Chapter 9:
From Introductions to Conclusions
I. Introduction
Introduction is where you set up your argument. It’s where you identify a
widely held assumption, challenge that assumption, and state your thesis.
5 strategies for setting up arguments:
1. The Inverted-Triangle Introduction
Like an upside-down triangle, is broad at the top and pointed at the base
(more in-depth the longer you write)
Begins with a general statement, the idea that everyone accepts as true
Points out the problems with the statement or idea
Ends by setting out a thesis – how those problems can be solved
2. The Narrative Introduction
Opening with a story relates a sequence of events
Pros: can get the attention of indifferent or reluctant readers
Cons: delays the declaration of your argument -> choose a short story that
clearly connects to your argument
3. The Interrogative Introduction
One which invites readers into the conversation of your essay by asking one
or more questions, which you then go on answer.
You want to think of a question that will pique your readers’ interest, making
them wanting to discover what you have in store on the issue
For example:
The question Daphne Spain raised to open her essay “Spatial Segregation
and Gender Stratification in the Workplace”: To what extent do women and men
who work in different occupations also work in different space?
4. The Paradoxical Introduction
One which appeals to readers’ curiosity by pointing out an aspect of the
topic that runs counter to their expectations.
Similar to asking questions, a paradoxical introduction draws readers’
attetnion by saying something along the lines of “Here’s something that’s bound to
blow your mind about this issue, and my essay will go to show you how that’s
true.”
5. The Minding-the-Gap Introduction
One where writer calls readers’ attention to a gap in the research on an issue
and then uses the rest of the essay to fill in the gap
Basically saying “Hold up a minute. Something ain’t right, let me check
something. Oh right! They be capping.”
II. Developing Paragraphs
This is where you develop your argument.
Each paragraph of your essay should include a Topic Sentence that contains
the main idea of the paragraph and the contents of the paragraph should be unified,
sufficiently developing the idea presented in the topic sentence, while, if possible,
making it so that it can refer to what you’ve said earlier; gesture toward where you
are heading, and connect to the larger conversation to which you are contributing.
1. Use Topic Sentences to Focus Your Paragraphs
Topic sentence should:
- Provide a partial answer to the question motivating the writer
- Act as an extension of the writer’s thesis and the question motivating the
writer’s argument
- Serve as a guidepost, telling readers what the paragraph is about
- Help create unity and coherence both within the paragraph and within the
essay
2. Create Unity in Your Paragraphs
a. Use details that follow logically from your topic sentence and maintain a
single focus – a focus that is clearly an extension of your thesis.
See example from book for more details (Page 261)
b. Repeat key words (or use synonyms) to guide your readers
See example from book for more details (Page 261)
c. Use Transition words or phrases to link ideas from different sentences.
These words signal to your readers the direction your ideas are taking.
3. Use Critical Strategies to Develop Your Paragraphs
a. Use Examples and Illustrations
Examples make abstract ideas concrete through illustration
Example: using example like this to examplify the fact that this example is
an example for the strategy of using examples for the convenience of readers.
b. Cite Data
Data are factual pieces of information. They function in an essay as
the basses of propositions.
c. Analyze Texts (both Visual and Verbal)
Analysis means breaking the texts down into parts that have particular
significance to your argument and explain what they mean
d. Tell Narratives or Anecdotes
A narrative is an account of something that happened. To put it not
simply, a narrative relates a sequence of events that are connected in time
For longer narratives, it can open up more possibilities for analysis.
For example, “Why did these events occur?”, “Why occur in this sequence?”,
“What is missing?” ….
An anecdote is a short narrative that recounts a particular incident. It can
bring an abstraction into focus.
e. Define Terms
- Using synonyms to help define something is rarely enough.
- You may have to twist the meaning of certain terms (not falsifying it, more
like narrowing it down) to develop your argument
Example: Being gay is being sexually or romantically attracted to
people of the same gender or sex; but for the purpose of this essay, I focus
on the old definitition of gay, which is happy, the feeling of pleasure and
satisfaction.
f. Make comparisons
- While technically, comparison and contrast bear their own known
differences and one should not mistake one for the other. However, in
practice, it’s difficult to make comparsion without the use of contrast. to
say “make comparisons” is to say that we describe both comparing and
contrasting
- It’s also encouraged to do more than just make comparisons and actually
analyze what the differences mean and represent.
g. Examine Causes and Evaluate Consequences
- Questions of cause and consequence are central. The wonder of why things
happened, happen, or will happen are inescapable.
- This involves identifying a phenomenon and asking questions about it until
you gather enough information to begin analyzing its parts and their
relationships then deciding which part is the most important.
- This kind of analysis is rarely straightforward. In your own thinking and
research, avoid jumping to conclusions and sift evidence until plausible
connections present themselves. Be prepared to revise your thinking in light
of new evidence.
- Avoid oversimplifying (self-explanatory, I guess)
III. Drafting Conclusions
This is the final appeal to your audience. You want to:
- Convince readers that what you have written is a relevant, meaningful
interpretation of a shared issue
- Remind them that your argument is reasonable.
- Not summarize all the points you’ve made but establish why your
argument is important:” What will happen if things stay the same? What
will happen if things change? ….”
1. Echo the introduction
Using this in your conclusion helps readers see how you have
developed your idea from beginning to end.
2. Challenge the Reader
By doing so you create a sense of urgency, provoking them to act to
change the status quo
3. Look to the Future
Particularly relevant when you are asking readers to take action. To do
so, you must establish the persistence of a problem and the consequences of
letting the situation continue unchanged.
4. Pose Questions
Stimulates readers to think about the implications of yoru argument
and to apply what you argue to other situations.
5. Conclude with a Quotation
Adds authority to your argument, indicating that others in positions of
power and prestige support your stance as well as adding poignancy.