
Our skin
radiation can lead wall, a
can block
reach upto stainless steel
alpha
bones wall or a
radiation
concrete wall

Beta radiation Gamma

cannot radiation cannot
penetrate be blocked by
a 20 inch thick simple
concrete wall
aluminium foil

)
आयनीभवन
शक्ती(Ionisation अतिउच्च कमी अतिशय कमी

23
Power)

प्रतिदीप्ती निर्माण
करण्याची मोठ्या प्रमाणावर अत्यंत अल्प अल्प
शक्ती(Fluorescen
ce)

20
X-rays are due
γ-rays are to energy
Source emitted by changes
nuclei emitted outside
nuclei
Lower

7,
Frequency frequency
than γ-rays
Gamma ray
irradiation : Can be used
most suitable

K
for preservation
Application
method for of food (in
preservation of Food
food products irradiation)

AN
Gamma radiation
: widely used to
sterilize
consumer
cosmetics such
as hair products
and contact lens
solutions [
राज्यसेवा मुख्य
2021]
(R
Wilhelm
Discovered by
Röntge
n
KE

> Radiation processing of food : [राज्यसवा मुख्य 2020]

•​Used for extension of shelf-life and insect disinfection

•​Process impairs ability of potato and onion to sprout
•​Process utilizes energy from high energy radiations such as gamma rays and infrared rays
•​Radiation dose used in this process is expressed in units of ' Gauss' (unit of magnetic flux density)
IR

> Radiation Terms and Units : International unit U.S. unit

•​Radioactivity becquerels (Bq) curies (Ci)
SH

•​Absorbed Dose gray (Gy) rad (rad)

•​Effective Dose sievert (Sv) rem (rem)

Applications of Radioactive Isotopes

T

सोडियम-24 जमिनीखालून गेलल्े या नळांमधील चिरा

शोधणे

कार्बन-14 जीवाश्म वय ठरवणे

EE

(Half Life 5568 years)

केंद्रकीय विखंडन आणि ऊर्जा निर्मिती
युरेनियम-235 •​ हिरोशिमा- युरेनियम- Little Boy
•​ नागासाकी - प्लुटोनियम - Fat Man
( पूर्वी) सिरमिक वस्तू मधील चमकदार रग थ लयम-201
युरेनियम ऑक्साईड
N

पोलिसाइथेमिया ( रक्तातील RBC चे Commonly used in diagnosis

फॉस्फरस-32 वाढीव प्रमाण) च्या उपचारासाठी Technetium-99 [राज्यसेवा मुख्य 2021]

- फॉस्फर बरोबरचे मिश्रण

VI

रेडियम
ट्रिटियम
- किरणोत्सारी दीप्तीमान रंग
प्रोमेथियम - पूर्वीच्या घड्याळाचे काटे

प्रोमेथियम-147 X-ray युनिटमध्ये

बीटा किरणांचा स्त्रोत म्हणून
HID (High Intensity Discharge)
क्रिप्टॉन-85 दिव्यात

शरीरातील लहान ट्युमर शोधण

अरसेनिक-74

आयोडीन-123 हायपर थायरॉईडीझम (थायरॉईड ग्रंथी

मधून जास्त हार्मोन्स स्त्रवण्यामुळे होणारा
आजार) वरील उपचार
 गॉयटर (थायरॉईड ग्रंथींचा आजार) वरील
आयोडीन-131 उपचार

मेंदूतील ट्युमरवर उपचार

बोरॉन-10

कन्सरवरील उपचार

अन्नपदार्थांचे सूक्ष्म जीवाणूपासून परिरक्षण, सेसियम -137

कोबाल्ट-60 irradiation साठी गॅमा किरणांचा स्त्रोत (Cesium-137
)
कांदे, बटाटे यांना मोड येऊ नयेत म्हणून
गॅमा किरणांचा मारा (Irradiation)
गॅमा किरण- रेडीओग्राफी - धातुकामातील
दोष शोधणे
इरिडीअम-192

)
23
20
7,
K
AN
(R
KE
IR
SH
T
EE
N
VI
 स्तनाच्या कर्करोगावर उपचार
जर्मेनियम-68
प्रोस्टट कन्सरवरील उपचार
पॅलडि
े यम-103

स्ट्र ॉंनशियम-90 े क (tracer)

पीक संशोधनातील अनुलख

स्ट्र ॉंनशियम-89 हाडांच्या कर्क रोगावरील उपचार

समारियम-153
रडियम-223

> In the field of agriculture, 'radiation technology' is contributing to - [राज्यसेवा मुख्य 2021]

•​development of high yielding crop seeds

•​optimizing use of fertilizers
•​pest control
•​preservation of food

)
> Carbon-14 dating

23
•​Every living organism takes C-14 through carbon
•​Every living being has same proportion of Carbon-14
•​After death, every living organism throws same %age of Carbon

20
•​Half-life of Carbon-14 is 5568 years
•​Method is used to get chronological evidence of archaeological remain
•​Invented by Willard Frank Libby
•​Got Nobel Prize in Chemistry for this work

7,
Nuclear Reactions
> Proper nuclear fission reaction

K
AN
(R
> Enriched Uranium (Uranium-235) means Uranium that is enriched in isotope Fission of - Energy released - Combustion of
-
> When (235 U 92) undergoes fission, about 0.1% of original mass is released as energy. ~ 30 लाख टन
1 kg (235 U 92) 9x 10^13 J कोळसा
How much energy is released when 1 kg of (235 U 92) undergoes fission ?
KE

9x 10^13 J (9x 10^11 J, 9x 10^12 J, 9 x10^14 J) 1 gm Plutonium 3x 10^13 J

> 1 kg U-235 च्या विखडनामधून निर्माण होणारी ऊर्जा' ही 30 लाख टन कोळशाच्या ज्वलना मधून निर्माण होणाऱ्या उर्जे एवढी असते
> 3x 10^13 joule energy can be obtained by converting 1gm Plutonium into energy (3x 10^10, 9x 10^10, 9x 10^13)
IR

> Moderator
•​A material/substance used in a nuclear reactor to slow down the neutrons produced f rom fission
•​ By slowing neutrons down probability of a neutron interacting with i is greatly increased
Uranium-235 nucle thereby maintaining chain reaction
SH

•​Examples : water, beryllium, graphite, heavy water (D2O)

(Deuterium an isotope of Hydrogen with an atomic mass of 2 bonded to Oxygen) etc.
•​Deuterium is the efficient moderator mainly used to reduce speed of neutrons in nuclear reactor
•​India produces 'heavy water' by both reactions :
* Ammonia - Hydrogen exchange reaction
* Hydrogen Sulphide - Water exchange reaction
T

> Control rods :

•​Used in nuclear reactors to control fission rate of Uranium or Plutonium
EE

•​These are capable of absorbing many neutrons w ithout themselves fissioning

•​ Their compositions includes chemical
elements, such as Boron, Cadmium, silver, hafnium,
or indium
•​By inserting control rods between fuel rods, chain reaction can be s lowed down or shut down
N

•​Withdrawing control rods can restart or speed up reaction

> Multiplication Factor (k) :

VI

•​For any arrangement of nuclear fuel and other materials,

a single number k expresses the net number of neutrons generated per initial neutron,
accounting for all losses and reproduction by fission
neutron conc'n in one generation (नतरचे)
k = neutron conc'n in preceding generation (आधीच)

k > 1 : Supercritical
k < 1 : Subcritical
k = 1 : Critical
•​When control rods are inserted into the reactor,
[K] (multiplication factor) becomes 1 (0, >1, <1)
> Nuclear reactor coolant :
•​ A coolant in a nuclear reactor used to remove heat from nuclear
reactor core and transfer it to electrical generators and environment
•​Frequently, a chain of two coolant loops are used
because the primary coolant loop takes on short-term radioactivity from the reactor
•​Heavy water at 154 bar, NaK eutectic, Liquid Sodium, FLiNaK, FLiBe, Lead, Lead-bismuth eutectic

Radioactive contamination
> Objectives of nuclear disposal is to provide sufficient isolation of waste :
•​to protect human being
•​to protect the environment
•​not to impose any undue burden on future generation
> In fact, mankind has been exposed to radiation more due to
•​Nuclear weapons testing

)
•​Radioactive waste
•​Nuclear power station

23
> There are problems associated with nuclear power generation
•​after fission of nuclear fuel emit harmful radiations
•​to dispose the nuclear waste is big challenge
•​non-availability of the sufficient nuclear fuel

20
•​accident may result in release of very harmful radiations
> Term "Nuclear Winter" refers to
•​Drop in temperature as an environmental effect due to a major nuclear war
> High level nuclear waste is generated from Nuclear Reactor (Laboratory, Industry, Nuclear Fuel Cycle)

7,
> Atomic fuel waste produced in the atomic reactor is disposed of -
in the underground cells in sealed stainless steel containers
> Most widely accepted way of disposing nuclear waste : [रा यसेवा मु य 2020]
Burying nuclear waste underground in stable geological formations

K
> Nuclear Disasters

1986 एप्रिल26

2011, मार्च 11
Chernobyl
disaster

Fukushima
Daiichi nuclear
disaster
Chernobyl Nuclear Power Plant,
near city of Pripyat in north of
Ukrainian SSR in Soviet Union

Japan Tohoku Tsunami

Deaths 31

AN
Level 7

Level 7
(R
Misc
> Hydrogen bomb is at least 1000 times more dangerous than atom bomb of same capacity/power
> Neutron bomb causes less financial harm but more human loss
KE

> 1st controlled fission of an atom was carried out in Germany in 1938 (1920, 1925, 1928)
•​Chemists Otto Hahn and Fritz Strassmann
•​Conducted experiments that produced element Barium by bombarding Uranium with Neutrons
> Important consequence of scattering in fusion plasmas is Dremsstraning radiation,
which refers to process of radiation emission when a charge particle accelerates or deaccelerates
IR
SH
T
EE
N
VI