2

Basic Lecture General Science & Technology

Index:
❖ State Services - Syllabus and other information
राज्यसेर्वा पूर्वव परीक्षा
STATE SERVICES PRELIMINARY EXAMINATION
-: SCHEME OF EXAMINATION:-
Paper No. Marks Duration Standard Medium Nature of
Paper
Paper I (Compulsory 200 Two hours Degree Marathi Objective
Paper II (Qualifying) 200 Twe hours Topic No.(1) to (5) Degree level & Type
Topic Noté) class X X level Topu English
No. (7) class XXII level
टीप - सामान्य अध्ययन पेपर क्रमाां क २ (CSAT) हा अहह ताकारी (Qualifying) असून अहह ताप्राप्त करण्यासाठी ककमान ३३%
गुण कमळकिणे आिश्यक राहील. या पेपरमध्ये ककमान ३३% गुण प्राप्त करणाऱ्या उमेदिाराां ची पेपर क्रमाां क १ मधील गु णाां च्या
आधारे राज्यसेिा मुख्य परीक्षेसाठी गुणित्ता यादी तयार करण्यात येईल.
नकारात्मक गुणदानः पेपर क्रमाांक १ करीता र्व पेपर क्रमाांक २ मधील "Decision making & Problem Solving" चे
प्रश्न र्वगळू न उर्ववररत प्रश्नाांकररता नकारात्मक गुणदान लागू राहील.
१) प्रत्येक चुकीच्या उत्तराकरीता २५% ककांिा १/४ एिढे गुण एकूण गुणाां मधून िजा/ कमी करण्यात येतील.
२) एखाद्या प्रश्नाची एकापेक्षा अकधक उत्तरे कदली असल्यास अथिा ज्या उमेदिाराने उत्तरपकिकेत पूणह ितुहळ कचन्ाांककत केले
नसेल अशा प्रश्नाचे उत्तर चुकीचे समजण्यात येऊन त्या प्रश्नाच्या उत्तराकरीता २५% ककांिा १/४ एिढे गुण एकूण
गुणाां मधून िजा/कमी करण्यात येतील.
३) िरीलप्रमाणे कायहपध्दतीचा अिलांब करताना एकूण अांकतम गुणाां ची बेरीज अपूणाां कात आली तरीही ती अपूणाां कातच
राहील ि पुढील कायहिाही त्याच्या आधारे करण्यात येईल.
४) एखाद्या प्रश्नाचे उत्तर अनुत्तररतअसेल तर, अशा प्रकरणी नकारात्मक गुणाां ची पध्दत लागू असणार नाही.
SYLLABUS
Paper 1-(200 marks)
1. Current events of state, national and international importance
2. History of ladia and Indian National Morvanent with sonse weightage to Maluralitra
3. Maharashtra, India and World Geography Physical, Social, Economic Geography of Maharas India
and the World
4. India and Maharishma Polity and Governance Constitution, Politied Systen, Panchayati Raj. Urban
Governance, Public Policy, Riglas issues, etc.
5. Economic and Social Development Sustainable Development, Poverty, Inclusion, Demographics,
Social Sector initiatives, etc.
6. General issues on Envuonnacatal Ecology, Biodiversity and Climate Change that do not require
subiect specialization
7. General Science
 2

प्रकाश आणि प्रकाशाचे गुिधर्म

INDEX:
❖ Properties of light
❖ Electromagnetic spectrum
❖ Light - Basic concept
❖ Reflection, refraction, refraction, radiation

Light:
❖ Light is a form of energy. This provides visual sensation to the eyes.
Source of light:
Sun - Main source of light:
❖ Nuclear fusion, which takes place in the core of the sun, produces a huge amount of solar energy.
❖ 2 Conversion of a light nucleus into a heavy nucleus is called nuclear fusion. In this reaction, 2 light
isotopes of hydrogen combine to form a heavy nucleus (helium).
❖ 7 different types of energy emanate from the sun. They are as follows - radio, microscopic, infrared,
visible, ultraviolet, X-ray, gamma.
❖ Of these we can see visible light.
❖ From radio to gamma light, the wavelength decreases while the frequency increases.
❖ Light travels in straight lines.
❖ The speed of light is faster than sound. Light travels at 3 x 108 m/s.
❖ Light from the Moon returns to Earth in 1.28 seconds.

Electromagnetic Spectrum:
❖ The electromagnetic spectrum is a range of frequencies, wavelengths, and photon energies that cover
frequencies below 1 Hz to above 1025 Hz, corresponding to wavelengths of a few kilometers the size
of an atomic nucleus in the spectrum of electromagnets.
❖ Normally, in a vacuum, electromagnetic waves travel at the same speed as light. However, they do so
over a wide range of wavelengths, frequencies, and photon energies.
❖ The electromagnetic spectrum consists of all
electromagnetic radiation further divided into
several sub-bands, commonly referred to as
segments. It can be further classified as infrared
radiation, visible light or ultraviolet radiation.
❖ The entire spectrum (electromagnetic spectrum) is
represented by radio waves, microwaves, infrared
radiation, visible light, ultra-violet radiation, X-
rays, gamma rays and cosmic rays in decreasing
order of frequency and wavelength.
 3

Uses of Electromagnetic Waves:

❖ Radio: Radio essentially captures radio waves transmitted
by radio stations. Radio waves can also be emitted by gas
and stars in space. Radio waves are mainly used for
TV/mobile communication.
❖ Microwave: This type of radiation is found in microwaves
and helps in cooking at home/office. It is also used by
astronomers to determine and understand the composition
of nearby galaxies and stars.
❖ Infrared: It is widely used in night vision goggles. These devices can read and capture the infrared
light emitted by your skin and heat. In space, infrared light helps map interstellar dust.
❖ X-rays: X-rays can be used in many cases. For example, a doctor may use an X-ray machine to take
images of your bones or teeth. Airport security personnel use it to view and check bags. X-rays are also
given off by hot gases in the universe.
❖ Gamma-rays: It has wide application in the medical field. Gamma-ray imaging is used to look inside
your body. Interestingly, the universe is the largest gamma-ray generator.
❖ Ultraviolet: The sun is the main source of ultraviolet radiation. This causes skin tanning and burns. Hot
objects in space also emit UV radiation.
❖ Visible light can be detected by our eyes. Light bulbs, stars, etc. emit visible light.
❖ Spectroscopy: Spectroscopy is used to study how different electromagnetic waves interact with
matter.
Speed of light in different medium:
Substance Speed of light (ms-1) Refractive index(µ)

Water 2.25 × 108 1.33

glass 2 × 108 1.5

diamond 1.25 × 108 2.41

Air 3 × 108 1.00

Reflection of Light:
❖ The movement of light rays back from an opaque surface is called
reflection of light.
Laws of Reflection:
1) Incident ray, reflected ray and column are always in the same plane.
2) Incident rays and reflected rays are always on opposite sides of the
column.
3) Angles of incidence and angles of reflection are always of equal measure.
 4

Types of Reflection:
Regular Reflection:
❖ Reflection from flat and smooth surfaces
Irregular Reflection:
❖ Reflection from rough surfaces

Refraction of Light:
❖ When light rays pass obliquely from one transparent medium to
another transparent medium, their direction of propagation
changes, this is called refraction of light.
❖ E.g. A pencil or coin aged in glass.
Total internal reflection:
❖ Total internal reflection is defined as - the phenomenon that
occurs when light rays travel from a medium of higher optical
density to a medium of lower optical density.
Refractive Index Formula:
❖ The refractive index is dimensionless. It is a number that indicates the number of times slower than a
light wave would be in the material than it is in a vacuum. The refractive index, represented by symbol
n, is the velocity of light in vacuum divided by the velocity of light in a medium. The formula of the
refractive index is as follows:
c
n=
v
Example of refraction:
Atmospheric refraction or twinkling of stars:
❖ Atmospheric refraction is defined as the refraction of light by the Earth's atmosphere. Earth's
atmosphere has different layers with different optical densities. When an object transmits a light ray
into the atmosphere, the light travels through these different layers and is refracted.
Sunrise:
❖ At sunrise, the sun rises above the horizon. Sunlight rays are refracted as they move from denser to
less dense air. Also, the human eye sees the sun's rays as a straight line, which appears as the sun
rises. But in reality there is no increase yet. Sunrise appears 2 minutes earlier on Earth.
Sunset:
❖ After sunset, the sun is sinking below the horizon. Now, the apparent position of the sun is visible to us
and not the actual position. This is due to atmospheric refraction. Sunset appears 2 minutes late on
Earth.
Mirage:
❖ This is an optical illusion that is responsible for the appearance of a layer of water at short distances in
the desert or on the road. A mirage is an example of total internal reflection caused by atmospheric
refraction.
 5

Diamond:
❖ When the incident ray falls on each face of the diamond, an angle is formed, the ray is greater than the
critical angle. The critical value of diamond is 23°. This condition is responsible for the total internal
reflection in the diamond which makes it sparkle.
Optical Fiber:
❖ When an incident ray falls on the cladding, it undergoes total internal reflection because the angle
formed by the ray is greater than the critical angle. Optical fiber has revolutionized the speed at which
signals can be transferred, making telecommunications one of the fastest methods of information
transfer, not just between cities, but across countries and continents. Optical fibers are used in
endoscopy.
Refraction of light:
❖ When white light passes through a glass prism, it splits into its spectrum of colors (in that order,
violet, indigo, blue, green, yellow, orange, and red), and the process of splitting white light into its
component colors is called refraction of light.
Rainbow:
❖ A rainbow is an optical phenomenon caused by refraction, internal reflection, and scattering of light in
water droplets that creates a continuous spectrum of light across the sky.
❖ A rainbow takes the form of a multicolored circular arc.
❖ Rainbows caused by sunlight are always seen in the area of the sky directly opposite the Sun.
Rainbows can be caused by many types of water in the air. This includes not only rain but also fog,
spray and dew in the air.
Scattering of light:
❖ Secondly, say air, a glass of water, then a part of the light is absorbed by the particles of the medium,
with its subsequent radiation in a certain direction. This phenomenon is called scattering of light. The
intensity of the scattered light depends on the size of the particles and the wavelength of the light.
❖ Shorter wavelengths and higher-frequency scatter more due to the waviness of the line and its
intersection with the particle. The more wavy the line, the more likely it will intersect the particle. On
the other hand, longer wavelengths have lower frequencies, are straighter, and are less likely to collide
with a particle, so the probability is lower.

 2

आरसे आणि ण िंग

INDEX:
❖ Mirrors and Lenses
❖ Flat mirrors - formation of images
❖ Convex and concave mirrors
❖ Convex and concave lenses
❖ Power of lens
Mirrors:
❖ A mirror plays a role in reflecting light, resulting in the formation of images. When an object is placed
in front of a mirror, we see its reflection.
❖ Emergent rays originate from the object and the reflected rays converge or appear to diverge to form
an image. Images formed by mirrors can be classified as real images or virtual images.
Image Features:
❖ A mirror or lens forms an image as follows,
1. real and vice versa
2. virtual and simple
Image formed in a flat mirror:
❖ Virtual and simple.
❖ Produced behind the mirror and produced of equal size and equidistant.
❖ Also the sides are swapped (left side becomes right and right side becomes left).
❖ The size of the image is equal to the size of the object.
❖ The distance of the image behind the mirror is equal to the distance of the object in front of the mirror.
❖ Goods are exchanged.
❖ The mirror takes at least half the height of the object to form completely into the mirror.
❖ Formula to solve the problem when two mirrors are placed face to face:
360degrees
= −1
Angle between two mirrors
Uses of flat mirror:
❖ Flat mirrors are used at home.
❖ They are used in solar cookers.
❖ They are also used to construct periscopes which are used in submarines.
❖ They are also used to make kaleidoscopes, a toy that creates beautiful patterns.
❖ They are also used in various scientific instruments.
Spherical mirror:
❖ A spherical mirror is a mirror shaped like a piece of spherical surface. There are two types of spherical
mirrors: concave mirrors and convex mirrors.
❖ There are some basic terms to know when studying spherical mirrors and they are:
❖ Center of Curvature: The point at the center of the mirror passes through the curve of the mirror and
has the same tangent and curvature at that point.
 3

❖ Radius of Curvature: It is the linear distance between the pole and the center of curvature.
❖ Principal axis: Imaginary line passing through the optical center and center of curvature of any lens or
spherical mirror.
❖ Pole: The center point of a spherical mirror.
❖ Aperture: The aperture of a mirror or lens is the point from which light is actually reflected. It also
gives a mirror shape.
❖ Principal focus: Principal focus can also be called focal point. It is on the axis of a mirror or lens that
rays of light converge parallel to the axis or converge after reflection or refraction.
Convex Mirror:
❖ We know that the cut-out of a reflecting sphere is a spherical mirror. If the reflecting surface is curved
inwards then it is a concave mirror.
❖ Convex mirrors are commonly used as shaving mirrors or even in dentists and binoculars. The
reflected image is magnified but the field of view is limited. A concave mirror is also called a
converging mirror.
Rules of Convex Mirror Image Formation:
❖ An incident ray parallel to the principal axis is reflected by the focus.
❖ A ray that passes through the focus becomes parallel to it.
❖ A ray passing through the center is reflected back through the center of the mirror.
Convex mirror image formation:
❖ Rays emanating from one point meet at another point after reflection and this point is called the image
of the first point. The image is real if the rays converge at a point, and virtual if the rays do not meet it,
but when the rays are generated backward, they appear to be deflected from the point.
❖ During image formation, we assume that the rays are paraxial, that is, they are incident at points close
to the pole P of the mirror and make a small angle with the main axis. For a concave mirror, we
consider six positions of the object in front of the mirror.
1. When the object is placed at infinity - the image thus formed is very small, point size, real and
inverted.
2. When the object is placed beyond C (centre of curvature) - the image thus formed is reduced, real
and inverted.
3. When the object is placed at C - the image formed has the same size as the object and is true and
inverted.
4. When the object is placed between C and F (prime focus) - the image is large compared to the size
of the object and is real and inverted.
5. When the object is placed at F - the formation of a highly enlarged image which is real and
reversed at infinity.
6. When an object is placed between F and P (pole). - The image created here is virtual and rigid and
is larger than the object.
 4

Object position Image position Size of image Nature of image

At infinity Focus (F) Point sized Real

Beyond C Between F and C Small Real and inverted

At C At C Same as that of the object Real and inverted

Between C and F Behind C Enlarged Real and inverted

AL F At infinity Highly enlarged Real and inverted

Between F and P Behind mirror Enlarged Virtual and erect

Concave Mirror:
❖ If the reflecting surface is curved outwards, it is a Concave mirror. Concave mirrors are widely used as
part of car mirrors. Depending on the focal length, the size of the reflected image decreases but the
field of view is larger. This is very helpful for drivers as the blind spots are greatly reduced. Convex
mirrors are also called fish eye or diverging mirrors. You can easily identify these mirrors because the
outer bulge is often quite obvious.
❖ Mirror formula: 1/f= 1/u + 1/v.
❖ Mean= u is the image distance
❖ v is the image distance
𝑅
❖ f is the given focal length = 2
❖ R is the radius of curvature of the spherical mirror
Convex mirror image formation:
❖ Convex mirrors cause light rays to diverge from a specific focal point. Virtual, rigid and attenuated
images: Regardless of the distance between the object and the convex mirror, the images formed are
always virtual, rigid and attenuated.
Magnifying glass:
❖ A spherical lens is a lens formed by joining two spherical transparent surfaces. In general, there are
two types of spherical lenses. So, lenses formed by connecting two spherical surfaces bulging
outwards are called convex lenses, while lenses formed by connecting two spherical surfaces curved
inward are called concave lenses. This is a fundamental difference between concave and convex
lenses.
❖ Convex lenses are also called converging lenses because the rays converge after incident on the convex
lens.
 5

Image Formation by Convex and Concave lenses:

Convex lens:
❖ When an object is placed at infinity, the actual image is formed at focus. The size of the image is greatly
reduced and the size of the point.
❖ When an object is placed beyond the center of curvature, the actual image is formed between the
center of curvature and the focus. The size of the image will not be the same as the object. It will
reduce in size.
Concave lens:

❖ When an object is placed at infinity, a virtual image is formed at the focus. The size of the image is
greatly reduced and the size of the point.
❖ When an object is placed at a finite distance from the lens, a virtual image is formed at the optical
center and focus of the convex lens. The size of the image is smaller than the size of the object.
Position of the Position of the Nature of the
Relative size of the image
object image image

At infinity At focus F2 Highly diminished, point-sized Real and inverted

Beyond 2F1 Between F2 and 2F2 Diminished Real and inverted

At 2F1 At 2F2 Same size Real and inverted

Between F1, and 2F1 Beyond 2F2 Enlarged Real and inverted

Infinitely large or highly

At focus F1 At infinity Real and inverted
enlarged Real and inverted
Between focus F1 On the same side of
Enlarged Virtual and erect
and optical centre O the lens as the object

Position of the
Position of the image Size of the image Nature of the image
object
At the focus F. behind Highly diminished,
At infinity Virtual and erect
the mirror point-sized
Between infinity and
Between P and F. behind
the pole P of the Diminished Virtual and erect
the mirror
mirror
 6

Uses of Convex Lens:

❖ It is used to make microscopes.
❖ Used as a magnifying glass.
❖ Used to adjust vision on glasses
❖ They work extensively in cameras to focus and magnify an image.
Uses of Concave Lens:
❖ They are used to adjust the vision on glasses.
❖ They are used to focus on a single object.
❖ These are also used in flashlights.
Power of Lens:
❖ Lens power = 1/focal length
❖ Lens power is measured in diopters (D) if the focal length is given in meters. Another important thing
to remember is that a diverging lens has negative optical power, while a converging lens has positive
optical power.

 2

आरसे आणि ण िंग Part 02

INDEX:
❖ Spherical Mirrors Rules
❖ Images Formation and uses
❖ Mirrors Formula
❖ Convex and concave lenses
❖ Images Formation by lenses
❖ Lenses Formula & Power of lens
Spherical mirror:
❖ A spherical mirror is a mirror shaped like a piece of spherical surface. There are two types of spherical
mirrors: concave mirrors and convex mirrors.
❖ There are some basic terms to know when studying spherical mirrors and they are:
❖ Center of Curvature: The point at the center of the mirror passes through the curve of the mirror and
has the same tangent and curvature at that point.
❖ Radius of Curvature: It is the linear distance between the pole and the center of curvature.
❖ Principal axis: Imaginary line passing through the optical center and center of curvature of any lens or
spherical mirror.
❖ Pole: The center point of a spherical mirror.
❖ Aperture: The aperture of a mirror or lens is the point from which light is actually reflected. It also
gives a mirror shape.
❖ Principal focus: Principal focus can also be called focal point. It is on the axis of a mirror or lens that
rays of light converge parallel to the axis or converge after reflection or refraction.
Concave Mirror:
❖ We know that the cut-out of a reflecting sphere is a spherical mirror. If the reflecting surface is curved
inwards then it is a concave mirror.
❖ Concave mirrors are commonly used as shaving mirrors or even in dentists and binoculars. The
reflected image is magnified but the field of view is limited. A concave mirror is also called a
converging mirror.
Image Formation by Concave Mirror :
❖ An incident ray parallel to the principal axis is reflected by the focus.
❖ A ray that passes through the focus becomes parallel to it.
❖ A ray passing through the center is reflected back through the center of the mirror.
Image Formation by Concave mirror:
 3

❖ Rays emanating from one point meet at another point after reflection and this point is called the image
of the first point. The image is real if the rays converge at a point, and virtual if the rays do not meet it,
but when the rays are generated backward, they appear to be deflected from the point.
❖ During image formation, we assume that the rays are paraxial, that is, they are incident at points close
to the pole P of the mirror and make a small angle with the main axis. For a concave mirror, we
consider six positions of the object in front of the mirror.
1. When the object is placed at infinity - the image thus formed is very small, point size, real and
inverted.
2. When the object is placed beyond C (centre of curvature) - the image thus formed is reduced, real
and inverted.
3. When the object is placed at C - the image formed has the same size as the object and is true and
inverted.
4. When the object is placed between C and F (prime focus) - the image is large compared to the size
of the object and is real and inverted.
5. When the object is placed at F - the formation of a highly enlarged image which is real and
reversed at infinity.
6. When an object is placed between F and P (pole). The image created here is virtual and rigid and
is larger than the object.
Object position Image position Size of image Nature of image

At infinity Focus (F) Point sized Real

Beyond C Between F and C Small Real and inverted
At C At C Same as that of the object Real and inverted

Between C and F Behind C Enlarged Real and inverted

AL F At infinity Highly enlarged Real and inverted

Between F and P Behind mirror Enlarged Virtual and erect

Convex Mirror:
❖ If the reflecting surface is curved outwards, it is a Convex mirror. Convex mirrors are widely used as
part of car mirrors. Depending on the focal length, the size of the reflected image decreases but the
field of view is larger. This is very helpful for drivers as the blind spots are greatly reduced. Convex
mirrors are also called fish eye or diverging mirrors. You can easily identify these mirrors because the
outer bulge is often quite obvious.
❖ Mirror formula: 1/f= 1/u + 1/v.
❖ Mean= u is the image distance
❖ v is the image distance
R
❖ f is the given focal length =
2
❖ R is the radius of curvature of the spherical mirror
 4

Image Formation by Convex mirror:

❖ Convex mirrors cause light rays to diverge from a specific focal point. Virtual images: Regardless of the
distance between the object and the convex mirror, the images formed are always virtual, rigid and
attenuated.
Magnifying glass:
❖ A spherical lens is a lens formed by joining two spherical transparent surfaces. In general, there are two
types of spherical lenses. So, lenses formed by connecting two spherical surfaces bulging outwards are
called convex lenses, while lenses formed by connecting two spherical surfaces curved inward are called
concave lenses. This is a fundamental difference between concave and convex lenses.
❖ Convex lenses are also called converging lenses because the rays converge after incident on the convex
lens.
Image Formation by Convex and Concave lenses:
Image Formation by Convex lens:
❖ When an object is placed at infinity, the actual image is formed at focus. The size of the image is greatly
reduced and the size of the point.
❖ When an object is placed beyond the center of curvature, the actual image is formed between the
center of curvature and the focus. The size of the image will not be the same as the object. It will
reduce in size.
Image Formation by Concave lens:
❖ When an object is placed at infinity, a virtual image is formed at the focus. The size of the image is
greatly reduced and the size of the point.
❖ When an object is placed at a finite distance from the lens, a virtual image is formed at the optical
center and focus of the convex lens. The size of the image is smaller than the size of the object.

Position of the Position of the Nature of the

Relative size of the image
object image image
At infinity At focus F2 Highly diminished, point-sized Real and inverted
Beyond 2F1 Between F2 and 2F2 Diminished Real and inverted
At 2F1 At 2F2 Same size Real and inverted
Between F1, and 2F1 Beyond 2F2 Enlarged Real and inverted
Infinitely large or highly
At focus F1 At infinity Real and inverted
enlarged Real and inverted
Between focus F1 On the same side of
Enlarged Virtual and erect
and optical centre O the lens as the object
 5

Position of the object Position of the image Size of the image Nature of the image

At the focus F. behind Highly diminished,

At infinity Virtual and erect
the mirror point-sized
Between infinity and Between P and F.
Diminished Virtual and erect
the pole P of the mirror behind the mirror

Uses of Convex Lens:

❖ It is used to make microscopes.
❖ Used as a magnifying glass.
❖ Used to adjust vision on glasses
❖ They work extensively in cameras to focus and magnify an image.
Uses of Concave Lens:
❖ They are used to adjust the vision on glasses.
❖ They are used to focus on a single object.
❖ These are also used in flashlights.
The lens formula:
The relationship between the image distance (v), object distance (u) and focal length (f) of a spherical lens
is known as the lens formula. The lens formula can be written as :
1 1 1
+ =
v u f
Power of Lens:
❖ Lens power = 1/focal length
❖ Lens power is measured in diopters (D) if the focal length is given in meters. Another important thing
to remember is that a diverging lens has negative optical power, while a converging lens has positive
optical power.

 2

विदु यतधारा भाग 1

INDEX:
❖ Current electricity
❖ Electric charge, electric current
Current Electricity :
❖ Many inventions and discoveries have been made in order to facilitate human life smoothly. The
discovery of current electricity is one such discovery that we are highly dependent on to make our life
easier. Benjamin Franklin is credited with the discovery of electricity.
Current Electricity :
❖ Current electricity is defined as the flow of electrons from one section of the circuit to another.
❖ The electricity due to the flow of electrons is known as current electricity.
❖ Current electricity is generated by power plants and batteries.
❖ Current electricity is controlled.
❖ The electricity that is used to power up electronic devices is an example of current electricity.
Static Electricity :
❖ Static electricity refers to the electric charges that build up on the surface of materials or substances.
These charges remain static until they are grounded, or discharged. This type of electricity is formed
due to fiction. Basically, the phenomenon of static electricity arises when the positive and negative
charges are separated.
❖ The electricity built on the surface of a substance is known as static electricity.
❖ Static electricity is generated when objects are rubbed against each other resulting in charge transfer.
❖ Static electricity is uncontrolled.
❖ The shock experienced while touching a doorknob is an example of static electricity.

Electric charge :
❖ Electric charge is a fundamental concept within physics, serving as a cornerstone for comprehending
the physical world.
❖ Electric charge can be defined as a fundamental property of subatomic particles that gives rise to the
phenomenon of experiencing force in the presence of electric and magnetic fields. These fields exert
influence on charged particles, resulting in observable effects.
 3

Types of Electric Charge :

❖ Electric charge comes in two main types: positive and negative charges. Positive charges are
associated with protons, which are subatomic particles residing in the nucleus of an atom. They are
represented by the symbol “+”. On the other hand, negative charges are linked to electrons, which
orbit the atomic nucleus and are denoted by the symbol “-“.
❖ The distinction between positive and negative charges plays a vital role in comprehending the
behaviour of electrically charged objects. Opposite charges, such as positive and negative, attract each
other, while like charges, such as positive and positive or negative and negative, repel each other. This
fundamental principle is the foundation for various concepts in electromagnetism and is pivotal in
understanding the interaction of charged particles.
Measuring Electric Charge
❖ Coulomb is the unit of electric charge.
❖ “One coulomb is the quantity of charge transferred in one second.”
❖ Mathematically, the definition of a coulomb is represented as:
Q = I.t
Coulomb’s Law :
❖ We know that like charges repel each other, while unlike charges attract. However, have you ever
wondered about the strength of these forces acting between charges? Coulomb’s Law offers us a
method to calculate this force precisely.
❖ According to Coulomb’s Law, the magnitude of the electrostatic force between two point charges is
directly proportional to the product of their magnitudes and inversely proportional to the square of
the distance separating them.
The Coulomb’s Law is given by the expression:
𝐪𝟏𝐪𝟐
F=k
𝐫𝟐
where F is the electric force, q1 and q2 are electric charges, k is the Coulomb’s constant 8.988 × 109
N⋅m2/C2 and r is the distance of separation.
❖ By applying Coulomb’s Law, we can quantitatively determine the strength of the electric force
between charges and gain valuable insights into their interactions. This
fundamental principle holds great significance in the field of
electromagnetism and enables us to analyse various electrical phenomena.
❖ Through the application of Coulomb’s Law, scientists and researchers have
been able to uncover the intricate workings of electric forces and
comprehend their profound impact on the world around us.
Electric Current :
❖ There are lots of electrons in an electric conductor which are lightly bonded.
❖ Those Electrons are known as Free Electrons.
❖ These Free Electrons are moved from one side to another in an electronic conductor.
❖ so current can be defined as the flow of moving electrons in the particular area.
I=Q/T
❖ Q= is Charge and T= is Time
❖ Unit of electric charge is coulomb(C)
❖ Current measure in Ampere which is 1 Coulomb / 1 Second
 4

Potential Difference
❖ Potential difference is the difference in the amount of potential energy a
particle has due to its position between two locations in an electric
[Link] is the energy difference that tends to make an electric charge or
current move. It is measured in volts.
P.D. Work / Charged Which has Transfer
V=W/Q
V=J/C
SI Unit of P.D is Volt
Resistance :
❖ Resistance is a measure of the opposition to current flow
in an electrical circuit.
❖ Resistance is measured in ohms, symbolized by the Greek
letter omega (2)
❖ Conductors: Materials that offer very little resistance
where electrons can move easily.
❖ Examples: silver, copper, gold and aluminum.
❖ Insulators : that present high resistance and restrict the flow of electrons.
❖ Examples: Rubber, paper, glass, wood and plastic.
❖ The higher the resistance, the lower the current flow. If abnormally high, one possible cause (among
many) could be damaged conductors due to burning or corrosion. All conductors give off some degree
of heat, so overheating is an issue often associated with resistance.
❖ Many components, such as heating elements and resistors, have a fixed-resistance value.
❖ These values are often printed on the components' nameplates or in manuals for reference.
❖ Resistance" may sound negative, but in electricity it can be used beneficially.
R=V/I
Applications :
❖ Power semiconductor - devices have widespread applications:
❖ Automotive - Alternator, Regulator, Ignition, stereo tape
❖ Entertainment - Power supplies, stereo, radio and television
❖ Appliance - Drill motors, Blenders, Mixers, Air conditioners and Heaters

 2

विदु यतधारा भाग 2

INDEX:
❖ Resistance
❖ Ohm's Law
❖ Power

Electric Current :
❖ There are lots of electron in an electric conductor which are lightly bonded.
❖ Those Electrons are known as Free Electrons
❖ These Free Electrons are moved from one side to another in an electronic conductor.
❖ so current can be defined as the flow of moving electrons in the particular area.
I=Q/T
❖ Q= is Charge and T= is Time
❖ Unit of electric charge is coulomb(C)
❖ Current measure in Ampere which is 1 Coulomb / 1 Second
Potential Difference
❖ Potential difference is the difference in the amount of potential energy a particle has due to its position
between two locations in an electric [Link] is the energy difference that tends to make an electric
charge or current move. It is measured in volts.
P.D. Work / Charged Which has Transfer
V=W/Q
V=J/C
SI Unit of P.D is Volt

Resistance :
❖ Resistance is a measure of the opposition to current flow in an electrical circuit.
❖ Resistance is measured in ohms, symbolized by the Greek letter omega (Ω)
❖ Conductors: Materials that offer very little resistance where electrons can
move easily.
❖ Examples: silver, copper, gold and aluminum.
❖ Insulators : that present high resistance and restrict the flow of electrons.
❖ Examples: Rubber, paper, glass, wood and plastic.
❖ The higher the resistance, the lower the current flow. If abnormally high, one possible cause (among
many) could be damaged conductors due to burning or corrosion. All conductors give off some degree
of heat, so overheating is an issue often associated with resistance.
❖ Many components, such as heating elements and resistors, have a fixed-resistance value.
❖ These values are often printed on the components' nameplates or in manuals for reference.
❖ Resistance" may sound negative, but in electricity it can be used beneficially.
R=V/I
 3

Applications :
❖ Power semiconductor devices have widespread applications:
❖ Automotive - Alternator, Regulator, Ignition, stereo tape
❖ Entertainment - Power supplies, stereo, radio and television
❖ Appliance - Drill motors, Blenders, Mixers, Air conditioners and Heaters
1911: Discovery of superconductivity :
❖ Discovered by Kamerlingh Onnes in 1911 during first low temperature measurements to liquefy helium
❖ Whilst measuring the resistivity of pure Hg he noticed that the electrical resistance dropped to zero at 4.2K
❖ In 1912 he found that the resistive state is restored in a magnetic field or high transport currents
Ohm's Law:
❖ When the physical state of the conductor remains constant, the current flowing through the conductor
is proportional to the potential difference between the two ends of the conductor.
V= I
V𝛼I
❖ Silver, Aluminum, Copper, etc. As the voltage increases in such a conductor, the current increases.
Hence these Conductors are called Ohmic Conductors.
❖ Some conductors do not obey Ohm's law. That is, the rate at which the difference between the
conductors increases, the current does not increase at that rate.
❖ E.g. Diode, Thermistor, etc.
 4

The resistance of a wire depends on several factors:

❖ Material - Different materials have different resistances because some materials are better
conductors. Nichrome wire has a higher resistance than a copper wire of the same size.
❖ Length - The longer a wire is, the higher its resistance. When electrons travel down a long wire they
can collide with more metal ions than in a short wire.
❖ Thickness-A thin wire has a higher resistance than a thick wire.
❖ Temperature - The higher the temperature of a wire the higher its resistance. Metal ions vibrate
more at higher temperatures and so collisions with electrons are more likely to happen.

Resistivity:
❖ Because resistivity is a property of materials, the resistivity of different materials is different. The
resistance of a conductor depends on the length (1) and area (A) of that conductor.
R = 𝜌 I/A
R 𝛼 I, R 𝛼 1/A & R 𝛼 𝜌
❖ where, 𝜌 is known as the resistance of the conductor.
Ascending order of resistivity of material means descending order of current
1) Silver (Ag)
2) Copper
3) Aluminum (Al)
4) Tungsten
5) Iron
Difference Between Series and Parallel Circuits :
Series Parallel
The current flowing through each component
The same amount of current flows through all the combines to form the current flow through the
components source.

In an electrical circuit, components are arranged In an electrical circuit, components are arranged
in a line parallel to each other

When resistors are put in a series circuit, the When resistors are put in a parallel circuit, the
voltage across each resistor is different even voltage across each of the resistors is the same.
though the current flow is the same through all of Even the polarities are the same
them.
Other components will function even if one
If one component breaks down, the whole circuit component breaks down, each has its own
will burn out. independent circuit

If Vt is the total voltage then it is equal to V1 + V2 If Vt is the total voltage then it is equal to V1=V2=V3
+ V3
 5

Power (P) :
❖ Power is a measurement of how quickly work is done.
power = work done / time taken
P=Wt
❖ power, P is measured in watts (W)
❖ work done, W is measured in joules (J)
❖ time, t is measured in seconds (s)
❖ One watt is the same as one joule per second.
Commercial Unit : KW-Hr ( Kilowatt-hour)
Household use of electricity
Total watt  hour  days
=
100
100  5  30
= = 15 KW- Hr
10
Bill = Unit × Rate
= 15 × 10
= 150 rs

 2

ध्वनीचे गुणधर्म

INDEX:

❖ Sound - Production, Broadcasting

❖ Wave - Type
❖ Wavelength, Frequency, Amplitude, Intensity, Velocity
❖ Echo, ultrasound and its applications
❖ Sound - effect factor, Doppler effect etc.

Sound:
❖ Sound is a form of energy, the sound that our ears receive the sensation of hearing.
Production of sound:
❖ The physical concept that causes the creation of sound is called “vibration”.
❖ “Vibration” means the rapid back and forth movement of an object.
❖ Vibrations can be seen or felt.
Human Vocal Structure:
❖ The human vocal cords are two bands of muscles in the voice box (larynx) that allow you to make or
produce sounds. The voice box sits over the trachea, the tube that allows air to flow to and from your
lungs.
❖ Men's vocal chords are long and women's are not.
Diffusion of Sound:
❖ A medium is required for the propagation of sound. Any medium of solid, liquid, air begins to
propagate sound.
❖ Sound waves are mechanical waves.
❖ The changes that occur during the propagation of
sound are called compression and rarefaction.
Compression:
❖ Compression is that part of a sound wave in which
particles are close to the medium and there is a
momentary reduction in the volume of the
medium.
Refraction:
❖ Rarefaction is the portion of a sound wave in which a medium of particles separates and causes a
transient increase in the volume of the medium.
❖ If the propagation of sound is shown in the form of a wave, the rising part is called the crest and the
falling part is called the trough.
❖ There are 2 types of energy waves that flow in the form of waves.
 3

Longitudinal waves Transverse waves

A medium is required. No medium is required.

These are mechanical/positional waves. These are asynchronous/osteostatic waves.

It consists of compressing/dissolving. It has peaks and troughs.

In this the direction of transmission is parallel In this the direction of transmission is

to the center position. perpendicular to the center position.

E.g. sound energy E.g. Light, radio waves, ultraviolet rays.

Basic Properties of Sound:

Wavelength:
❖ The distance between two adjacent compressions or two adjacent relaxations is called a "wavelength".
Wavelengths are denoted by the symbol lambda (λ) and the unit is meter (m).
Frequency:
❖ The frequency of the wave is the number of oscillations per unit period.
❖ A movement is the change in a wave from maximum density to minimum density and back to density
again.
❖ Symbol - New (n or v)
❖ The SI unit of frequency is Hertz (Hz).
Time period of wave:
❖ The time taken by two adjacent compressions or contractions to pass a certain point is the wave
period. Its unit is second. We can also call it the time taken for a complete movement. Hence the Time
period of wave,
T = 1/ frequency
Pitch:
❖ 'Frequency i.e. intensity of vibrations of a sound source'
❖ The higher the intensity, the louder the sound and the lower the intensity, the clearer the sound.
❖ Generally, women's voices are louder than men's.
❖ E.g. Roar of lion - low pitch, chirping of birds - high pitch, whistling - high pitch
❖ When the sound intensity increases ten times, the sound level increases by 10dB.
 4

Amplitude, Loudness, Intensity, Volume:

❖ The maximum displacement of a particle in a medium from its central position to any one side is its
“amplitude”. (Frequency remains the same even if the amplitude increases or decreases)
❖ The loudness or softness of a sound basically depends on its amplitude.
❖ Dimensions are denoted by the letter 'A'.
❖ Loudness of sound is measured in decibels. (In memory of Alexander Graham Bell)
Loudness of different sounds:
1. Normal breathing- 10 dB
2. Whisper - 30 dB
3. Normal conversation- 60 dB
4. Traffic noise - 70 dB
5. Average in industrial area- 80 dB
6. Rocket, missile - 160 to 190 dB
7. Jet engine- 130 dB
8. Earwax- 120 dB
❖ Noise above 80 dB causes discomfort. Loudness above 150 dB can cause deafness. A sound with a
frequency of 1000 Hz and a level of more than 100 dB causes a temporary difference in hearing ability.
distance
❖ Speed of sound =
time
❖ Speed of sound = wavelength × frequency
❖ The speed of sound at 25°C is 344 m/s.
❖ A 1°C increase in temperature increases the speed of sound by 0.6 m/s.
Speed of sound at 25°C in various media:

Condition Substance Velocity = m/sec

Solid Aluminum 6420

Solid Nickel 6040

Solid Steel 5960

Solid Iron 5950

Solid Brass 4700

Solid Glass 3980

liquid Sea water 1531

liquid Pure water 1498

liquid Ethanol 1207

 5

liquid Methanol 1103

Gas Hydrogen 1284

Gas Helium 965

Gas Air 346

Gas Oxygen 316

Gas Sulfur dioxide 213

Reflection of sound:
❖ If the reflected sound hits our ears 0.1 second after the original sound, the echo is heard.
Echo:
❖ As light is reflected. Also sound can be reflected.
❖ Reflection of sound is similar to the law of light.
❖ Echo is the repetition of the original sound due to reflection from any surface.'
❖ If the original sound and the reflected sound hit our ears 0.1 second later, the two sounds are heard
separately.
speed of sound  0.1
❖ Echo distance =
2
Human Hearing Limit:
Infrasound:
❖ Sound whose frequency is less than 20 Hz is called inaudible sound.
❖ E.g. Whales, elephants, rhinos (5Hz). These sounds are produced through this animal.
❖ E.g. The sound produced by the vibrations of the earth's surface before an earthquake occurs, the
sound produced by the vibration of an oscillator.
Audible Sound/ Human Hearing Limit (Audible Sound):
❖ The human ear's hearing range is about 20 Hz to 20,000 Hz. But children under the age of five and
some animals like dogs can hear sounds up to 25000 Hz.
Ultrasound:
❖ Sounds with a frequency greater than 20,000 Hz are called inaudible sounds.
❖ Eg: Dolphins, bats, mice make this sound. A dog can also hear Ultrasound.
Use of inaudible or infrasound:
❖ In the medical field, it is used to diagnose and treat internal diseases of the human body.
❖ Using ultrasound, kidney stones can be broken down into small particles that are then passed out
through the urine.
❖ Ultrasonography is used to examine the fetus during pregnancy.
❖ Ultrasound is also used in heart examination (ECG).
❖ Industrially, ultrasonic sound is useful for examining metals for defects such as cracks and for cleaning
machine parts.
 6

Changes in sound in different media:

❖ An increase in humidity increases the speed of sound in air, because moist air is less dense than dry
air. As the density of the medium decreases, the speed of sound in the medium increases. Therefore,
the speed of sound is higher in moist air than in dry air.
❖ As the pressure changes, the speed of sound does not change and it increases or decreases
respectively due to changing temperature.
Human ear:
❖ Ear is a sensitive organ of the human body. It is mainly concerned with sound detection, transmission.
Balancing is another important function of the human ear.
Ear structure:
❖ The human ear consists of three parts:
1. external ear
2. middle ear
3. inner ear
Parts of human ear:
❖ The parts of the human ear are explained below:
External ear:
❖ The external ear is divided into the following parts:
Auricle (pinna):
❖ The auricle consists of a thin plate of flexible cartilage covered by a layer of skin. It has funnel-like
curves that collect sound waves and transmit them to the middle ear. The lobule consists of adipose
and fibrous tissue supplied by blood capillaries.
External auditory meatus:
❖ It is a slightly curved canal supported by bone in its interior and cartilage in its exterior. The meatus or
canal is lined with stratified epithelium and wax glands.
Tympanic membrane:
❖ This membrane separates the middle ear and the outer ear. This part receives and amplifies sound
waves. Its central part is known as umbo.
Middle ear:
❖ The middle ear consists of the following parts:
Tympanic cavity:
❖ It is a narrow air-filled cavity separated from the outer ear by the tympanic membrane and from the
inner ear by a bony wall. The tympanic cavity contains an auditory tube called the Eustachian tube.
Eustachian tube:
❖ The Eustachian tube is a 4 cm long tube that equalizes air pressure on either side of the tympanic
membrane. It connects the tympanic cavity with the nasopharynx.
Ear ossicles:
❖ These are responsible for transmitting sound waves from the eardrum to the middle ear. The human
ear has three ossicles:
❖ Malleus: The hammer-shaped part attached to the tympanic membrane by the handle and the incus by
the head. It is the largest ear oscillator.
❖ Incus: An anvil-shaped ear ossicle attached to the stapes.
❖ Stapes: It is the smallest bone and the shortest bone in the human body.
 7

Inner ear:
❖ It has two parts:
1. Bony Labyrinth
2. Membranous labyrinth
Bony Labyrinth:
❖ The bony labyrinth consists of the vestibule, the three semicircular canals, and the spirally coiled
cochlea. It is filled with perilymph.
Membranous labyrinth:
❖ The bony labyrinth surrounds the membranous labyrinth. It
contains sensory receptors responsible for balance and hearing.
The membranous labyrinth is filled with endolymph and
consists of three semicircular canals, the cochlear duct, the
saccule, and the utricle. Sensory receptors include the cristae, an
organ of corti, and the ampullaris macule.
Doppler Effect:
❖ The Doppler effect works on both light and sound objects. For example, when a sound object moves
toward you, the frequency of the sound waves increases, resulting in a higher pitch. Conversely, if it
moves away from you, the frequency of the sound waves decreases and the pitch drops.

 2

उष्णते चे गुणधर्म

Index:
❖ Heat characteristics
❖ Unit of heat, temperature method
❖ Specific heat
❖ Anomalous behavior of water
❖ Heat transfer
Heat:
❖ Heat is a form of energy and can be obtained by converting any form of energy. We rub our hands
together on cold days. In this process mechanical energy is converted into heat energy. When we turn
on the button of the geyser, the electrical energy is converted into heat energy. Conversely, when
water is heated, water turns into steam. In a steam engine steam is converted into mechanical energy
and the train runs with the help of a steam engine.
Temperature:
❖ It is a unit of measurement of the average energy of the particles (atoms or molecules) in matter.
Temperature is used to measure how cold or hot a substance is. A thermometer is used to measure
temperature. The units used to measure temperature are degrees Celsius, degrees Fahrenheit, and
degrees Kelvin.
Unit of Heat:
❖ Since heat is energy transfer, the units of energy are as follows,
❖ The SI unit of heat is the joule (J), which is defined as the amount of energy required to raise the
temperature of a given mass by one degree. Generally, it takes 4.184 Joules of heat energy to raise the
temperature of one unit weight (ie 1 gram) of water from 0 degrees to 1-degree Celsius.
❖ In the CGS system, heat is expressed in units of calorific value which is further said to be the heat
energy required to raise the temperature of 1 gram of pure water by one degree Celsius.
❖ Sometimes referred to as the kilocalorie (kcal) unit of heat where 1 kcal = 1000 cal. is
Temperature:
❖ Temperature is a measure of warmth or coolness expressed in terms of several scales, including
Fahrenheit and Celsius. Temperature indicates the direction in which heat energy will spontaneously
flow. That is, from a hotter body (one at a higher temperature) to a colder body (one at a lower
temperature).
Fahrenheit:
❖ In the United States, the Fahrenheit system is used to measure temperature as a standard for non-
scientific use. It is named after a German-Dutch physicist named Daniel Gabriel Fahrenheit.
❖ In this scale, the freezing point of water at sea level is 32°F and its boiling point is 212°F. It has a total
of 180 units.
 3

Celsius:
❖ Temperature is measured using the Celsius scale of temperature. It is a metric scale that was created
in 1742 by the Swedish astronomer Anders Celsius. The Celsius scale is based on the characteristics of
water that has a boiling point of 100 degrees Celsius and a freezing point of 0 degrees Celsius at
standard atmospheric pressure.
❖ In 1848, the Irish-Scottish engineer and physicist William Thomson (later Lord Kelvin) wrote a paper
to clearly define the zero point of the scale and use degrees Celsius for each unit increment.
❖ Lord Kelvin determined that the value of absolute zero on air thermometers of the time was -273 °C.
This absolute value is currently known as the Kelvin thermodynamic temperature scale.
❖ Kelvin's value of '−273' is the negative of the reciprocal of 0.00366, which is the accepted coefficient of
gaseous expansion per degree Celsius relative to the ice level, giving remarkable consistency to the
commonly accepted value.
Rankine:
❖ The Rankine temperature scale, a scale established in 1859 by the Scottish engineer and physicist
William John McCorn Rankine (1820–72), has its zero set at the theoretical temperature at which the
molecules of matter have the lowest energy (absolute zero). The Rankine (°R) scale is an absolute
temperature scale related to the Fahrenheit (°F) scale, and both scales have the same size unit of
temperature. The two scales are related by the equation °R = °F + 459.67. The freezing point of water
falls at 492 °R, while its boiling point falls at 672 °R.
Methods of changing the temperature unit:
Convert from Fahrenheit to Celsius: C = (F − 32) × 5⁄9
Conversion from Celsius to Fahrenheit: F = C(9⁄5) + 32
Fahrenheit to celsius 5
C = (F – 32)
9

Celsius to Fahrenheit 9
F =( 𝐶) +32)
5

Celsius to Kelvin K = C + 273

Kelvin to Celsius C = K – 273

 4

Absolute Temperature:
❖ The temperature at which it cannot go any lower is called the absolute temperature. Also known as
thermodynamic temperature, heat is measured using the Kelvin scale. The absolute temperature is -
273.15 degrees Celsius.
Principle of Heat Exchange:
❖ When two objects are placed in a heat-resistant box isolated from the atmosphere, the heat lost by the
hot object is equal to the heat gained by the cold object, and even though heat transfer occurs, the
temperature of both objects remains the same. This is called the principle of heat exchange.
Newton's law of cooling:
❖ The rate of loss of body heat is directly proportional to the difference in temperature around the body.
We know that when any hot liquid like hot water or milk is placed on a table, it starts to cool down and
eventually reaches the ambient temperature.
Specific Heat Capacity:
❖ Specific heat capacity is the heat energy required to raise the temperature of one unit of a substance
by 1K. It can also be defined as the amount of heat energy required to change the temperature by 1 K
per unit mass.
❖ Or
❖ The heat required to raise the temperature of a unit mass of a substance by 1C is the 'specific heat' of
that substance.
❖ Specific heat is denoted by the symbol 'C'. Kal/kg c The unit of specific heat in the MKS system is
Kcal/kg C.
❖ In the CGS system its unit is Cal/g C.
❖ The rising temperature of different substances with a gram mass is not the same.
❖ The following are the specific heat capacities of some substances.
 5

TABLE : Specific Heats at Atmospheric Pressure

Substance Specific heat, c[J/(kg·K)]
Water 4186
Ice 2090
Steam 2010
Beryllium 1820
Air 1004
Aluminum 900
Glass 837
Silicon 703
Iron (steel) 448
Copper 387
Silver 234
Gold 129
Lead 128
काही पदाथ च्य
ों ा विविष्ट उष्माधारकता :
विविष्ट उष्माधारकता
अ.क्र. पदाथम
(Keal/kg6C) (J/kg6K)
1. पाणी 1.0 4186
2. बर्फ 0.49 4182
3. पै राफर्न 0.54 2130
4. रॉकेल 0.52 2118
5. अॅ ल्यूफिफनअि 0.215 903
6. लोह 0.110 448
7. ताां बे 0.095 387
8. चाां दी 0.056 234
9. पारा 0.040 139
10. फिसे 0.033 128

Anomalous behavior of water:

❖ Normally a liquid substance expands when heated to a finite temperature and contracts when cooled.
But when the water temperature drops below 4 C, the water exhibits characteristic and exceptional
behavior. If the temperature of water is increased from 0 C to 4 C, it contracts instead of expanding i.e.
volume decreases and density increases.
 6

❖ If the temperature of water

is reduced from 4 C to 0 C,
it expands instead of
contracting i.e. increases in
volume and decreases in
density.
❖ The volume of water is
minimum at 4 C, so 4 C is
maximum.
❖ Inhomogeneous behavior
of water is studied with the
help of Hope's apparatus.
❖ The fact that ice floats on water means that its density is less than that of water at 0 C.
❖ In colder regions, the ambient temperature can drop below 0 C in winter. As the temperature
decreases, the water in ponds and lakes begins to contract and its density increases. This process
continues until the entire water temperature reaches 4 C. Once the temperature starts to drop below 4
C, it starts to expand instead of contracting. As a result its density decreases and it remains on the
surface. As the surface temperature decreases, it becomes ice at 0 C and the water under the ice
remains at 4 C.
❖ Ice is a bad conductor of heat. Therefore, the heat of the water under the ice cannot escape to the
atmosphere.
❖ Thus aquatic plants and aquatic animals can survive at 4 C temperature. If the temperature drops
below 4 C, tap water expands instead of contracting. Water freezes at 0 C. Faucets burst due to high
pressure on the inside of the faucet.
❖ Sometimes water seeps into cracks in the rock and when the temperature drops below 4 C the water
diffuses. A great pressure builds up and cracks the rock into pieces.
Humidity & Dew Point temperature:
❖ Humidity Moisture or dampness in the air due to water vapor in the air is called 'Humidity'.
Absolute Humidity:
❖ Absolute humidity describes the water content of air and is expressed in either grams per cubic meter
or grams per kilogram. The absolute humidity of the atmosphere ranges from nearly zero to
approximately 30 grams per cubic meter.
Water vapor
Absolute humidity =
Volume of air
Relative humidity:
❖ The relative humidity of an air-water mixture is defined as the ratio of the partial pressure of the
water vapor in the mixture to the equilibrium water vapor pressure at a flat surface of pure water at a
given temperature. This is usually expressed as a percentage. A higher percentage indicates that the
air-water mixture is more humid.
Water vapor
Relative humidity = ×100
Volume of air
 7

Specific humidity:
❖ The ratio of the mass of water vapor to the total mass of air is known as specific humidity.
Water vapor
Specific humidity =
Air mass
Types of Air Based on Relative Humidity:
❖ Dry air: It has a relative humidity of less than 60%.
❖ Moist/humid air: It has a relative humidity of more than 60%.
❖ Saturated air: It has a relative humidity of 100%.
❖ Saturated air: Air is said to be saturated when it contains the maximum amount of water vapor that is
possible at a given pressure and temperature. At this point, its relative humidity is said to be 100%.
Heat Transfer:
Conduction:
❖ It involves conduction/transfer of heat through direct contact, where the kinetic energy of the
molecules goes from high to low.
❖ Ex: fire to pot, pot to water
Convection:
❖ It involves conduction/transfer of heat from particles of the same material.
❖ Ex: water from bottom to water from top
Radiation:
❖ It transfers heat through electromagnetic waves.
❖ Ex: Sun, Microwave.


 2

गती आणि बलाचे प्रकार

INDEX:
❖ Motion and its types
❖ Kinetic concepts
❖ Unit of force and its types
❖ The force of gravity
Motion:
❖ Motion is the change of position of an object with its surroundings. If an object is changing its position
i.e. it is said to be in motion and if the object is not in the state of changing its position then it is called a
stationary object.
Types of Motion:
Translational Motion:
❖ If an object changes its position in a straight line or in a slight curve, then the motion is called
'translatory motion'.
Rotational Motion:
❖ When the motion of an object is around a particular axis, then that motion is called rotational motion.
❖ E.g. A fan, a vortex, the rotation of the earth around itself.
Circular Motion:
❖ When the motion of an object is in a circular path, the motion is called circular motion.
❖ E.g. The orbit of the electron around the nucleus, the orbit of the moon around the earth, the orbit of
the earth around the sun.
Oscillatory Motion:
❖ An object whose motion (movement) is repeated in the same direction is called "oscillatory motion".
❖ E.g. Oscillator, sewing machine needle, swing.
Random Motion:
❖ An object whose direction of motion is not fixed is called random motion.
❖ E.g. Dust particles in the air, fumes emitted from vehicles,
butterflies flying from one tree to another.
Force and Types of Force:
❖ Force A "force" is a quantity that causes or tends to cause a
change in an object's state of rest or uniform motion in a
straight line.
Force formula:
❖ Force=mass of the object acceleration
❖ SI unit = N
❖ CGS unit = dyne
Balanced force:
❖ If an object is in equilibrium i.e. stationary, a balancing force is exerted on it. E.g. An object placed on a
table is stable because two equal but opposite forces are acting on it.
❖ One is the vertical downward force of gravity, the other is the opposite force of the table surface i.e.
the balanced force exerted on the stationary object.
❖ b. Force exerted by both teams in a tug of war
 3

Unbalanced force:
❖ If an object is to be displaced or set in motion, an unbalanced force must be applied to the object.
❖ An unbalanced force causes an object to change speed or change direction.
❖ An unbalanced force is needed to accelerate an object.
❖ E.g. Displacing stationary objects.
Frictional force:
❖ Frictional force is the force produced by the friction of two objects on two surfaces in opposite directions.
❖ When we walk on the ground, frictional force is applied between our feet and the ground.
❖ The direction of the frictional force is opposite to the direction of motion of the object.
❖ E.g. Walking on the ground, friction between the wheel and the brake while braking, etc.
Types of Frictional Force:
Sliding friction force:
❖ A sliding friction force is created when an object slides on a surface.
Rotating Frictional Force:
❖ This frictional force is created by a wheeled object.
Frictional force of lubricant:
❖ This frictional force is created by the application of oil or grease to the machine or its parts.
Gravitational force:
Newton's Law of Gravitation:
❖ No matter where any two objects in the universe are, they have a gravitational force that attracts each
other. This force is directly proportional to the product of the mass of the objects and inversely
proportional to the square of the distance between the objects. This rule can be expressed as
❖ Suppose the masses of the two objects are m1 and m2 and there is a distance between them.
❖ Gravitational force (F) = m1m2 (proportional)
❖ Gravitational force (F) - r (radial ratio)
Acceleration Due to Gravity:
❖ Earth's gravitational acceleration depends on the mass of the object and the distance between the objects.
❖ The greater the mass of the object, the greater the acceleration due to gravity.
❖ As the distance between the structures increases, the gravitational acceleration decreases.
❖ Acceleration is the change in velocity.
❖ An object falling from a height towards the ground also has a similar acceleration, that is, the
acceleration due to gravity is called 'gravitational acceleration'. Gravitational acceleration is denoted
by the letter g.
❖ Gravitational acceleration does not depend on the mass of the object. R depends on the mass of the
Earth and the distance from the Earth's core to the object.
❖ Since we live on the surface of the Earth, our distance from the Earth's core is only the radius of the Earth.
❖ Value of g: g=GM/R2
❖ G = 6.67 × 10" Nm2/kg, M = 6 × 1024 kg, R= 6400 km
❖ After keeping all the above values, the acceleration due to gravity at the earth's surface is 9.8 m/s 2.
❖ The great scientist Galileo dropped stones of different masses simultaneously down the incline
of Pisa and concluded that the acceleration due to gravity does not depend on the mass of the object.
 4

Some conclusions regarding the acceleration of gravity:

By height:
❖ As one moves away from the Earth's surface, the value of R increases so the value of g decreases. (At
altitude the value of g is less than 9.8 m/s).
According to the shape of the earth:
At Pole:
❖ Earth is slightly flatter near the poles so R is lower so g is higher. (g=9.83 m/s 2)
At Equator:
❖ The Earth is slightly convex near the equator, the value of R is high so the value of g is low.
❖ (g = 9.78m/s)
At the center of earth:
❖ Approached the core of the Earth so the mass of the Earth would be assumed to be zero. Hence the
value of g at the center of the earth will be zero.
Electromagnetic force:
❖ The force of attraction between atoms and molecules in matter is called the electromagnetic force.
This force is about 10 × 38 to 10 × 40 times greater than the force of gravity.
Nuclear force:
❖ The force of attraction between protons and neutrons in the nucleus of an atom is called nuclear force.
This force is about 10 × 40 to 10 × 42 times greater than the force of gravity. That is, it is the most
powerful force in the universe.
Weak force:
❖ The attractive force between the nucleus and the orbital electrons is called the weak force. This force is
about 10 × 25 to 10 × 26 times greater than the force of gravity. But this force is less than nuclear force.
Ascending order of strength by capacity:
❖ Nuclear force > electromagnetic force > inertial force > acceleration
Centripetal force:
❖ Centripetal/centripetal force is the component of force acting on an object in curved motion directed
towards the axis of curvature or the center of curvature.
Centrifugal force:
❖ Centrifugal/centrifugal force is a pseudo force in circular motion that acts radially and is directed
away from the center of the circle.

 2

किरणोत्साररता

INDEX:
❖ Radioactivity
❖ Research
❖ Alpha, Beta and Gamma
❖ Radioactive emission/decay
❖ Carbon decay and half-life periods

Radioactivity:
❖ Radiation can be described as energy or particles from a source that travel through space or other
media.
❖ Light, heat, microwaves and wireless communication are all forms of radiation. These include:
1. Radiation: such as alpha radiation (α), beta radiation (β), and gamma radiation.
2. Gravitational radiation: such as radiation that takes the form of gravitational waves or ripples in
the curvature of space-time.
3. Acoustic radiation: such as ultrasound, sound and seismic waves.
4. Electromagnetic radiation: such as radio waves, visible light, X-rays and gamma radiation (γ).
Radioactivity:
❖ Due to nuclear instability, the nucleus of an atom exhibits the phenomenon of radiation.
❖ Acoustic radiation: such as ultrasound, sound and seismic waves.
❖ Electromagnetic radiation: such as radio waves, visible light, X-rays and gamma radiation (γ).
Radioactivity:
❖ Due to nuclear instability, the nucleus of an atom exhibits the phenomenon of radiation.
❖ Increasing the size of the nucleus increases the probability of encountering instability because the
mass of the nucleus increases upon concentration.
❖ That is why plutonium, uranium atoms are highly unstable and undergo radioactivity.
❖ Radioactivity means the act of emitting rays, the phenomenon of radioactivity was discovered by
Professor Henri Becquerel in 1896, when he was working on the nature of phosphorous substances.
❖ He discovered that uranium salt emits invisible radiation that affects the photographic plate,
penetrates through the metal sheet and remains unaffected by temperature changes, and was later
called a radioactive element.
❖ X rays were discovered by William Roentgen in 1895.
❖ Henri Becquerel (1896) discovered radioactivity by accident. A uranium compound was kept in a
drawer containing photographic plates wrapped in black paper. Later, when the plates were
examined, they were found to be exposed.
❖ Marie and Perry Curie studied thorium and polonium and named it radioactivity theory.
❖ The above three were awarded Nobel for this research in 1903.
❖ Rays were discovered by Paul Willard and Ernest Rutherford.
 3

❖ Also found the following:

1. Gamma particles (high energy photons emitted) - Paul Willard
2. Beta particles (emissions consist of electrons)-Ernest Rutherford
3. Alpha particle (emission involves helium nucleus)-Ernest Rutherford
❖ In 1896, Becquerel discovered natural radiation. Earlier that year, the German physicist, Wilhelm
Röntgen, discovered X-rays.
❖ Becquerel took as proof that his idea was correct, that phosphorescent uranium salts absorbed
sunlight and emitted penetrating radiation similar to X-rays. He reported this result at a meeting of the
French Academy of Sciences on 24 February 1896.
❖ Becquerel means one decay per second (dps), curie (Ci) is the traditional unit of radioactivity and is
the most commonly used unit in the United States. One Curie is 37 billion Bq.
❖ Antoine Henri Becquerel discovered that uranium salts spontaneously emit a penetrating radiation
that can be recorded on a photographic plate. Further studies made it clear that this radiation was
something new and not X-ray radiation: he discovered a new phenomenon, radioactivity.
❖ Although Henri Becquerel discovered this phenomenon, his doctoral student Marie Curie named it -
radioactivity.
Henri Becquerel and Marie Curie:
❖ In 1896, scientists Henri Becquerel and Marie Curie discovered radioactivity while working with
phosphorescent substances.
❖ These substances glow in the dark after exposure to light, and he suspected that the glow produced in
cathode ray tubes by X-rays could be related to phosphorescence.
❖ And after much research on this and discovered Becquerel rays, which was a breakthrough on the
radioactivity of materials. Marie and Pierre Curie's study of radioactivity is an important factor in
science and medicine.
❖ Becquerel's research on radiation led to the discovery of both radium and polonium, coining the term
"radioactivity" to describe the emission of ionizing radiation by certain heavier elements.
 4

SI unit of radioactivity:
❖ The SI unit of radioactivity is the becquerel (BQ) and is named after Henri Becquerel.
❖ A unit of radioactivity is defined as follows,
❖ The rate of activity of radioactive material where one decay occurs per second.
❖ 1 Becquerel = 1 radioactive decay per second = 2.703×10 -11 Ci
Other Emissivity Units:
❖ There are usually three radioactivity units. The older radioactivity unit is the curie (Ci) and is named
after Pierre and Marie Curie.
❖ It is defined as the quantity of any radioactive substance that gives 3.7 X 10 10 s -1 disintegrations per
second (dps).
❖ Sometimes millicuries (mc) and microcuries (mc) are also used.
❖ Another unit is the Rutherford (RD) and is defined as the amount of radioactive material that gives off
10 6 disintegrations per second (dps).
❖ 1 Curie = 3.7×10 10 radioactive decays per second
❖ 1 becquerel = 1 radioactive decay per second = 2.703×10 -11 Ci.
❖ 1 Rutherford = 1.106 radionuclide decays per second
❖ Curie and Rutherford are radioactivity units.
❖ Emission - by Becquerel
❖ Sievert for quantity
Laws of Radiation:
❖ Radioactivity is the result of the particles of the nucleus.
❖ The decay rate of a nucleus is independent of temperature and pressure.
❖ Radioactivity depends on the law of conservation of charge.
❖ The physical and chemical properties of the nucleus are different from those of the mother nucleus.
❖ The rate of decay of radioactive substances depends on the number of atoms present at that time.
There are three types of radioactive fallout:
1. Alpha decay
2. Beta decay
3. Gamma decay
Alpha Ray Decay:
❖ Alpha decay or α-decay is a type of radioactive decay in which an atomic nucleus emits an alpha
particle that transforms or decays into a new atomic nucleus.
❖ Here the atomic mass number of the newly formed atom will decrease by four and atomic number will
decrease by two.
❖ The emitted alpha particle is also known as helium nucleus. Alpha particles have a relatively large
mass and carry a positive charge.
❖ Ernest Rutherford distinguished alpha decay from other forms of radiation by studying the deflection
of radiation by magnetic fields.
❖ The deflection of alpha decay will be a positive charge because the particles have a +2e charge.
❖ When an alpha particle emits a nucleus, the process is called alpha decay.
❖ The atomic number decreases by 2 and the atomic mass decreases by 4 and this is helium.
 5

Beta Ray Decay:

❖ Beta decay is a radioactive decay in which a beta ray is emitted from an atomic nucleus.
❖ During beta decay, protons in the nucleus are converted into neutrons and vice versa.
❖ If a proton is converted into a neutron, it is called β + decay. Similarly, if a neutron is converted into a
proton, it is called β-decay.
❖ Due to the change in the nucleus, a beta particle is emitted.
❖ A beta particle is a high-speed electron when it is β - decay and a positron when it is β + decay.
❖ Beta particles are used to treat health conditions such as eye and bone cancer and are also used as
tracers
❖ A beta particle is often referred to as an electron, but it can also be a positron.
❖ If the reaction involves electrons, the nucleus ejects neutrons one by one.
❖ The proton number also increases accordingly.
❖ Atomic number increases by 1 and atomic mass does not change OR atomic number decreases by 1
and atomic mass does not change
❖ Eg -Carbon 10 is converted to Boron 10
Gamma Ray Decay:
❖ Gamma decay is the emission of very high frequency i.e. very high energy electromagnetic radiation,
which provides additional energy to stabilize the unstable nucleus.
❖ You need to be familiar with the different energy levels in an atom.
❖ A nucleus has its own energy level.
❖ Gamma decay is the reduction of energy from a higher energy level to a lower energy level by the
emission of a high energy photon
❖ The nucleus has its way down to the level.
❖ The energy level transition energy in an atom is of the order of MeV.
❖ Therefore, the gamma-rays emitted are also of very high energy, on the order of MeV, like X-rays.
❖ Emitted gamma rays can be distinguished from X-rays because gamma rays come from the
nucleus. Due to their high energy, they are highly penetrating and therefore dangerous to biological
life forms.
❖ The nucleus contains orbiting electrons, which actually have some energy, and when the electron
jumps from a higher energy level to a lower energy level, a photon is emitted.
❖ This is what happens in the nucleus: when it rearranges into a lower energy level, a high-energy
photon, called a gamma ray, is emitted.
❖ Atomic number and atomic mass do not change.
Half life period:
❖ A period of time known as half-life or half-life period is one of the general terminologies
used in physics to describe the radioactive decay of a particular sample or element over a period of
time.
 6

Definition of half-life period:

❖ Half-life is usually defined as the time it takes for a radioactive substance (or half an atom) to decay or
transform into a different substance.
❖ The first principle was discovered by Ernest Rutherford in 1907. This is usually denoted by the symbol
Ug or t 1/2.
❖ If half the atoms of a radioactive element are taken in a situation where they have decayed after a half-
life, then it is fair to assume that their lifetime is at an average level.
❖ Atoms with short lives that are much longer than their half-lives.
❖ This would mean that the half-life divided by 2 which is the natural algorithm would be the average
life. On the other hand, half-life is often defined in terms of probability.
Half-life formula:
❖ t 1/2 = 0.693/λ
❖ t 1/2 = half-life
❖ λ = decay constant
Carbon dating:
❖ It was invented by Willard Libby.
❖ C-14 is used to determine the age of fossils.
Carbon dating:
❖ Carbon dating is a mainstream method in archeology for dating organic objects up to 50,000 years old.
❖ This method has been based on the idea of radioactive decay of the carbon-14 isotope for thousands of
years.
❖ The constant can be used to determine the approximate age of the decaying material by the ratio of
radioactive isotopes to the approximate initial concentration of these isotopes at the time of the death
of the organism. The scientists concluded that the ratio of carbon-12 and carbon-14 isotopes in the
atmosphere had changed very little, meaning the relationship between the two should have been
similar to what it is today.
Physics of Carbon Dating:
❖ Carbon has unique properties that are essential for life on Earth.
❖ Familiar to us as the black substance in charred wood, as diamonds, and as graphite in “lead” pencils,
carbon exists in many forms, or isotopes.
❖ A less abundant form of carbon contains atoms 14 times heavier than hydrogen atoms—carbon-14, or
14C, or radiocarbon.
❖ Carbon-14 is a radioactive substance. At any given moment carbon-14 is decaying in an object, and if
the object is alive, it is being replaced at a constant rate.
❖ Carbon-14 is formed when a neutron is excited by a cosmic ray and then collides with a nitrogen atom.
❖ Carbon-14 is formed when a neutron is excited by a cosmic ray and then collides with a nitrogen atom.
 7

Decay of Carbon-14:
❖ Plants get their carbon through the process of photosynthesis, while animals get it mainly through
food. Because plants and animals obtain their carbon from the atmosphere, they also obtain the
amount of carbon-12 and carbon-14 isotopes available in the atmosphere.
❖ When they die, communication with the environment stops.
❖ Now, carbon-12 is stable and does not decay, while carbon-14 is radioactive. Carbon-14 decays to half
of itself in about 5,730 years.
❖ This is called its 'half-life'.
❖ So, after a plant or animal dies, the ratio of carbon-12 to carbon-14 in the body or its residues starts to
change.
❖ This change can be measured and used to estimate when the organism died.

 2

कार्य, ऊर्ाय आणि शक्ती

Index:
❖ Work energy and power
❖ Work type and unit
❖ Energy types and units
❖ Power types and units
Work: Work is the product of force and displacement.
❖ w = fs
❖ f= force, s = displacement
❖ A work is a scalar.
❖ The SI unit of work is the joule. 1 joule is 1 Nm.
❖ Arg is the unit in the CGS system.
❖ A function can be positive, negative and zero.
1) When the direction of force and displacement are same then the work done by that force is positive.
➢ Eg: Pushing the bus when it stops.
2) When the direction of force and displacement are opposite to each other. The work done by that force
is negative.
➢ Ex: In cricket a player blocks a ball.
3) When force is applied no displacement occurs or force and displacement are perpendicular to each
other. Then the work done by the force is zero.
➢ Eg: When a stone is tied to the end of a rope and the rope is rotated round and round, the work
done by the rope on the stone is zero, because the displacement of the stone is in the tangential
direction.
➢ E.g. simple oscillator
Energy:
❖ 'Energy' is the ability of a substance to do work.
❖ The unit of energy in the SI system is the joule.
❖ The unit of energy in the CGS method is erg (Erg).
❖ 1 Joule = 1 ×10^7 Erg
Types of Energy:
❖ Various forms of energy appear around us. Like, solar energy, light energy, electrical energy, chemical
energy and leaf energy. In this chapter we will look at the types of mechanical energy.
❖ There are two main types of mechanical energy:
1) Potential Energy
2) Kinetic Energy
1) Potential Energy:
❖ 'The energy contained in a substance due to its particular state or shape or configuration. It is
called potential energy.
Ex:
❖ Energy in a compressed spring
❖ Energy stored in a bow and arrow when stretched
 3

❖ Formula of situational energy = mgh.

❖ PE = mgh
❖ m = mass of object, q = acceleration due to gravity, r = height of object above ground, so it can be
said that potential energy is more at the pole and less at equator.
2) Kinetic Energy:
❖ The energy gained by matter due to its state of
motion is called kinetic energy. Eg:
(Motion/speed)
❖ If a very fast cricket ball hits the stumps, the
stumps bounce off the spot.
❖ A speeding gun bullet has kinetic energy.
❖ Formula for kinetic energy = 1/2mv2
❖ m = mass of the object
❖ v = velocity of the object
❖ That is, if the velocity doubles, the kinetic energy quadruples.
Law of conservation of energy:
❖ Law: Energy can neither be created nor destroyed. But it can be converted from one form to another.
However, the total energy in the universe is always inexhaustible.
❖ Eg: The mixture of explosives in firecrackers contains chemical energy. When a firecracker explodes,
this chemical energy is converted into various forms of energy like kinetic energy, heat, light and
sound. But the total energy remains constant.
❖ Some forms of energy are as follows:
1) Heat: Food can be cooked by obtaining heat with the help of wood, biogas, domestic gas (LPG
gas).
2) Electric Energy: Electric current is the flow of electrons. We can get this energy from a generator,
electric current or battery pack.
3) Solar Energy: We get heat, light and other
energy from the sun. Can convert solar energy
into electrical energy. The process by which
plants use this energy to make their food is
called photosynthesis.
4) Chemical energy: Some chemical reactions can
produce energy. The food we eat is converted
into energy through chemical reactions.
5) Nuclear energy: Fission of heavy nuclei or
fusion of two smaller nuclei produces huge
amounts of energy. This energy is called
nuclear energy. This energy can be converted
into electrical energy.
 4

Power:
❖ The rate of doing work is “power”.
❖ That is, the one who does the most work in the least amount of time is the most powerful.
❖ P = work/time = w/t
Unit of Power:
❖ The unit of power in the SI system is the watt. (Given in honor of the great scientist James Watt 1736-
1819)
❖ 1 watt = 1 joule/1 second
❖ 1 kilowatt = 1000 watts
❖ Horsepower is the unit used to measure power in the industrial sector.
❖ 1 horsepower = 746 watts
❖ The unit of power for practical use is the kilowatt hour.
❖ 1 kwh = 3.6 x 106 Joule, this is called a unit.
Types of Powers:
❖ In our daily life we observe different types of forces around us. Some of these are common types of
powers
❖ Gravitational force: In general, it is a force that
exists between two bodies due to attraction
due to their mass properties. It is given by:
❖ Electromagnetic Force: It is the force exerted
by two charged particles on each other.
Friction and tension are common examples of
electromagnetic forces.
❖ Nuclear Force: Also known as strong force or
nuclear interaction. Every atom has protons
and neutrons. The nuclear force is responsible
for binding neutrons and protons together in
an atom.
❖ This force is far greater than any of the forces discussed here but its influence is so small that the other
forces mentioned here dominate.
❖ Weak force: Sometimes a neutron changes into a proton and emits an electron and emits a particle
called an antineutrino. This process is called beta decay. Weak forces are responsible for such decays
and interactions. The weak force is actually the force of attraction that acts on a very small range of 0.1
percent of the proton's diameter. The forces responsible for such processes are different from
gravitational, electromagnetic or nuclear forces. Such forces are called weak forces.
 5


 2

गतीचे नियम आनि समीकरिे

INDEX:
❖ Newton's laws of motion
❖ Newton's equations of motion
❖ Acceleration due to gravity
❖ Escape & Critical velocity
❖ Kepler's laws of Planetary Motion

Newton's Laws of Motion

Sir Isaac Newton (25 December 1642 to 20 March 1727)
❖ Isaac Newton was a great experimental physicist as well as a great mathematician. Newton received
the title of 'Sir' in 1705 for his great work.
Galileo -
Inertia - Inertia is the natural tendency of objects in motion to stay in motion and objects at rest to stay at
rest, unless a force causes its velocity to change.
Galileo first formulated the law of inertia for horizontal motion on Earth. He came to this conclusion by
observing balls rolling down inclined planes and noticing that they would continue to move unless friction
or another force caused them to stop.
❖ At rest- An object at rest will remain at rest
❖ Of speed - An object in motion will remain in motion with the same speed and direction
❖ Of direction - Passengers feel a force pushing them away from the center of the curve because they
tend to continue moving in a straight line.
Newton's laws of motion
Newton's First Law of Motion (of Inertia) - Also called as Galileo's law Inertia
❖ If there is no external unbalanced force acting on an object, its state of rest or uniform motion in a
straight line remains constant.'
❖ In short, the first law of motion defines inertia.
❖ All examples of inertia fall under the first law of motion.
❖ if it is in motion, it will remain at the same velocity
❖ Objects with a greater mass have more inertia.
❖ It takes more force to change their motion.
Newton's Second Law of Motion Momentum
Momentum - Total speed of an object
❖ The rate of change of momentum is directly proportional to the applied force and the change of
momentum is in the direction of the force. .
❖ momentum (p) = mass x velocity
❖ P = mv
❖ The unit of momentum in SI system is kg m/s
 3

Newton's second law states the relationship between momentum and force
❖ In cricket the player pulls back his hands while catching the ball. Because it increases the duration of
his arm and ball speed. This reduces the momentum of the ball and reduces the impact on the arm
❖ In the outdoor sport of high jump, the athlete will land on a thick layer of sand such an arrangement is
made. This increases the time the player falls to the ground after jumping.
Law of conservation of momentum -
❖ When two objects are interacting, some external force is acting on them If not, their total momentum
remains constant, it does not change' or
❖ If two objects collide, their total momentum before impact is equal to their total momentum after impact.
❖ This is a corollary of Newton's third law of motion.
Newton's third law of motion (Reaction force)
❖ For every action force there is a simultaneous reaction force of equal magnitude and opposite direction.
❖ This law states that force is a mutual action between two objects.
❖ Since a force never exists independently, the two different forces are called action force and reaction force.
Example
❖ When the bat hits the ball, the ball also exerts an equal reaction force in the opposite direction. A force
applied to the ball causes it to accelerate, while a reaction force applied to the bat decreases the
forward motion of the bat.
❖ When a bullet is fired from a gun, the gun exerts a force on the bullet and thus the bullet acquires a
greater velocity. At the same time the bullet also exerts the same force on the gun in the opposite
direction and the gun moves in the opposite direction at a slower speed.
❖ The principle used for the motion of a rocket is based on Newton's third law. When the fuel in a fire is
ignited, chemical reactions cause it to burn. The hot gasses produced by the combustion are forced out
through a small hole at the tail of the flame. These gasses exert a force of equal magnitude on the fire
arrow in the opposite direction. It is by this reaction force that the fire arrow is launched in the
forward direction.
Newton's Equations of motion
❖ Newton's equations of motion are a set of equations that relate the distance covered, time taken, initial
velocity, final velocity, and acceleration of an object moving in a straight line with uniform
acceleration
u= Initial velocity
t= time
v=Final velocity
a= Acceleration
s=Distance
❖ First equation of motion = v= u+at
❖ To find out velocity of the object during its motion
❖ Second equation of motion = s=ut + ½ at^2
To find out distance travel by object
❖ Third equation of motion = v^2=u^2+2as
To find out final velocity
 4

Acceleration due to gravity

Acceleration - A change in velocity with respect to time
a = v-u / t
u= Initial velocity
v= final velocity
t = Time
❖ Acceleration due to gravity is the acceleration gained by an object due to gravitational force.
❖ Its SI unit is m/s2. It has both magnitude and direction; hence, it’s a vector quantity.
❖ Acceleration due to gravity is represented by g. The standard value of g on the surface of the earth at
sea level is 9.8 m/s.
When acceleration is due to gravity then,
❖ v= u+gt
❖ s=ut + ½ gt^2
❖ v^2=u^2+2gs
Escape Velocity
❖ The minimum speed required to launch an object from the earth's surface in order for it to escape the
earth's pull.
❖ It is depends upon the gravity of planet
Formula
Ve = sqrt((2GM)/R)
Critical velocity
❖ Critical Velocity is the velocity at which a satellite revolves around a planet in a circular orbit.
Kepler's laws of planetary motion
First law
❖ All planets move about the Sun in elliptical orbits, having the Sun as one of the foci.
Second law
❖ A radius vector joining any planet to the Sun sweeps
out equal areas in equal lengths of time.
Kepler's Third Law
❖ The square of the orbital period of a planet is
proportional to the cube of the orbit's semi-major
axis
❖ Kepler's Third Law implies that the period for a
planet to orbit the Sun increases rapidly with the
radius of its orbit.

 2

द्रव्य,पदार्थ अवस्था आणि अवस्थाांतर

Topics to be Covered :
❖ Matter
❖ Solid, liquid, gas and plasma
❖ Elements, compounds, mixtures
1. What is matter?
❖ Every object which has mass and volume is called matter.
❖ Examples: air, water, iron, wood, paper, air, copper etc.
2. Physical States of Matter:
Matter exists in three major states:
1. Solid State
2. Liquid State
3. Gaseous State
Also, in certain conditions, plasma state and Bose-Einstein Condensate (BEC) also exist.

3. Major physical states of matter and their characteristics:

1) Solid State:
Features:
❖ A solid has a definite shape and volume.
❖ Its atoms and molecules are tightly packed and vibrate in one place.
❖ Solids are not compressible.
❖ Their density is high.
Examples: Iron, wood, ice, stone, plastic, copper.
2) Liquid State:
Features:
❖ A liquid has a definite volume, but no definite shape.
❖ They can flow and take the shape of the container in which they are placed.
❖ The particles in it are slightly farther apart, so they are more fluid than solids.
❖ They are slightly compressible.
Examples: Water, milk, oil, mercury, honey.
 3

3) Gaseous State:
Features:
❖ A gaseous substance does not have a definite shape or volume.
❖ The gas spreads throughout the available space.
❖ Its atoms and molecules move freely in all directions.
❖ Gas is highly compressible.
❖ It has low density and high flowability.
Examples: Air, oxygen, hydrogen, nitrogen, carbon dioxide.
4) Plasma State:
Features:
❖ Plasma is an ionized gas phase, where electrons from atoms are separated and ions are formed.
❖ It contains high energy sources of light and heat.
❖ They can conduct electricity.
Examples: Sun, lightning, fluorescent lights, neon lights.
5) Bose-Einstein Condensate - BEC
Features:
❖ It is the coldest state of matter, formed at very low temperatures (close to zero).
❖ Atoms come very close and behave together at the quantum level.
❖ It has very low fluidity and in some places is frictionless (Superfluid).
Examples: Scientists have created this state in hydrogen and other gases.
Elasticity and Plasticity:
Elasticity:
❖ Brittleness is the ability of any material to return to its original shape.
❖ An external force causes a substance to change shape, but it returns to its original state after the force
is removed.
❖ E.g. Rubber band, spring, steel etc.
❖ According to Hooke's law, the ratio of applied stress and strain remains the same within a certain limit.
Plasticity:
❖ If a material permanently assumes a new shape after being subjected to a force, that property is called
plasticity.
❖ E.g. Clay, lead of pencil, gold, silver, copper etc.
❖ Polymer materials have high plasticity.
Viscosity:
❖ Viscosity is the resistance to flow in a liquid or gas due to internal friction.
❖ Liquids of higher viscosity flow slower, while liquids of lower viscosity flow faster.
❖ E.g. Honey, oil, glycerin have higher viscosity, while water and alcohol have lower viscosity.
𝐹
❖ According to Newton's law of concentration: η= 𝑑𝑣
𝐴⋅
𝑑𝑥
 4

❖ here,
η = shyness coefficient,
F = applied force,
A = surface area,
𝑑𝑣
𝑑𝑥
= rate of change of velocity.
❖ As temperature increases, viscosity decreases, meaning hot oil or honey becomes more fluid.
Surface Tension:
❖ Surface tension is the force created by the attraction of
molecules on the surface of a liquid.
❖ This causes liquid droplets to become spherical and small
objects can float on the liquid due to surface tension.
❖ Formula: S = F /L
❖ here,
S= surface tension,
F = force,
L= Length.
❖ Due to surface tension, insects can move easily on water.
❖ Soaps and detergents reduce surface tension, so they aid in cleaning.
Capillary Action:
❖ Capillary action is the movement of fluid through a thin tube against gravity.
❖ This action occurs due to surface tension and adhesion (adhesion) and shrinkage (cohesion).
❖ E.g. Water is pulled up through the roots of plants.
❖ The cotton wick absorbs the oil and provides fuel for the lamp flame.
❖ The water rises in the narrow tube, but the mercury descends, because mercury has a higher
compressive strength and less adhesion.

Major changes in the state of matter:

1) Melting or Fusion :
❖ solid → liquid
❖ When a substance is heated, its molecules gain energy and become more mobile.
❖ Example: Ice melts to form water.
❖ Melting Point: The specific temperature at which a solid turns into a liquid.
❖ Melting point of water = 0°C
❖ Melting point of gold = 1064°C
 5

2) Freezing:
❖ liquid → cube
❖ Cooling a substance reduces its energy, causing the molecules to contract and the liquid to
condense.
❖ Example: Water freezes to form ice.
❖ Freezing Point: The temperature at which a liquid turns into a solid.
❖ Freezing point of water = 0°C
3) Vaporization:
❖ Liquid → Gas
❖ Heating a substance causes its molecules to move faster and change into gaseous form.
❖ Example: When water is boiled it becomes steam.
Two types of vaporization:
❖ Evaporation: A process that takes place at the surface of a liquid (eg drying clothes).
❖ Boiling: The entire liquid turns into steam at once.
❖ Boiling Point: The specific temperature at which a liquid changes into a gas.
❖ Boiling point of water = 100°C
4) Condensation or liquefaction:
❖ Gas → Liquid
❖ When a gas cools, its molecules contract and turn into a liquid.
❖ Example: Vapor in the air cools to form droplets (condensation of glass).
5) Sublimation:
❖ solid → gas (direct, not liquid)
❖ Some substances are directly converted into gases when heated.
❖ Example:
❖ Naphthalene Balls
❖ Dry Ice
6) Deposition:
❖ Gas → Solid (direct, not liquid)
❖ In cold weather the gas condenses directly into solid form.
❖ Example: Ice crystals forming on window glass in winter.
Effect of temperature and pressure:
❖ As temperature increases, the state of matter changes from solid → liquid → gas.
❖ A change of state occurs as gas → liquid → solid as the temperature decreases.
❖ By increasing the pressure: A gas can be converted into a liquid or solid (eg LPG gas).
 6

Molecules, Compounds and Mixtures:

1) Molecules:
❖ Atoms are particles made up of two or more atoms.
❖ These atoms are connected to each other by chemical bonds.
❖ Atoms can exist independently and are the basic building blocks of matter.
Types of Atoms:
Homonuclear Molecules:
❖ Atoms that contain the same type of atoms.
❖ Examples: H₂ (Hydrogen), O₂ (Oxygen), N₂ (Nitrogen).
Heteronuclear Molecules:
❖ Atoms that contain atoms of different elements.
❖ Examples: H₂O (water), CO₂ (carbon dioxide), NH₃ (ammonia).
Properties of Atoms:
❖ Atoms can maintain independent existence.
❖ Atoms have different physical and chemical properties.
❖ That Ionic or Covalent can be

2) Compounds
❖ noYuga means two or more elements of a certain amount by chemical process. A new substance
formed when combined.
❖ The properties of a compound are completely different from those of its constituent elements.
 7

Types of compounds:
covalent Covalent Compounds:
❖ Electrons are shared between atoms.
❖ Examples: H₂O (water), CH₄ (methane), CO₂ (carbon dioxide).
Ionic Compounds:
❖ Formed by the attraction of cations (+ve) and anions (-ve).
❖ Examples: NaCl (Sodium Chloride), KCl (Potassium Chloride).
Characteristics of compounds:
❖ The chemical composition of the compound is fixed.
❖ Compounds have properties different from those of their elements.
❖ Compounds can only be decomposed by chemical processes.
3) Mixtures
❖ A mixture is of two or more substances brought together by physical processes, but their original
chemical structure does not change.
❖ The ingredients in the mixture may be in different proportions.
Types of Mixtures:
Homogeneous Mixture:
❖ The mixture looks homogeneous and all its parts are equal.
❖ Examples: Sugar Water, Air, Alloys of Iron and Copper.
Heterogeneous Mixture:
❖ Particles of different substances are clearly visible in the mixture.
❖ Examples: Sand and salt, oil and water, blood.
Features of the mixture:
❖ The components of the mixture remain in their original
form.
❖ Mixtures can be separated by physical methods.
❖ The properties of a mixture depend on its constituents.
Methods of separation of mixtures:
❖ Filtration: Separation of liquid and insoluble components
(eg straining tea).
❖ Crystallization: Separation of dissolved substances (eg extracting salt from sea water).
❖ Gravitational Method (Sedimentation & Decantation): Separation of heavy and light components
(eg distilled water).
❖ Distillation: Separation of liquids based on difference in boiling point (eg, brewing).

 2

अणू संरचना आणण समस्थाणनके भाग 1

INDEX:
❖ Atomic structure
❖ Atomic theory
❖ Atomic number, atomic mass and atomic radius
Atomic Structure:
Atomic:
❖ Atoms are microscopic structures found in all matter.
❖ The smallest particle of a chemical element is called an atom.
❖ The concept that matter is made up of microscopic particles
(atoms) was proposed by the ancient Indian scientist Kanada.
❖ Atoms are made up of tiny particles called subatomic particles:
electrons, protons, and neutrons. Most of the mass of an atom is
concentrated in the nucleus.
➢ Electron: A negatively charged particle
➢ Proton: A charged particle
➢ Neutron: neutral particle, particle with no charge.
Scientists who research atoms for:
Ancient times:
Maharshi Kanad: (600 BC)
❖ Said that matter is made up of very small particles.
❖ He named it 'atom'.
Democritus:
❖ Theorized in 430 BC.
❖ He said that all matter is made up of very small particles.
❖ He named those particles as 'atoms'.
In modern times:
John Dalton:
❖ English chemist John Dalton suggested that all matter is made up of atoms, which are indivisible and
indestructible. He also stated that all atoms of an element are exactly the same, but atoms of different
elements differ in size and mass.
❖ According to Dalton's atomic theory, chemical reactions involve the rearrangement of atoms to form
products. According to the postulates proposed by Dalton, the atomic structure consists of atoms, the
smallest particles responsible for chemical reactions to occur.
❖ Theorized in 1808.
❖ All matter is made up of tiny particles, called atoms.
❖ An atom cannot be created and cannot be destroyed.
❖ An atom is a solid ball.
❖ Known for his introduction of molecular theory to chemistry and his work on human optics.
 3

J. J. Thomson:
❖ English chemist Sir Joseph John Thomson proposed a model describing atomic structure in the early
1900s.
❖ He was later awarded the Nobel Prize for the discovery of the "electron". His work is based on an
experiment called the cathode ray experiment.
❖ In 1867, this scientist proposed the atomic theory.
❖ He discovered the particle inside the atom, so he is called the first person to meet the atom.
❖ He likened the atom to a 'Kalingada', in which the red part represents positive charge, while the black
seeds represent negative charge.
❖ Said that positive charge is spread everywhere and negative charge is scattered in it.
❖ Thomson researched the conduction of electric current through gases at very low pressure.
❖ At that time there was disagreement in scientific circles regarding cathode rays.
❖ Some scientists believed that cathode rays were composed of negatively charged particles; Some
scientists were saying strongly that cathode rays are electromagnetic waves.
❖ To resolve this disagreement, Thomson asked John S. Townsend and Harold A. Wilson to experiment
with the help of his fellow researchers.
❖ Thomson concluded that the negatively charged particles emitted from the cathode must be
fundamental particles in the atoms of matter.
❖ This is how the electron, the fundamental particle in the atom, was discovered. Thomson also
discovered many important properties of the electron.
❖ JJ Thomson's experiments on cathode ray tubes showed that all atoms contain small negatively
charged subatomic particles or electrons.
❖ Thomson proposed the plum pudding model of the atom, in which negatively charged electrons were
embedded in a positively charged "soup".
❖ Disadvantages: Positive charge is spread all over the atom and negative charge is scattered in it.
Thomson was wrong to say this.

Rutherford (Ernest Rutherford):

❖ Rutherford, a student of JJ Thomson, changed the atomic structure by discovering another subatomic
particle called the “nucleus”. His atomic model is based on alpha ray scattering experiments.
❖ In 1911 he presented the theory.
❖ He likened the atom to the solar system. In it Sun is the nucleus and planet is the election.
❖ An atom is hollow.
❖ The center of an atom is called the nucleus.
❖ All the mass of an atom is contained in the nucleus.
❖ Electrons move in a circular path outside the atom.
 4

❖ In 1911, the nuclear model of the atom was proposed.

❖ Rutherford hit a very thin sheet of gold (∝) with alpha particles. This
symbol (∝) is called alpha.
❖ That is, Rutherford hit a thin sheet of gold with positively charged
alpha particles (∝) emitted from radioactive elements and observed
the path of the particles. They then noticed that alpha particles
(∝) passed through the gold foil even with a fluorescent screen
around it.
❖ They thought that alpha rays would be reflected by falling on the screen.
❖ But these alpha particles passed through the membrane. Some of these particles went straight through
the sheet while some alpha particles deviated from the original path at small angles. Whereas some
alpha particles (∝) were deflected by large angles.
❖ And surprisingly, out of 20000 particles, one alpha (∝) particle bounced in the opposite direction of
the original path.
❖ After this observation, Rutherford noticed that a large number of alpha particles passed through the
membrane.
❖ That is, there was no obstacle in the path of those particles. This would mean that much of the space
within the atoms in the stable gold sheet must be free, obstructing the path of the few alpha particles
that were deflected by small or large angles.
❖ This meant that the charged and heavy part of the atom was in the center of the atom.
❖ Disadvantages: Rutherford could not say that the electron moves in a certain orbit.
Niels Bohr:
❖ Neill Bohr presented his model of the atom in 1915. It is the most widely used atomic model to
describe the atomic structure of an element based on Planck's quantization theory.
❖ This scientist discovered orbits.
❖ He said that electrons move in a fixed orbit with a certain energy and at a certain speed.
❖ Between the two orbits of Anu is a hollow space, in which election can never reside. This means
electrons will be found only in orbit.
❖ named these orbitals as K, L, M, N in ascending order of energy level.
❖ Electron holding capacity in each orbital is different and fixed.
❖ He gave 2n^2 formula to fill electrons in the orbital.
❖ He gave 2n^2 formula to fill Electrons in Orbital. Orbital = 2n^2 (n = Number of Orbital)
 5

James Chadwick:
❖ James Chadwick is most notable for his discovery of the neutron in the atom and his seminal
contributions to atomic theory.
❖ While experimenting with other scientists, Chadwick discovered a neutrally charged subatomic
particle that was neither positively charged nor negatively charged. Chadwick then measured the mass
of the neutron and determined it to be the same mass as the proton.
❖ Chadwick's discovery greatly contributed to James Chadwick's atomic theory and showed the neutron
characteristic of the atomic nucleus and its extra mass. Further, neutrons describe the unpredictable
spin values of the electrons in the nucleus of which they are enveloped.
James Chadwick Atomic Model:
❖ James Chadwick's contribution to the atomic model was the discovery of the neutron. A neutron is a
neutrally charged subatomic particle with a mass approximately equal to that of a proton. The nucleus
of an atom is occupied by both protons and neutrons, which are positively and negatively charged,
respectively. Chadwick was able to detect the neutron and calculate its mass.
Properties of Atoms:
Atomic Number:
❖ The number of protons or electrons in an atom is called atomic number.
❖ Atomic number is denoted by the letter 'Z'.
❖ E.g. A carbon atom has 6 protons and 6 electrons. So the atomic number (Z) of Carbon is 6.
Atomic mass number:
❖ The combined mass of the particles in an atom is the atomic mass.
❖ An atom consists of Protons, Neutrons & Electrons. But the mass of electrons is very less so while
calculating the mass of atoms only the mass of Protons and Neutrons is assumed.
❖ The total number of protons and neutrons in an atom is the atomic mass.
❖ Atomic masses are denoted by the letter 'A'.
❖ E.g. An atom of carbon has 6 protons and 6 neutrons, so the atomic
number (A) of carbon is 6+6 = 12.
Radius of an atomic orbital:
❖ The distance between the nucleus and the orbit of an atom is called the
radius.
❖ The orbital radius of each atom is different.
 6

Properties of subatomic particles:

Protons:
❖ Protons and Neutrons together make up the nucleus of an atom and hence are called nucleons. Some
important points regarding the discovery and properties of protons are listed below.
❖ Protons are positively charged subatomic particles.
❖ The number of protons in an atom is equal to the number of electrons in it.
❖ The discovery of protons is credited to Ernest Rutherford.
❖ Protons can be produced via the removal of an electron from a hydrogen atom.
❖ The mass of a proton is 1.676 × 10−24 grams.
❖ The charge of a proton is +1.602 × 10−19 Coulombs.
Electrons:
❖ Electrons are subatomic particles that revolve around the nucleus of an atom. Ions can be formed
either by the loss or gain of electrons. Electrons of different atoms come together to participate in
chemical bonding. A few points detailing the discovery and the properties of electrons are listed below.
❖ Electrons are negatively charged subatomic particles.
❖ An equal number of electrons and protons are found in the atoms of all elements.
❖ J. J. Thomson is credited with the discovery of electrons since he was the first person to accurately
calculate the mass and the charge of an electron.
❖ The mass of an electron is negligible when compared to the mass of a proton. It is found to have a mass
equal to (1/1837) times the mass of a proton.
❖ The charge of an electron is equal to -1.602 × 10−19 Coulombs.
Neutrons:
❖ Neutrons, along with protons, make up the nucleons. Neutrons are named for their neutral nature –
unlike protons and electrons, they do not carry any charge. The discovery and general properties of
neutrons are discussed below.
❖ Neutrons are neutrally charged subatomic particles.
❖ The masses of two different isotopes of an element vary due to the difference in the number of
neutrons in their respective nuclei.
❖ The neutron was discovered by James Chadwick in 1932.
❖ They were discovered in an experiment wherein a thin sheet of beryllium was bombarded with alpha
particles.
❖ The mass of a neutron is 1.676× 10−24 grams.

 2

अणू संरचना आणण समस्थाणनके भाग 2

INDEX:
❖ Electron Configuration
❖ Subshells
❖ Isotopes
❖ Isobars
❖ Isotones
Electron Configuration:
❖ The electron configuration of an element describes how the electrons are distributed in its atomic
orbitals. The electron configurations of atoms follow a standard notation in which all electron-rich
atomic subshells (with the number of electrons written in superscript) are placed in a sequence.
❖ For example, the electron configuration of sodium is 1s 2 2s 2 2p 6 3s 1 .
Shell / Orbit :
❖ The maximum number of electrons a shell can accommodate is based on the principal quantum
number (n).
❖ This formula is denoted by 2n 2 , where 'n' is the shell number. The values of shell, n and the total
number of electrons that can be accommodated are tabulated below.
Subshells:
❖ Each orbital has four suborbitals and denoted by symbols s, p, d, f respectively.
❖ A suborbital in each orbit is denoted by the azimuthal quantum number l.
❖ Accordingly l = 0 for s suborbital, l = 2 for d suborbital, l = 3 for f suborbital.
Main Orbit Number of subshells Symbol of subshell
K 1 1s

L 2 2s ,2p

M 3 3s, 3p , 3d

N 4 4s ,4p,4d, 4f

Maximum number of electrons in a given subshell = 2(2l + 1) :

❖ S suborbital (l -0)= 2 electrons
❖ p suborbital (l = 1) = 6 electrons
❖ d suborbital (l = 2) = 10 electrons
❖ f suborbital (l = 3 ) = 14 electrons
 3

Rules of Electron Configuration

1. Aufbau principle :
❖ An electron occupies the lowest energy orbital that can receive it.
❖ This principle is named after the German word ‘Aufbeen’ which means ‘build up’.
❖ The Aufbau principle dictates that electrons will occupy the orbitals having lower energies before
occupying higher energy orbitals.
❖ The energy of an orbital is calculated by the sum of the principal and the azimuthal quantum numbers.
❖ According to this principle, electrons are filled in the following order: 1s, 2s, 2p, 3s, 3p, 4s, 3d, 4p,
5s, 4d, 5p, 6s, 4f, 5d, 6p, 7s, 5f, 6d, 7p…
2. Pauli exclusion principle :
❖ No two electrons in the same atom can have the same four quantum numbers.
❖ The Pauli exclusion principle states that a maximum of two electrons, each having opposite spins,
can fit in an orbital.
❖ This principle can also be stated as “no two electrons in the same atom have the same values for
all four quantum numbers”.
❖ Therefore, if the principal, azimuthal, and magnetic numbers are the same for two electrons, they
must have opposite spins.
3. Hund's rule :
❖ Orbitals of equal energy are each occupied by one electron before any orbital is occupied by a
second electron and all electrons in singly occupied orbitals must have the same spin state.
❖ This rule describes the order in which electrons are filled in all the orbitals belonging to a
subshell.
❖ It states that every orbital in a given subshell is singly occupied by electrons before a second
electron is filled in an orbital.
❖ In order to maximize the total spin, the electrons in the orbitals that only contain one electron all
have the same spin (or the same values of the spin quantum number).
Subshell Energy
❖ For atoms with more than one electron, electron-electron repulsion causes different
subshells within the same shell to have different energies.
Within the same shell: s < p < d < f
Electron Transitions :
 4

H=1 O = 2, 6 P = 2,8, 5

He = 2 F = 2, 7 S = 2, 8, 6

Li = 2,1 Ne = 2, 8 Cl = 2, 8, 7

Be = 2 ,2 Na = 2, 8, 1 Ar = 2, 8, 8

B = 2,3 Mg = 2, 8, 2 K = 2, 8,8, 1

C = 2, 5 Al = 2, 8, 3 Ca = 2, 8, 8, 2

N = 2, 5 Si = 2, 8, 4
Valency:
❖ The bonding ability of an atom is known as its valency. The number of bonds an atom can form as part
of a compound is expressed by the valency of the element
❖ We all know how electrons in an atom are arranged in shells/orbitals. Valence electrons are electrons
that are in the outermost shell of an atom. From the Bohr scheme, we can say that the outermost shell
can have a maximum of 8 electrons.
❖ When the outermost shell is completely filled, only little chemical activity is observed. We can also say
that its cumulative potential becomes zero.
Isotopes:
❖ Atoms with the same number of protons but different numbers of neutrons are called isotopes. The
atomic number of an atom is the number of protons in that atom. The number of protons in a chemical
element is fixed. Consequently, atoms of the same chemical element have the same atomic number. So
isotopes are atoms of the same chemical element. Atomic mass is the total number of protons and
neutrons. Isotopes have different atomic masses.
❖ Atoms with the same atomic number but different atomic masses are called isotopes.
ZA Symbol
1) Isotopes of Hydrogen:
❖ 11H = Protium / Hydrogen, 12H = Deuterium, 13H = Pretium
Usage:
1) Deuterium oxide (heavy water) is used for heat control in reactors.
2) A nuclear fusion reaction between two deuterium atoms occurs on the surface of the Sun, producing
enormous amounts of energy.
2) Isotopes of Carbon:
❖ Carbon-12, Carbon-13, Carbon-14
Usage:
1) Discovery of carbon-14 isotope etc. S. Planted in 1940 by Martin and Ruben. These are also called
radioactive isotopes.
2) The use of carbon-14 for carbon dating (chronology of organic matter) was discovered by scientist
Willard Libby et al. S. Planted in 1949.
3) 99% carbon-12 and only 1% carbon-13 and carbon-14 isotopes are found on earth.
4) Carbon 14 isotope is formed by the process of nitrogen and cosmic rays on earth.
5) Carbon-14 has a half life period of approximately 5730 years.
 5

3) Isotopes of Oxygen:
❖ Oxygen-16, Oxygen-17, Oxygen-18
Usage:
1) Oxygen 16 is the most abundant isotope in nature and is used by all living organisms for respiration
and combustion processes.
2) Oxygen 16, 17 and 18 are stable isotopes and 12 to 24 are radioactive and unstable.
3) Oxygen 17 is formed from the combustion of isotopes of hydrogen and helium.
4) Oxygen 18 is formed from the fusion of nuclei of isotope nitrogen and helium.
5) Earth's atmosphere contains 99.8% oxygen-16, 0.04% oxygen-17 and 0.2% oxygen-18,
4) Isotopes of phosphorus
❖ Phosphorus 31, Phosphorus 32
Usage:
1) Phosphorus-31 is used to detect cancerous tumors.
2) Phosphorus-31 is used in medicine, biochemistry and molecular biology to detect phosphorylated
molecules.
3) Phosphorus 31 is used for ovarian cancer chemotherapy.
4) Phosphorus-32 is used in botany to detect use in plants (fertilizers).
5) Isotopes of Chlorine:
❖ Chlorine-35, Chlorine-36, Chlorine-37
Usage:
1) Chlorine has a total of 24 isotopes, the major isotopes being chlorine-35 and chlorine-37. Of these, 76
percent is chlorine-35 and 24 percent is chlorine-37 on Earth.
2) Chlorine-36 is used for battery dating as well as geology, weather forecasting etc. happens for
6) Isotopes of Cobalt :
❖ Cobalt-57, Cobalt-59, Cobalt-60
Usage:
1) Cobalt is a radioactive isotope and has a total of 28 isotopes.
2) Cobalt-60 is used in radiotherapy for cancer treatment.
3) Cobalt-57 is used in clinical tests as well as to record the absorption of vitamin B-12.
4) Cobalt-60 is used to generate gamma rays.
5) Cobalt-60 is used to solidify medical waste, cold pasteurization of food, and radiography in factories.
(To measure the composition and density of metals)
7) Isotopes of Iodine :
❖ Iodine-123, Iodine-127, Iodine-124, Iodine-131 Iodine-125, Iodine-135
Usage:
1) Iodine has 37 isotopes of which iodine-123, iodine-124, iodine-125 and iodine-131 are called radioiodines.
2) Iodine 131 is used in the treatment of goitre of the thyroid gland to destroy dysfunctional tissue in
goitre cancer. Because iodine-131 contains a radiopharmaceutical called MIBG.
3) Iodine (12.5) is used in radio therapy for thyroid and prostate cancer.
4) Iodine 135 is used as a moderator in nuclear reactors.
5) Iodine-131 is also known as beta ray emitting isotope.
8) Isotopes of Uranium:
❖ Uranium-234, Uranium-235, Uranium-238
 6

Usage:
1) Uranium is a radioactive isotope.
2) Uranium isotopes produce alpha, beta and gamma particles.
3) Uranium-238 has a half-life of 4.5 billion years while uranium-235 has a mean lifetime of 704 million
years. Hence they are used in Earth life measurement/dating.
4) Uranium 235 is used to produce nuclear energy in a chain reaction in a nuclear reactor.
5) Uranium (238) is used to make atomic bombs through uncontrolled chain reactions.
6) Uranium-235 is used as a nuclear weapon.
Uses of Other Isotopes:
1. Sodium 24: Used to measure blood circulation, detect blood cancer and blood clots.
2. Ion 59: Anemia is used to diagnose this disease.
3. Strontium 90: Used to treat skin cancer.
4. Thallium 201: For heart muscle dysfunction as well as cancer diagnosis
5. Technetium 99: To diagnose brain cancer
6. Californium 252 to determine soil moisture content
8. Chromium 51: To measure intestinal protein breakdown and to target red blood cells
7. Americium 241: In smoke detectors
9. Copper 64 For the study of genetic disorders (with respect to copper metabolism) such as Wilson and
Menkes.
10. Holmium 166: for liver cancer diagnosis and treatment
11. Potassium 42: To determine the level of potassium in the blood
12. Venium 186: As an analgesic in bone cancers
13. Ponium 188: For generation of beta particles in balloons used for angioplasty
14. Selenium 75: To study digestive disorders
15. Etterbium 169 for the study of cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) in the brain
Isobars :
❖ "Elements with different atomic numbers but the same atomic mass are known as Isobars."
❖ Isometric elements have different numbers of protons, electrons and neutrons.
❖ Equivalents have different physical and chemical properties.
Eg. Argon, Potassium, Calcium , Cobalt, Nickel
Isotones :
❖ Elements with different atomic numbers and different masses but the same number of neutrons are
called isoneutrons. In an isoneutron element, the number of protons and electrons is different while
the number of neutrons is the same.
❖ Sumneutrons have different physical and chemical properties.
E.g. Phosphorus, silicon, chromium
Isoelectronics:
❖ Ions of different elements having the same number of electrons are called isoelectronic.
Examples of isoelectronic series:
❖ N3-, O2-, F-, Ne, Na+, Mg2+, Al3+
❖ Se2-, Br-, Kr, Rb+, Sr2+, Y3+
❖ Cr, Fe2+, and Co3+

 2

मूलद्रव्यांचे वर्गीकरण आणण आवर्तसयरणी भयर्ग 1

INDEX:
❖ Classification of elements
❖ Doberrainer's Trilogy
❖ Newlands Octave Mendeleev's Periodic Table
❖ Mosley's Modern Periodic Table
Classification of Elements:
Dobrainer's Trio:
❖ Dobreiner in 1817 explained the relationship between the properties of elements and their atomic
masses. Dobreiner grouped three elements each with similar chemical properties and named them
triads.
❖ The first attempt to classify the elements was made by Dobereiner in 1829.
❖ He formed three groups of three elements with similar properties and called those groups triads.
❖ Each of these had three elements in one group i.e. 'Trikat'. He arranged the three elements in a Trika in
ascending order of atomic mass. and showed that the atomic mass of the middle element is
approximately the average of the atomic masses of the other two elements.
❖ But not all known elements could be classified into Dobrainer's triad.
❖ In the first triad, Dobrainer has taken the three elements lithium (Li), sodium (Na) and potassium (k).
❖ Arranged them in ascending order of atomic mass.
Limitations of Doberrainer's tricuspid:
❖ Not all elements known at that time could be classified into triads.
❖ Only four triads were mentioned - (Li, Na, K), (Ca, Sr, Ba), (Cl, Br, I), (S, Se, Te).
Octave of Newlands:
❖ John Newlands, in 1866, arranged all the elements he knew in ascending order of atomic mass.
❖ This arrangement started with the lightest element, hydrogen. And finally Thorium. When Newlands
defended this arrangement, he found that every eighth element had the same properties as the first
element.
❖ For example, sodium (Na) is the eighth element from
lithium (Li) in the same arrangement and their properties
are similar. Cech Magnesium (Mg) is also the eighth
element from beryllium (Be) and both have similar
properties. Also, chlorine (cl) is the eighth element from
fluorine (f) in Newland's octave arrangement and their
properties are also similar.
❖ Hence John Newlands called the similarity observed in the
properties of the eighth and first elements as the Law of Octaves.
❖ A study of Newlands' arrangement of these octaves revealed many errors.
❖ In the formulation, this rule applied only to calcium.
❖ Newlands arranged all known elements into a 7 x 8 grid of 56 elements.
❖ To include all the elements in the table, he placed two elements in one place.
❖ For example, the elements cobalt (Co) and nickel (Ni), cesium (Ce) and lanthanum (La) are paired in
the same unit as shown in the figure.
❖ Newland's law states that when elements are arranged in order of increasing atomic mass, the
properties of two elements separated by seven elements will have the same periodicity.
 3

Limitations of Newland's octaves:

❖ Newland's classification of elements by octaves is only for calcium.
❖ The discovery of noble gasses added to the limitations of this method as they could not be
incorporated without completely disrupting the system.
Mendeleev's Periodic Table:
❖ In 1869, Mendeleev first presented the periodic table in its modern form.
❖ Mendeleev arranged the elements in ascending order of their atomic mass. Mendeleev then began
arranging the elements in horizontal rows.
❖ He formulated this as a recursive rule.
Recurring rules:
❖ The properties of elements are a product of their atomic weight.
❖ Mendeleev's periodic table has a total of 8 numbers and 7
periods.
❖ Mendeleev left some blank spaces in the periodic table,
according to which Mendeleev predicted the three elements
ica-boron, ica-aluminum and eka-silicon.
❖ Further in the modern periodic table, they were discovered
respectively as scandium (eca-boron), gallium (eca-aluminum) and germanium (eca-silicon).
❖ Mendeleev studied the relationship between the atomic masses of the elements and their physical and
chemical properties.
❖ At that time 63 elements were known.
❖ These elements were arranged on the basis of their properties, atomic mass and similarities in their
chemical properties.
❖ In chemical properties, he focused on the hydrogen and oxygen compounds of the elements.
❖ When the elements are arranged in ascending order of their atomic mass, the properties appear to
repeat themselves at regular intervals. This led to Mendeleev's periodic theory.
❖ When the elements are arranged in a vertical column in ascending order of atomic mass, elements
with similar properties come below one to form groups. In this arrangement, the physical and
chemical properties of the elements in the vertical columns are similar.
❖ If it finds another element that is similar to the one previously placed, it places it below the first
element in a new row.
❖ Mendeleev wanted such a table to highlight periodic trends in the properties of the elements.
❖ As new elements were added over time, the structure of Mendeleev's original table was increasingly
modified.
❖ Although Mendeleev's periodic table was successful in arranging the elements known at the time, over
time, some errors in it came to light. E.g. Isotopes of the same element with different atomic masses
will occupy different positions in Mendeleev's periodic table.
Periodic Classification of Elements Properties:
❖ The elongated periodic table has a total of 18 vertical columns and 18 groups.
❖ These groups are numbered 1 to 18 from left.
❖ The elongated periodic table has seven horizontal rows called periods. Thus, the long-form periodic
table has seven periods.
❖ Elements of groups 1, 2 and 13 to 17 are called main group elements. They are also called typical or
representative or common factors.
❖ Elements of groups 3 to 12 are called transition elements.
❖ Elements with atomic numbers 58 to 71 (Ce to Lu) occurring after lanthanum (La) are called
lanthanides. Elements with atomic numbers 90 to 103 (Th to Lw) are called actinides. These factors
are also called F-block factors and internal transition factors.
 4

Mosley's Modern Periodic Table:

❖ In 1913, the English physicist Henry Moseley studied the wavelengths of characteristic X-rays using
various metals as anti-cathodes and showed that the square root of the line frequency is related to the
atomic number. Based on the above observations, Mosley gave the modern periodic law. The physical
and chemical properties of elements are periodic functions of their atomic numbers
❖ The modern periodic table was proposed by the researcher 'Moseley'.
❖ Principle: The physical and chemical properties of elements are a recurring product of their atomic
number. Mosley arranged the elements according to their ascending atomic number.
Features of Modern Periodic Table:
❖ The modern periodic table of elements has seven periods.
❖ The first cycle is the smallest and contains only two elements.
❖ The second and third rotations are called minor rotations. And each cycle has 8 elements.
❖ The fourth and fifth cycles contain 18 elements each and are called long cycles.
❖ The sixth cycle is the longest and contains a total of 32 elements with a range of 14 transitional
elements. The 14 elements are called serial numbers 58 to 71 (Ce to Lu).
❖ The seventh cycle is incomplete and contains a series of 14 transitional elements. The 14 elements are
called elements with serial numbers 90 to 103 (Th to Lr).
❖ Each cycle begins with alkali metal and ends with inert air.
❖ An element's position in the table is related to its electron configuration.
❖ Each cycle begins with a new cycle and ends with a fully filled cycle in zero count.
❖ The modern periodic table has 7 periods and 18 numbers. (count-vertical lines)
❖ The atomic number of an element is equal to the number of electrons in the outermost orbital of the atom.
❖ The first iteration is the shortest. (2 elements)
❖ The second and third are short revisions. (8 elements each)
❖ Fourth and fifth are long cycles. (18 elements each)
❖ The 6th cycle is the longest cycle. (32 elements)
❖ 7th revision is incomplete.
❖ Division of the modern periodic table into four sections S, P, D and F based on the electron
configuration of the elements.
❖ Common elements – elements in the S and P blocks. (Except 18th Gana.)
❖ Contains 14 elements each in the lanthanide and actinide series.

 2

मूलद्रव्यांचे वर्गीकरण आणण आवर्तसयरणी भयर्ग 2

Modern Recurrence Rules :
❖ When Mendeleev presented the periodic table, the scientific world did not know about the inner
workings of the atom. After the discovery of the electron, scientists began to observe the relationship
between the number of electrons in an atom and its atomic number.
❖ In Mendeleev's periodic table, the atomic number was simply the ordinal number of the elements. In 1913,
experiments by English scientist Henry Moseley using an X-ray tube showed that the atomic number (Z) of
an element is the positive charge on the nucleus of that element, or its number of protons.
❖ Moseley experimentally determined the atomic numbers of many elements. Therefore, it was realized
that 'atomic number' is a more fundamental property of elements than atomic mass. Accordingly, the
modern periodic law was proposed by modifying Mendeleev's periodic law, which is as follows.
❖ Properties of elements are a periodic function of their atomic numbers.
Modern Periodic Table: Long form of periodic table:
❖ The classification of elements obtained by arranging them in ascending order of their atomic numbers
is called the 'modern periodic table'. The modern periodic table, which is based on atomic numbers,
allows for more accurate predictions of the properties of elements.
❖ The modern periodic table is also called the extended form of the periodic table.
❖ In the modern periodic table, elements are arranged according to their atomic number (Z). As a result,
many of the errors in Mendeleev's periodic table appear to have disappeared in the modern periodic table.
❖ However, doubts about the position of hydrogen do not disappear even in the modern periodic table.
❖ The electron configuration of an atom is determined by the way the electrons are distributed in the
shells around the nucleus, and the total number of electrons in an atom is equal to the atomic number.
❖ The relationship between an element's atomic number and its electron configuration is clearly visible
in the modern periodic table.
Structure of the modern periodic table:
❖ The modern periodic table has seven horizontal rows, representing periods 1 to 7. There are also
eighteen vertical columns in this table, representing elements 1 to 18.
❖ The structure of the periodic table and the group are formed into squares. These squares have atomic
numbers indicated by lines at the top. Each square is the location of one element.
❖ In addition to the seven rows, two more rows are shown separately at the bottom of the periodic table.
They are called the lanthanide row and the actinide row, respectively.
❖ There are 118 squares in the periodic table, including two rows. This means that there are spaces for
118 elements in the modern periodic table. In more recent times, the creation of some elements has
been experimentally proven, so the periodic table is now completely filled and all 118 elements have
now been discovered.
❖ The entire periodic table is divided into four sections: S-section, P-section, D-section, and F-section.
❖ The s-block contains the groups 1 and 2.
❖ The groups 13 to 18 constitute the p-block.
❖ The groups 3 to 12 constitute the d-block, while the lanthanide and actinide series at the bottom form
the f-block.
❖ The d-block elements are called transition elements.
❖ A zig-zag line can be drawn in the p-block of the periodic table.
❖ The three traditional types of elements can be clearly shown in the modern periodic table with the
help of this zig-zag line.
❖ The metalloid elements lie along the border of this zig-zag line.
❖ All the metals lie on the left side of the zig-zag line while all the nonmetals lie on the right side.
 3

Modern Periodic Table: Electron Configuration of Elements:

❖ There is little difference in the properties of elements that are adjacent to each other in a period, but
there is a large difference in the properties of elements that are far apart.
❖ Similarities and gradations are observed in the chemical properties of elements in a group. These
characteristics of groups and periods in the modern periodic table are due to the electron
configurations of the elements.
❖ The group and period in which an element is placed in the modern periodic table is determined by its
electron configuration.
❖ Characteristics of groups and periods The characteristics of groups and periods in the periodic table
are understood by comparing the properties of elements.
❖ All the elements in a particular group have similar and similar properties. However, as you move from
one end to the other (i.e. from left to right) in a particular period, the properties of the elements
gradually change.
Number and Electron Configuration:
❖ All the elements in Group 1, i.e. the alkali metals, have the same number of valence electrons. Also, if
you look at the elements in any other group, you will see that their number of valence electrons is the
same. For example, beryllium (Be), magnesium (Mg) and calcium (Ca) are in Group 2, i.e. the alkaline
earth metals. They have two electrons in their outermost shell. Similarly, elements in Group 17, i.e. the
halogen group, such as fluorine (F) and chlorine (Cl), have seven electrons in their outermost shell.
❖ As we move down a group, each electron shell increases. From this, we can say that the electron
configuration of the outermost shell is characteristic of that group in the modern periodic table.
However, as we move down a group, the number of shells increases.
❖ All elements after uranium with atomic number 92 (atomic numbers 93 to 118) are man-made. All of
these elements are radioactive and transient, with very short half-lives.
In the modern periodic table……
1. The elements are arranged in order of their ascending atomic number.
2. Vertical columns are called groups. There are 18 groups in total. The chemical properties of elements
in a group are similar and tend to be similar.
3. Horizontal rows are called periods.
❖ There are 7 periods.
❖ The properties of elements change slowly from one end to the other in a period.
 4

Periodicity and electron configuration:

❖ You will see that the number of valence electrons in
these elements is different, but the number of shells in
them is the same. You will also see that as the atomic
number increases by one as you go from left to right in
the period, the number of valence electrons also
increases by one.
❖ We can say that elements that have the same number
of shells containing electrons are in the same period.
❖ The elements Li, Be, B, C, N, O, F and Ne in the second
period have electrons in two shells, K and L.
❖ The elements Na, Mg, Al, Si, P, S, Cl and Ar in the third period have electrons in three shells K, L and M.
❖ In a period of the modern periodic table, electrons fill the outermost shell as you move from left to
right. A new electron shell begins to fill as you move to the next period.
❖ According to the electron density of the shell, there are 2 elements in the first period and 8 elements in
the second period.
❖ According to the electron octet rule, the third period also has 8 elements. In the following periods,
there are some more elements that control the electron-filling.
❖ The chemical reactivity of an element is determined by the number of valence electrons it has and its
valence shell.
❖ Both of these aspects are known from the element's location in the modern periodic table (in which
group and in which period). Therefore, the modern periodic table is very useful in the study of
elements.
कवच n 2n2 इलेक्ट्रॉन धयरकर्य
K 1 2x12 2
L 2 2x22 8
M 3 2x32 18
N 4 2x42 32

Recurrence trend in the modern periodic table:

❖ When comparing the properties of elements in a period or group of the modern periodic table, some
regularity is observed in the changes that occur between them. This is called the periodic trend in the
modern periodic table.
Valency:
❖ The valence of an element is determined by the number of electrons in the outermost shell of an atom,
that is, the number of valence electrons.
Atomic size :
❖ We have seen in previous classes that volume is a fundamental property of matter. The volume of an
atom is expressed by its radius. The atomic radius is the distance between the nucleus and the
outermost shell.
❖ The picometer (pm), which is even smaller than a nanometer, is used to express atomic radius (1 pm =
10 -12 m).
 5

❖ The atomic radius decreases as we move from left to right in a period. The reason behind this is as
follows.
➢ As you move from left to right in a period, the atomic number increases by one, meaning the
positive charge on the nucleus increases by one unit. However, the additional electrons are
concentrated in the outermost shell. Due to the increased nuclear positive charge, the electrons
are more attracted to the nucleus, and the size of the atom decreases.
Metal-Non-Metal Properties:
❖ In the periodic table, a wavy line separates metals from nonmetals. The elements are arranged in this
way: metals on the left side of this line, nonmetals on the right, and metalloids along the edges of the
line.
❖ The chemical formulas of simple ionic compounds show that the cation in them is made of a metal and
the anion is made of a non-metal. This shows that the tendency of metal atoms to lose their valence
electrons and become cations is called the electronegativity of the element.
❖ On the contrary, atoms of non-metals tend to accept electrons from outside into the valence shell and
become negative ions. We have already seen that ions have the permanent electron configuration of
noble gases. How is the ability of an atom to lose electrons from the valence shell or to accept electrons
into the valence shell determined?
❖ All the electrons in any atom are held in the atom by the attractive force exerted on them by the
positively charged nucleus. The electrons in the inner shells are between the electrons in the valence
shell and the nucleus. Therefore, the resulting nuclear charge exerting an attractive force on the
valence electrons is slightly less than the original nuclear charge.
❖ The number of valence electrons present in metals is low (1 to 3). The resulting nuclear charge exerted
on these valence electrons is also low. As a result of both these factors combined, metals tend to lose
their valence electrons and form cations with a stable noble gas configuration. This tendency or
electronegativity of elements is called the metallic property of that element.

Trends in the halogen family :

❖ The halogen family is in group 17. All have the general molecular
formula X 2 .
❖ As you go down the list, you see a gradient in their physical states.
Fluorine (F 2 ) and chlorine (Cl 2 ) are gases, bromine (Br 2 ) is a liquid,
and iodine (I 2 ) is a solid.
 6

Properties Across the period (left to right) Down the group (top to bottom)
Atomic size Decreases Increases
No. of valence
Increases Remains same
electrons
Metallic character Decreases Increases
Non-metallic
Increases Decreases
character
Electron affinity Increases Decreases
Electronegativity Increases Decreases
lonisation energy Increases Decreases
Basic Basic nature of
Decreases Increases
oxides
Decreases in Groups I and II
Increases from Group I to Group IV
Melting point Decreases in Groups III and IV
and then decreases
Increases in Groups V to VII
Decreases in Groups I and II
Increases from Group I to Group IV
Boiling point Decreases in Groups III and IV
and then decreases
Increases in Groups V to VII
Oxidising nature Increases Decreases
Reducing nature Decreases Increases

 2

धातू आणि अधातू भाग 1

INDEX:
❖ Metals and non-metals
❖ Definitions and Features
❖ Important metals
❖ Metallurgy
Elements :
❖ Around 120 elements have been discovered in chemistry so far. These elements react with each other
to form unique compounds. Some of them react similarly with other elements, while others show
distinct characteristics.
❖ The difference in their electronegativity, reactivity, and stability influences the chemical properties.
Furthermore, these elements also differ from each other in their physical appearance, mass, melting,
boiling point, conductivity, density, malleability, ductility, lustrousness, physical state, etc.
❖ Therefore, in the periodic table, these elements are classified into three main categories based on their
physical and chemical properties; metals, non-metals, and metalloids. This Chemistry article will
discuss the properties of metals and non-metals.
Metal :
❖ A group of substances with strong thermal and electrical conductivity, malleability, ductility, and high
light reflection is referred to as metals. Metals can lose electrons quickly and make their cations or
positive ions. They make up approximately 75% of all chemical elements. Aluminium, iron, calcium,
sodium, Potassium, and magnesium are the elements that make up the majority of the Earth’s crust.
Most metals are found in the form of ores (materials that contain minerals), but metals like copper,
gold, platinum, and silver, are frequently discovered in the free state due to their less reactivity.
❖ They belong to group 1 (except hydrogen ), groups 2 to 12, and some elements from groups 13 to 17
along with lanthanoids and actinoids.
Properties of Metals :
❖ Lustrous: Lustrous refers to a surface that is shiny, such as the metallic lustre of gold and silver,
which is why these metals are utilized to make jewellery. Additionally, metal utensils have a metallic
sheen which shows that metals are naturally shiny.
❖ Ductility: Metals can be converted into thin wires that show the ductile behaviour of metals. Gold has
been found as one of the most ductile metals existing on earth. 1 gm of gold can easily be stretched up
to 1 km long wire.
❖ Malleability: Metals can easily be beaten into thin sheets by rolling or with the help of a hammer. This
shows that metals have malleable properties.
❖ Sonorous: Metals produce string sound when hit by an object like a hammer. This indicates that
metals are sonorous and produce sound.
❖ High Melting Point: The particles in the solid state of a metal are densely packed which requires a
high temperature for metals to melt. Therefore, metals have high melting points.
❖ Good Conductors of Heat and Electricity: Metals have good conductivity of electricity and heat due
to the presence of free electrons.
 3

Non-Metals :
❖ The elements with high electronegativity, low heat, and electrical conductivity, and the ability to form
acidic oxides are considered non-metals.
❖ They belong to groups 14 to group 18 of the periodic table with the exception of hydrogen in group 1.
Non-metals show some characteristics completely opposite to metals.
❖ They can be found in all three states of matter; solid, liquid and gas. Non-metals, in contrast to metals,
exhibit a wide variety of mechanical and optical characteristics, from brittle to flexible and from clear
to opaque.
Properties of Non-Metals :
❖ Non-lustrous: With the exception of diamond and Iodine, non-metals are non-lustrous which means
that they do not have any shine.
❖ Non-ductile and Non-Malleable: Non-metals cannot be stretched into thin wires because they are
brittle. Stretching or beating with a hammer may break the non-metal.
❖ Non-sonorous: They do not produce any sound when hit with an object like a hammer. Hence, they
are considered non-sonorous.
❖ Low Thermal and Electrical Conductivity: Non-metals usually do not have free electrons. Therefore,
they are considered bad conductors of heat and electricity. However, graphite is an exception. It has
free electrons which allow graphite to conduct electricity.
❖ Soft and Brittle: Non-metals can easily be cut by the knife as they are soft. Solid non-metals are hard
but diamond comes with an exception to becoming the hardest material existing on the earth.
❖ Low Melting and Boiling Points: Non-metals have very low melting boiling points with the
exceptions of diamond and sulphur.
Mineral vs Ore :
Minerals Ore

Naturally occurring substances of metals present Minerals which can used to obtain the metal
in the earth's crust are called minerals. profitably are called ores.

All minerals are not ores. All ores are essentially minerals too.

Examples: Bauxite and Cryolite are the main ores

Example: Clay is the mineral of Aluminium.
of Aluminium

Metallurgy :
❖ The extraction of metals from their ores and the production of pure metals and alloys
Metal Reactivity :
i) Highly reactive : K,Na,Ca,Mg,Al
ii) Medium reactive : Zn, Fe, Sn, Pb, Cu
iii) Less reactive : Hg,Ag,Au,Pt
Important Metals :
1) Metal- Iron (Iron):
➢ Symbol - Fe (ferrous)
➢ Electron configurations - 2,8,14,2
➢ Atomic Number - 26
➢ Atomic mass - 55.9 u
➢ Occurrence - ores
 4

Ores :
Ore Formula % of Iron

Hematite Fe₂O3 70.0

Magnetite Fe3O4 72.4

Limonite 2Fe2O3.3H2O 59.8

Siderite FeCO 48.2

Types of Iron:
1) Cast Iron or Pig Iron:
➢ It is an impure form of iron and contains impurities like carbon, phosphorus, silicon, and sulphur.
➢ Cast iron contains 0.5 to 4.2% carbon impurities. So it is hard and brittle.
➢ Uses- Used for making agricultural implements, moulds.
2) Wrought Iron or Soft Iron:
➢ It is the purest form of iron and is obtained from wrought iron, a process called 'Pudding'.
➢ Ductile iron contains 0 to 0.25% carbon impurities. This iron is malleable, ductile and malleable
and can be welded. Uses This iron is used to make chains, nut-bolts, wires and electromagnets.
Alloys of Iron:
1) Steel:
➢ Element - Iron Carbon (Fe+C)
➢ Increasing the carbon content of steel from 0.02% to 1.5% produces the following types of steel,
1. Mild Steel: From this chain, wire, plow etc. Creates things.
2. Construction Steel (Structural Steel): This steel is used in building, bridge construction,
ship building, spare parts of vehicles etc. used for
3. Tool Steel: This includes working tools, blades, springs etc. make up
Steel Alloys:
1) Stainless steel :
➢ Composition - 73% Iron + 18% Chromium + 8% Nickel +1% Carbon
➢ Uses - Making kitchen utensils, surgical instruments as well as coinage.
2) Tungsten Steel:
➢ Components - 94% Iron + 5% Tungsten + 1% Carbon.
➢ Uses - For making high speed cutting tool (High speed cutting tool)
3) Manganese steel:
➢ Composition 80-90% Iron + 10-18% Manganese + 1% Carbon
➢ Uses - Rock Drillers, for making vaults.
4) Chrome steel:
➢ Components - 96-98% Iron + 2-4% Chrome + 1-1.5% Carbon.
➢ Uses - For making ball bearings, cutting tools.
5) Nickel steel:
➢ Composition - 90-95% Iron + 2-4% % Nickel + 1-1.5% Carbon.
➢ Applications - Cables gears, shafts of drive vehicles
 5

6) Silicon steel:
➢ Components - 80-85% iron + 15% silicon + 1-1.5% carbon
➢ Applications - Acid carrying pipes, pumps etc. It is used to make
2) Aluminum:
➢ Symbol - Al
➢ Electron configuration - 2,8,3
➢ Atomic Number - 13
➢ Atomic mass - 27 u
➢ Occurrence - ores (ores)
Aluminum ores:
❖ Bauxite : Al2 2H2O
❖ Corundum : Al2O3,
❖ Feldspar : KAlSi3O8
❖ Cryolite: Na3,AlF6
❖ Alunite : K2SO4.Al2(SO4)3.4Al(OH)3
❖ Kaolin : 3 Al2O3.6SiO2.2H2O
Alloys of Aluminum:
1) Duralumin:
➢ Components - 95% aluminum + 3% copper +1% magnesium + 1% manganese
➢ Uses - The composite is used for making aircraft spare parts, automobile spare parts, molds,
kitchen utensils and subway trains due to its excellent shock and tensile strength.
2) Magnalium:
➢ Components - 95% aluminum + 5% magnesium
➢ Uses - These composites are lightweight, strong and corrosion resistant and are used in the
manufacture of air vehicles, scales and household appliances.
3) Alnico:
➢ Components - 8-12% aluminum + 15-26% nickel + 5-24% cobalt +6% copper
➢ Uses - It is a magnetic compound and is used to make various types of permanent magnets and is
used in various electrical devices.
➢ For example, Used in electric motors, electric guitars, sensors in microphones, loud speakers.
3) Copper:
➢ Symbol - Cu
➢ Electron configuration - 2,8,18,1
➢ Atomic Number - 29
➢ Atomic mass - 63.5 u
Copper Ores :
1. Copper (IB, coinage metal) :
i) Cuprite: Cu2O
ii) Copper pyrites : CuFeS2, (as sulphides)
iii) Copper glance: Cu2,S (as sulphides)
iv) Azurite : 2CuCO3, Cu(OH)2,
 6

Copper alloys:
1) Brass:
➢ Components- 80% Copper + 20% Zinc.
➢ Uses - Brass is hard, corrosion resistant, so casting can be done easily. Therefore, kitchen utensils,
pipes, metal utensils, cartridges, gun bullet wrappers, coins, medals, etc. is used for the.
2) Bronze:
➢ Components - 81-90% Copper +10-19 Tin or 80% Copper +10% Tin + 10% Zinc.
➢ Uses - Because of its hardness and corrosion resistance, it is used in sculpture, statues, coins,
cooking pots, medals, shipbuilding, etc. For
3) Gun Metal:
➢ Components - 88% Copper + 10% Tin + 2% Zinc.
➢ Uses - Boiler spare parts etc. for gun manufacture. used for preparing.
4) German Silver:
➢ Components - 50% Copper + 25% Zinc + 25% Nickel
➢ Uses - Used for silver plating, this compound is used for insulation in electrical sheaths as it is an
excellent insulator.

 2

धातू आणि अधातू भाग 2

INDEX:
❖ Metals And Non-Metals 2
❖ Important Metals
❖ Ores & Alloys
❖ Important Non-Metals
❖ Properties And Uses
Aluminum:
❖ Symbol - Al
❖ Electron configuration - 2,8,3
❖ Atomic Number - 13
❖ Atomic mass - 27 u
❖ Occurrence - ores (ores)
Aluminum ores:
❖ Bauxite : Al2 2H2O
❖ Corundum : Al2O3,
❖ Felspar : KAlSi3O8
❖ Cryolite: Na3,AlF6
❖ Alunite : K2SO4.Al2 (SO4) 3.4Al(OH) 3
❖ Kaolin : 3 Al2O3.6SiO2.2H2O
Alloys of Aluminum:
1) Duralumin:
➢ Components - 95% aluminum + 3% copper +1% magnesium + 1% manganese
➢ Uses - The composite is used for making aircraft spare parts, automobile spare parts, molds,
kitchen utensils and subway trains due to its excellent shock and tensile strength.
2) Magnalium:
➢ Components - 95% aluminum + 5% magnesium
➢ Uses - These composites are lightweight, strong and corrosion resistant and are used in the
manufacture of air vehicles, scales and household appliances.
3) Alnico:
➢ Components - 8-12% aluminum + 15-26% nickel + 5-24% cobalt +6% copper
➢ Uses - It is a magnetic compound and is used to make various types of permanent magnets and is
used in various electrical devices.
➢ For example. Used in electric motors, electric guitars, sensors in microphones, loud speakers.
3) Copper:
➢ Symbol - Cu
➢ Electron configuration - 2,8,18,1
➢ Atomic Number - 29
➢ Atomic mass - 63.5 u
 3

Copper Ores :
1. Copper (IB, coinage metal) :
i) Cuprite: Cu2O
ii) Copper pyrites : CuFeS2, (as sulphides)
iii) Copper glance: Cu2,S (as sulphides)
iv) Azurite : 2CuCO3, Cu(OH)2,
Copper alloys:
1) Brass:
➢ Components- 80% Copper + 20% Zinc.
➢ Uses - Brass is hard, corrosion resistant, so casting can be done easily. Therefore, kitchen utensils,
pipes, metal utensils, cartridges, gun bullet wrappers, coins, medals, etc. are used for this.
(2) Bronze:
➢ Components - 81-90% Copper +10-19 Tin or 80% Copper +10% Tin + 10% Zinc.
➢ Uses - Because of its hardness and corrosion resistance, it is used in sculpture, statues, coins,
cooking pots, medals, shipbuilding, etc. For
3) Gun Metal:
➢ Components - 88% Copper + 10% Tin + 2% Zinc.
➢ Uses - Boiler spare parts etc. for gun manufacture. used for preparing.
4) German Silver:
➢ Components - 50% Copper + 25% Zinc + 25% Nickel
➢ Uses - Used for silver plating, this compound is used for insulation in electrical sheaths as it is an
excellent insulator.
➢ Phosphorus is the first element discovered in modern times. The story of its discovery is amazing.
➢ German chemist Hennig Brand discovered phosphorus. Like other chemists of the time, Brand
was also looking for an opportunity.
➢ In that effort, he experimented with human urine. He was able to isolate white phosphorus from
it. About 1100 liters of urine yielded only 60 grams of
phosphorus.
➢ Phosphorus was isolated in 1669 in the city of Hamburg,
Germany.
➢ However, the French scientist Antoine Lavoisier proved that
phosphorus is an element in 1777.
Uses of Phosphorus:
1) Calcium phosphide is used as a Holm signal to send messages to
ships at sea. (Mariner's Indicators)
2) Phosphorus useful for agriculture is used for making fertilizers.
3) Phosphor bronze is used to make this alloy, this alloy is very hard,
strong and corrosion resistant.
4) Used for the manufacture of phosphorus trichloride (PCI) and
phosphorus pentachloride (PCI) used for chlorination.
5) Zinc phosphide is used to make a compound used as rat poison.
6) Red phosphorus as well as phosphorus trisulfide are used for making
safety fuses. The tip of a safety match is coated with antimony sulfide
(SbS2) to automatically extinguish the ignited spark.
 4

7) Bones, teeth, and brains of animals contain about 60%

calcium phosphate.
8) DNA, RNA, ATP & ADP in living cells all contain
compounds of phosphorus.
9) Hypophosphite compounds are used in the preparation of
medicines which are useful for increasing the internal
strength of our body.
10) If there is a lack of phosphorus in the plant,
photosynthesis does not take place and leaves become
discolored and dry.
11) Aluminum phosphide is used as a grain preservative.
12) Calcium phosphide is used to make smoke screens during wartime.
Uses of Sulphur:
1) Sulfur dioxide is used in the laboratory to prepare sulfuric acid.
2) Solvents in factories, therefore used to prepare carbon disulphide.
3) Used to prepare antimony sulphide and phosphorus trisulfide used in the Matchsticks industry.
4) Used in paper mills to produce calcium sulphide for bleaching wood pulp.
5) Used to make decorative liquor and crackers.
6) It is used to prepare gun powder. It contains three ingredients as follows: Sulfur powder (sulfur),
charcoal (coal powder), potassium nitrate (nitor).
7) Insecticides used for agriculture and used to prepare pesticides.
8) Sulfur powder is sprayed on vines and fruit trees as fungicides.
9) When soft and tough rubber is heated with sulfur at a specific temperature and for a specific period of
time, it is converted into a hard and solid rubber. This process is called vulcanization. This process is
used in the tire manufacturing sector.
10) Shendur (mercuric sulphide) is used as a sulfur compound
to prepare Ayurvedic medicine Makardhwaja.
11) Sulpha drugs in allopathy use sulfur to prepare medicines.
Uses of Nitrogen:
1) Controlling the combustion capacity of oxygen.
2) Nitrogen is required for all living things in the form of
proteins and nucleic acids.
3) Proteins are essential as structural molecules of living
cells.
4) Various biochemical reactions in the cell are controlled by
enzymes.
5) An electric bulb contains a mixture of inert nitrogen and argon gases.
6) Liquid nitrogen is used to preserve frozen food.
7) Animal semen is stored in liquid nitrogen.
➢ Nitrogen in the atmosphere is the highest i.e. 78%, most of the nitrogen in the atmosphere is used
by plants. All other living things on earth depend on plants. They absorb nitrogen from living
plants in the form of various compounds and after they die, the nitrogen from their bodies is
mixed back into the soil.
 5

Some important metallic minerals (metals):

Metal Minerals/Metals Molecular formulas

Calcium Limestone CaC𝑂3

Gypsum CaS𝑂4 𝐻2 O

Lead Galena PbS

Cerussite РЬС𝑂3

Litharge РЬO

Magnesium Dolomite MgC𝑂3 .CaC𝑂3

Magnesite MgC𝑂3

Kannelite [Link]𝑂2 ,𝐶𝐿2 6𝐻2 O

Sodium Rocksalt NaCl

Cryolite 𝑁𝑎3 𝐴𝐼𝐹6

potassium SaltPeter 𝐾𝑁𝑂3

Mercury Cinnabar HgS

Silver Argentite Ag𝑆2

Uranium Pinch Blade U𝑂2

Uses of Metalloids:
❖ Boric acid is used in antiseptic medicines.
❖ Use of antimony sulphide in fire pits.
❖ Germanium is used in transistor photoelectricity, solar reduction etc.
❖ Polonium is the first synthetic element and has 27 isotopes.
❖ Gallium arsenide is used as a semiconductor in computers.
❖ Silicon is used in solar panels.
❖ Arsenic is a toxic element and is used as a poison.
Uses of inert gasses:
❖ Helium: Liquid helium is used to fill air in aircraft towers, to create helium-oxygen mixtures for
respiration, and in low-temperature physics.
❖ Neon: In fluorescent bulbs for the printing industry, voltmeters and rectifiers, and in glowing
advertising signs.
❖ Argon: in electric bulbs, for welding in radios, in fluorescent tubes
❖ Krypton, xenon: in electric bulbs, in television tubes
❖ Radon: This gas is not normally found in the atmosphere but is radioactive. Hence it is used in
radiotherapy for cancer treatment.
 6

Halogen Properties Usage

In the nuclear fuel cycle, for the production

Fluorine Yellowish poisonous gas, very reactive. of uranium hexafluoride as well as for the
production of dust paste.

A greenish-yellow and respirable poisonous

To disinfect water as a disinfectant, as a
gas, when dissolved in water it forms
bleaching agent in oxidation, to produce
hydrochloric acid and the nascent oxygen
Chlorine bleaching powder, to produce poisonous
produced from it disinfects the water. The
gasses such as fluorine and mustard used
formation of nascent oxygen is due to the
in warfare.
reactions of oxidation and bleaching.

For the manufacture of silver bromide for

It is a liquid and dark brown colored toxic the preparation of pigments and medicines
Bromine
substance. as well as for the manufacture of
potassium bromide (sleeping medicine).

Tincture is iodine, iodex, iodoform. To

enhance egg production and in
Iodine It is a solid substance and is purple in color.
photography film to prepare disinfectants
as well as aphrodisiacs

 2

कार्बन व कार्बनी संयुगे भाग 1

INDEX:
❖ Carbon & Carbon Compounds
❖ Carbon Occurrence
❖ Hydrocarbons Classification
❖ Alken, Alkene, Alkine
❖ Aromatic Hydrocarbon
Carbon:
❖ The molecules of a carbon compound must contain a carbon atom. All living things, including plants
and animals, are made up of organic matter, which is carbon-based matter.
❖ Symbol - C
❖ Atomic Number - 6
❖ Atomic mass - 12 u
❖ Valency - 4

Carbon Allotrope:
❖ An allotrope is nothing but the existence of several forms of an element having different physical
properties but having the same chemical properties and its forms are called allotropes of allotropic
forms. Allotropes are defined as two or more physical forms of an element. These allotropes are all
based on carbon atoms but exhibit different physical properties, especially with respect to hardness.
❖ Diamond, graphite, graphene, fullerene (C 60 ), and carbon nanotubes are common, crystalline
allotropes of carbon. Carbon shows allotropy because it exists in different forms of carbon such as
diamond and graphite.
 3

❖ But now it is known that all amorphous carbon contains microcrystals of graphite. Although these
allotropes of carbon have different crystal structures and physical properties, they have similar
chemical properties and exhibit similar chemical properties.
❖ Diamond and graphite both have the symbol C. Both release carbon dioxide when strongly heated in
the presence of oxygen.
❖ Diamond: Diamond is a well-known allotrope of carbon with a three-dimensional network structure.
It exhibits the highest hardness and thermal conductivity.
❖ Graphite: Graphite is another allotrope of carbon. It is a two-dimensional structure and is a good
conductor of electricity.
❖ Graphene: It is a single layer allotrope of carbon with a two-dimensional honeycomb structure.
Graphene has very high electron mobility.
Organic Compounds
Wöhler (1828) :
❖ Disproved vitalism
❖ Attempted to make ammonium cyanate by reacting ammonium chloride and silver cyanate. The
reaction made instead he made urea CON (NH2)2
❖ This was the first time in history that a compound normally made by only living things was made
from a non-living substance.
❖ Organic matter could be synthesized from inorganic matter.
Carbon Bonding (Carbon Bonding):
❖ Carbon also readily forms bonds with other Carbon atoms, forming straight chains, branched chains,
or rings.
❖ Catenation : Forms a chain of long infinite single bonds.
❖ Multiple bonding: It consists of single, double, and triple bonds as well as different elemental mixes.

Hydrocarbon:
❖ Carbon compounds that contain only carbon and hydrogen are called hydrocarbons.
❖ Carbon compounds are classified from hydrocarbons.
Open chain / Acyclic Hydrocarbons:
❖ Saturated Hydrocarbons : Alkane
❖ Unsaturated Hydrocarbons : Alkene, Alkyne
 4

2) Closed chain hydrocarbons :

➢ Carbocyclic Compounds : Acyclic eg. cyclobutane, aromatic eg. Benzene

General Alkane (C– H) : Alkene (C=C) : (CnH2n) Alkyne (C≡C) : (CnH2n–

Formula (CnH2n+2) (C > 1) 2)(C >1)

n=1 CH4 Methane — —-

n=2 C2H6 Ethane C2H4 ethene C2H2 ethyne

n=3 C3H8 propane C3H6 propene C3H4 propyne

n=4 C4H10 butane C4H8 butene C4H6 butyne

n=5 C5H12 pentane C5H10 pentene C5H8 pentyne

Nomenclature :
❖ Must memorize prefixes
❖ To name, look at the formula for the hydrocarbon
❖ Determine if it is an alkane, alkene, or alkyne
❖ Use the prefix for the number of carbons
❖ Add ending (ane, ene,yne)
Prefix number of carbon atoms

Meth- 1

Eth- 2

Prop- 3

But- 4

Pent- 5

Hex- 6

Hept- 7

Oct- 8

Non- 9

Dec- 10
 5

Alkane group:
❖ Alkanes occur in various forms in nature. (LPG, CNG and LNG contain lesser amounts of C1 to C4
alkanes, Petrol and Gasoline contain C6 to C8 alkanes.
❖ Diesel contains a mixture of C15 to C18 alkanes. The waxy layer on plant leaves is composed of C29
to C31 alkanes.
❖ Undecane (C11), an alkane secreted by cockroaches, attracts cockroaches of the opposite sex.
❖ Cyclohexane is a cyclic alkane found in mangoes.
Straight chain

Branched chain

Alkene:
❖ This compound has at least one double bond between the carbon atoms. All the compounds in this
group have the same chemical properties, structural formula.
❖ Its general formula is CnH2n. Alkynes play a very important role in daily life. Polythene bags made
from ethylene are also used for germination and fruit growing.
❖ The alkene limonene gives lemons and oranges their tanginess. Beta-phaladrin is an alkene in
eucalyptus oil.
❖ Isoprene is an alkene in natural rubber. Among the fatty acids in edible oil is oleic acid, an alkene.
❖ The orange color of carrots is due to an 11 carbon-carbon double bond in beta-carotene. The flavor
of ginger is due to zingiberine, an alkene, while the outer skin of apples contains alpha-farnesine, a
shulkein.
❖ Beta-carotene is broken down in the animal body to form A-vitamin and in the presence of sunlight,
various chemical reactions are carried out to keep the eye functioning smoothly.
Alkyne:
❖ This compound has at least one triple bond between the carbon atoms.
❖ All the compounds in this group have the same chemical properties, structural formula. Its general
formula is (CnH2n–2).
❖ Hemlock, a poisonous aquatic plant, contains cicutoxon, an alkyne that protects the plant. Capilene
alkyne is found in Cravasindhemum and its roots protect the plant against fungi and insects.
❖ Medicines used for birth control (fertility) contain alkynes. Certain species of frogs ingest alkyne-
containing toxins and thus protect them.
 6

Aromatic Compounds:
❖ The branched chain hydrocarbons containing at least six carbon atoms and joined to each other by
single and double bonds (one single bond followed by a double bond) respectively are called
aromatic hydrocarbons.
❖ These compounds have aromas. In nature, aromatic compounds are found in resin balsam as well as
the poisonous plant oil of wintergreen.
❖ E.g. (Benzene C6 H6), Naphthalene (C18 H8), Phenol (C6H5OH), Toluene (C7H8), Anthracene (C14H10)


 2

कार्बन व कार्बनी संयुगे भाग 2

INDEX:
❖ Hydrocarbons - Classification
❖ Properties and uses of carbon compounds
❖ polymer
Aromatic Compounds:
❖ The branched chain hydrocarbons containing at least six carbon atoms and joined to each other by
single and double bonds (one single bond followed by a double bond) respectively are called aromatic
hydrocarbons.
❖ These compounds have aromas. In nature, aromatic compounds are found in resin balsam as well as
the poisonous plant oil of wintergreen.
❖ E.g. (Benzene C6 H6 ), Naphthalene (C18 H8), Phenol (C6H5OH), Toluene (C7H8), Anthracene (C14H10)
 3

Functional Groups:
❖ Alcohol : OH
❖ Aldehydes : CHO
❖ Ketones : CO
❖ Carboxylic acid : COOH
❖ Ether: O
❖ Easter : COO
Homologous Series General Formula Functional Group Example

Methane CH4
Ethane, C2H6
Alkanes CnH2n+2 —-
Propane, C3H6
Butane C4H10

Ethene, C₂H4
Alkenes CnH2n C=C Propene, C3H6
Butene, C4H8

Methanol, CH3OH
Ethanol, C2H5OH
Alcohols CnH(2n+1) OH -OH
Propanol, C3H7OH
Butanol, C4H9OH

Methanoic Acid, HCOOH

Ethanoic Acid, CH3COOH
Carboxylic Acids CnH(2n+1)COOH -COOH
Propanoic Acid, C2H5COOH
Butanoic Acid, C3H7COOH

Properties and uses of carbon compounds:

1) Methane (CH4) :
➢ It is the first and simplest carbon compound of the atken group. Natural gas contains more than
90% methane. Biogas and manure gas contain up to 60% methane, besides methane is also found
in sewage gas and coal gas.
➢ Marsh gas is formed in the form of bubbles due to the decomposition of plants and animals in
marshy areas. It also contains methane, methane is produced in the intestines of ruminants, and
methane is produced in the body of an animal during the digestion of wood.
Properties of Methane:
❖ This gas is colorless and odorless.
❖ It is partially soluble in water.
❖ Methane has the highest calorific value (55,000 KJ/Kg).
Uses of Methane:
1) Used as domestic as well as industrial fuels.
2) Methane is used to make various carbon compounds. Eg, Alcohol, Methyl Chloride Freon etc.
3) Methane is used to produce hydrogen, (soot and acetylene) in industrial sector.
4) Carbon dioxide and methane are two gases responsible for the greenhouse effect, methane absorbs 20
times more heat than carbon dioxide. Apart from this, nitrous oxide and ozone also contribute to the
greenhouse effect.
5) Soot (carbon black) is used to make printing ink as well as boot polish, gramophone and rubber tires.
 4

2) Methyl Alcohol/Methanol (CH3OH):

➢ Destructive decomposition of wood produces wood alcohol.
➢ It is a toxic compound. Ingestion by humans can cause loss of vision and even death.
➢ Most of the deaths from alcohol poisoning are caused by methanol.
Uses of Methyl Alcohol:
❖ Used as fuel in spirit lamps.
❖ It is also used in the manufacture of perfumes and synthetic fibers.
❖ A mixture of methyl and ethyl alcohol (called methylated spirit) is used to make wood polishes,
furniture polishes, paints and hornishes.
❖ It is used as a fuel along with petrol.
3) Ethyl Alcohol / Ethanol (C2H5OH) :
➢ Ethanol is a colorless liquid compound that stimulates the human body when ingested. So it is
used to make wine.
➢ It is produced through a fermentation process, sugarcane, various types of grain (maize) and fruits are
also used for fermentation, 200 grams of maize (starch) is fermented to produce 1 liter of wine.
➢ 100 percent pure alcohol is also known as pure alcohol. Real commercial alcohol contains 95.6
percent ethyl alcohol and 4.4 percent water.
Uses of Ethyl Alcohol:
❖ It is mostly used to make wine. Distilled wine contains 40-55 percent alcohol while undistilled wine
contains 3-15 percent alcohol.
❖ It is used as a vehicle fuel (in petrol), as a fuel in aircraft, to make transparent soaps and to make
perfumes.
❖ A mixture of spirit, benzene and petrol (called power alcohol) is used to run the engine.
❖ Alcohol that is unfit for drinking is called denatured alcohol.
❖ Toxic substances like pyridine, methyl alcohol and acetone are added to denature ethyl alcohol.
4) Ethylene/Ethene (C2H4) :
➢ It is an unsaturated hydrocarbon found in nature with coal and petroleum gas, it is produced
industrially by heating alcohol and sulfuric acid to a temperature of 170 degrees Celsius.
➢ If too much Nakawate enters the body, it can cause unconsciousness. Through the polymerization
reaction of ethylene molecule, thousands of ethylene molecules are combined to form the
compound polyethylene.
Uses of Ethylene/Ethene:
❖ Used to make plastic bags, synthetic threads, plastic pipes, water tanks.
❖ An oxyethylene flame is used to cut metals as well as to fuse two metals together.
❖ Sulfur monochloride reacts with ethylene to form mustard gas. This gas is highly toxic and was used in
World War II.
❖ Ethylene gas is used to ripen fruits artificially.
5) Acetylene/Ethane (C2H2):
➢ It is a colorless gas with a sweet smell. In the laboratory, this gas is produced by the reaction of
calcium carbide and water.
Uses of Acetylene:
❖ This gas makes brominated brown water colorless. Bezin is also made from it.
❖ It is used for cutting and joining metals for making anesthetics (camphor), growing fruits and
producing light.
 5

6) Ferron (CFC):
➢ This is called chloro-fluoro carbon. It contains chlorine, fluorine and carbon atoms together and
this leads to depletion of ozone layer.
Uses of Ferron:
❖ It was previously used as a refrigerant in ACs and refrigerators but its use has been banned (as per the
Montreal Protocol 1987) due to the depletion of the ozone layer.
7) Freon (CCl2F2) :
➢ This is called dichloro-difluoromethane. Freon gas is produced by the reaction between hydrogen
fluoride and carbon tetrachloride or by the reaction of chloro-fluoro compounds of methane or
ethane.
➢ There are two types of this. CCl2F2 (CFC-12), CCl3F(CFC-11)
Uses of Freon:
❖ It is used as a refrigerant in refrigerators and air conditioners.
❖ It is used as an aerosol propellant in spacecraft and rockets.
❖ It is used to clean the inside of the computer as well as the printed circuit board.
❖ It is also used for dry cleaning.
Difference between Diamond and Graphite:
Diamond Graphite

Each carbon has four covalent bonds. Each carbon has three covalent bonds.

Hard, heavy and transparent. Soft, slippery to touch and opaque.

It has tetrahedral units linked in three dimensions. It has planar layers of hexagon units.

It is a non-conductor of heat and electricity. It is a conductor of heat and electricity.

 6

What are Polymers

❖ A large molecule formed by the regular repetition of a single small unit, i.e. by a reaction, is called a
polymer. The small unit that forms a polymer due to the repetition of a single unit is called a monomer.
Similarly, the reaction in which a polymer is formed from a monomer molecule is called a
polymerization reaction.
+CH₂+CH₂+CH₂+CH₂+→[-CH2-CH2-CH2-CH2-CH2-CH2-CH2-CH₂-]
Ethylene (monomer) Polyethylene (polymer)
❖ Polymers that are made from the same type of monomer are called homopolymers, while polymers that
are made from two or more monomers are called co-polymers. E.g. Polyethylene terephthalate (PET).
Natural polynomials occur:
Polymer Monomer Occurrence

Polysaccharides Glucose Starch

Cellulose Glucose Wood, cell wall

Proteins Amino Acids Skin, muscle, hair, tendons, etc.

Nucleotide
DNA
(acidic - deoxyribose - phosphate) Animal chromosomes

RNA
RNA Plant chromosomes
Nucleotide (acidic ribose - phosphate)

Rubber Isoprene Rubber tree (Ficus elastica)

Uses of Polymers
POLYMER Properties Uses

Polythene Very cheap and strong. Easily moulded. Plastic bags, bottles, buckets

Forms strong waterproof sheets. Hard but Electric wire insulation, plastic
Polyvinyl chloride (PVC)
flexible. sheets

Cheap, easily moulded. Can be expanded

Polystyrene Packaging, radio outer cases
into foam

Polypropene Resistant to high temperatures Trays, sinks, bottles, funnels

 7

Uses of Polymes
polymer Properties Applications

Chemical resistant, rubbery

Neoprene Shoe soles, radiator hoses
Shoe soles, radiator hoses

Polyamide Fibrous, strong, durable Parachutes, carpet, hosiery Parachutes, carpet, hosiery

Fibers recover quickly after extension, moisture Filters, insulation, tire cords,
Polyster
resistant Dacron, Mylar

Flexible foams, elastic quick-drying fibers, hard- Mattresses, Airplane wings,

Polyurethane
drying films Spandex, Lycra, varnishes

 2

आम्ल आणि आम्लारी

Index:
❖ Acids, Acids and Salts
❖ Definitions and Examples
❖ Acid and Base theory
❖ Indicators
Acids:
❖ The word Acid is derived from the Latin word Acidus. Which means Sour in English which means Sour
in Marathi.
❖ Definition: "A substance which has a sour taste is called an acid." A substance in whose solution/blue
litmus turns red is called an acid.
Bases:
❖ Bases means astringent/bitter in Marathi. Its solution feels smooth on the hand.
❖ Definition: 'A substance which is astringent/bitter in taste is called an acid." A substance in solution of
which (red) turns litmus (again blue) is called an acid. Different scientists have explained different
concepts of acid-acidity.
Some acids in daily life:
1. Acetic acid - (CH3COOH) - vinegar/scorpion, aromatic oil
2. Citric Acid - (C6H8O7) - Oranges/Lemons/Pineapples/Yam
3. Tartaric acid - (C4H6O6) - tamarind, curry
4. Lactic acid - (C3H6O3) - milk/yogurt
5. Formic acid - (CH2O2) - Ant stings, scorpions
6. Phosphoric/Butyric Acid - (H3PO4)/(C4H8O2) - Bee Sting
Some Bases in Daily Life:
1. Detergent Soap Washing Soda - Sodium Carbonate - Na2CO3
2. Onion/Urine - Ammonia - NH3
3. Baking Soda - Sodium Bicarbonate - NaHCO3
4. Coloring lime - Calcium hydroxide - Ca(OH)2
Strong and weak acids and bases:
❖ Strong acids and bases completely dissociate (ionize) in solution.
HCl(aq) → H+(aq) + Cl– (aq)
NaOH(aq) → Na+(aq) + OH –(aq)
❖ Weak acids and bases partially dissociate (ionize) in solution.
CH3COOH(aq) ⇌ CH3COO (aq) + H+(aq)
NH3(aq) + H2O(1) ⇌ NH4 (aq) + OH–(aq)
Common Acids and Bases:
Acid Base

Weak Acetic acid Ammonia

Hydrofluoric acid Ammonium hydroxide
Hydrogen sulfide Pyridine
Water Water
 3

Strong Hydrochloric acid Sodium hydroxide

Nitric acid Lithium hydroxide
Sulfuric acid Calcium hydroxide
Hydrochromic acid Potassium hydroxide

Acid-Base Theories:
❖ To define acids and bases, three alternative hypotheses have been proposed. The Arrhenius theory, the
Bronsted-Lowry theory, and the Lewis theory of acids and bases are among these hypotheses. This
subsection provides a brief overview of each of these theories. There are three hypotheses that can be
used to define acids and bases.
1. “An acid generates H+ ions in a solution, whereas a base generates an OH- ion in its solution,”
according to the Arrhenius theory of acids and bases.
2. “An acid is a proton donor, while a base is a proton acceptor,” according to the Bronsted-Lowry
theory.
3. Finally, the Lewis definition of acids and bases depicts acids and bases as "electron-pair acceptors"
and "electron-pair donors," respectively.
1) Arrhenius Theory of Acids and Bases:
➢ According to the Arrhenius theory, acid is a chemical that when dissolved in water produces the H+
ion. It raises the H+ ion concentration in the solution. The base is a chemical that dissolves in an
aqueous solution and ionises the OH- ion. Thus the solution contains a high concentration of OH-
ions.
➢ In an aqueous solution, Arrhenius acid increases the concentration of protons or H+ ions.
Arrhenius Acids:
❖ Definition of acids according to Arrhenius: Svante Arrhenius, a Swedish chemist, first presented the
Arrhenius hypothesis of acids and bases in 1884. He proposed categorising certain substances as acids
or bases depending on the type of ions generated when they were combined with water.
❖ Hydrochloric acid in the water, for example. As stated below, HCl undergoes a dissociation reaction to
produce H+ and Cl– ions. The formation of hydronium ions raises the concentration of H+ ions.
HCl (aq) → H+(aq) + Cl-(aq)
HCl (aq) + H2O(l) → H3O+(aq) + Cl-(aq)
H2 O
Acid: HCl H3O + Cl
H2 O
Base: NaOH Na++OH
Arrhenius Base:
❖ A substrate called an Arrhenius base raises the concentration of hydroxide ions in an aqueous solution.
The extremely soluble sodium hydroxide molecule in water, which dissociates to generate sodium ion
and hydroxide ion, is an Arrhenius base example.
❖ To increase the concentration of hydroxide ions in an aqueous solution, NaOH entirely dissolves to give
hydroxide ions and sodium ions.
NaOH(aq) → Na+(aq) + OH-(aq).
2) Bronsted Theory of Acids and Bases
Bronsted Lowry Acid:
➢ An acid is defined as a donor of protons by the Bronsted-Lowry theory.
➢ According to this hypothesis, a base is a proton acceptor (or an H+ ion acceptor).
➢ Bronsted acids dissociate to release protons, resulting in a higher concentration of H+ ions in the
solution.
Acid ⇌ Proton + Conjugate base
 4

Bronsted Lowry Base:

❖ Bronsted bases, on the other hand, take
protons from the solvent water to
produce hydroxide ions.
❖ The capacity to explain the acidic or basic
character of ionic species is one
advantage of the Bronsted-Lowry
definition of acids and bases.
❖ This theory has a significant flaw in that it
does not explain how chemicals that lack
hydrogen, such as BF3 and AlCl3, display
acidic characteristics.
Base + Proton ⇌ Conjugate acid
❖ Strong Bronsted-Lowry acids are those that have a strong inclination to donate a proton but have a
weak conjugate base.
❖ Weak Bronsted-Lowry acids have a slight tendency to give a proton, while their conjugate base is
strong.
3) Lewis Concept of Acids and Bases:
➢ Lewis acid: An acid, according to Lewis' definition, is a species with an empty orbital and hence the
ability to take an electron pair.
➢ Lewis base: A Lewis base is a species that has a single pair of electrons and hence can operate as
an electron donor.
➢ The hydrogen atom is not included in this theory's description of acids and bases.
➢ Lewis acids have electrophilic properties, while Lewis bases have nucleophilic properties.
➢ Cu2+, BF3, and Fe3+ are examples of Lewis acids. F-, NH3, and C2H4 are examples of Lewis bases
(ethylene).
➢ A Lewis acid absorbs an electron pair from a Lewis base, resulting in the formation of a coordinate
covalent bond. Lewis adduct is the name given to the resultant chemical.
➢ This notion has the advantage of allowing various substances to be classified as acids or bases.
However, it provides little information about the acid and base's strength.
➢ One of the theory's flaws is that it doesn't account for acid-base reactions that don't involve the
development of a coordinate covalent bond.

Typical Lewis Acid/Base Behaviours

Lewis Base (something that complexes with Lewis Acid (something that complexes with a
a Lewis Acid) Lewis Base)

Lone-Pair donors -:NH3, H2O: Lone-Pair acceptors BF3, AlCl3

Brønsted bases HO–, H3C– Metal cations Al3+, Fe3+

Nucleophiles CH3-S– Electrophiles CH3CO+

 5

Ligands [Fe(H2O)6]3+ The proton H+

Anionic counter ions SO42– NO3– Cationic spectator ions K+

Electron-rich - 𝜋 systems - benzene Electron-poor -systems [CH2-CH=CH2]+

HOMO - Highest Occupied Molecular Orbital LUMO - Lowest Unoccupied Molecular Orbital

STRONG-WEAK ACIDS & BASES

CHARACTERISTICS & DIFFERENCES
STRONG ACID WEAK ACID
Small ionic radius Large ionic radius
High positive charge Low positive charge
Low electronegativity Intermediate electronegativity
High energy LUMO Low energy LUMO

STRONG BASE WEAK BASE

Small radius Large radius
High electronegativity Intermediate electronegativity
Weak polarizability High polarizability
High energy HOMO Low energy HOMO

Indicators:
❖ "A substance by means of which acid, acidic as well as neutral forms of compounds can be
distinguished are called indicators."
❖ With the help of viewers, changes in chemical reactions can be studied in the laboratory. There are
three types of viewers.
1) Natural Indicators:
➢ Viewers made with natural materials are called natural viewers.
E.g.
1) Litmus paper (The original color of litmus paper is blue and it is prepared from the lichen Rosella
tictoria.) and litmus solution.
2) Various flower petals
3) Turmeric
4) Beat
5) Indigo Blue (Indigofera tinctoria)
6) Red Cabbage
7) Cherries
8) Onion
9) Tomatoes
10) Grape juice
2) Synthetic/Chemical/Lab Indicators:
➢ Viewers made with artificial/chemical substances are called synthetic or synthetic viewers.
 6

E.g.
1) Phenolphthalein
2) Methyl orange
3) Eocene Blue
4 Starch
5) Alizarin Red
6) Annasin powder
❖ In the Anticorruption Bureau notes are treated with phenolphthalein or anthracene powder to catch a
person red handed. Both these powders are not visible in sunlight and are not felt by hand. If the notes
are coated with phenolphthalein powder, the bribe taker is made to wash his hands in sodium
carbonate/washing soda or other acidic solution, which turns the solution pink. On the other hand, if
the notes are coated with anthracene powder, the hand powder will glow when the hands of the bribe
taker are held under the blue light of an ultraviolet bulb.
3) Smell/Odour Indicators:
➢ Acids of some substances also change the odor/smell of acidic substances called odorants.
E.g.
1) Eucalyptus oil
2) Kalon water
3) Onion or clove extract
4) Universal Indicators:
➢ The aggregate of various viewers is called a global audience.
E.g.
1) pH, pOH indicator
pH Scale:
❖ In aqueous solution, the concentrations of H⁺ and OH– ions are very low. Hence, in 1909, Sørensen, a
scientist, introduced the concept of pH to measure the concentration of H+ ions. This made it easy to
express acidity as well as acidity of dilute aqueous solutions. In pH, p stands for potency. (German
word) means concentration.
❖ Isoelectric Point: The level of pH of a solution at which the charge on the mixture of proteins and
cations becomes 0 is called isoelectric point. In short, the solution at this point is electrically depressed.
Definition:
1) Carlsberg Foundation: Power of Hydrogen or Hydroxide ions
2) pH of a solution is defined as the decimal logarithm of the reciprocal of the hydrogen ions in a solution
or negative logarithm, to the base 10 of the molar concentration of H ions in solution. Mathematically,
the pH is expressed as,
pH = - log 10[H+] Hence, [H+] = 10-pH
3) pOH defined as negative logarithm, to the base 10 of the molar concentration of OH ions in solution.
Thus, pOH = -log10 [OH–]
pH to pOH Relationship:
❖ log 10 [H + ]+log 10 [OH– ]= log_10(1014) =
❖ Multiplying both sides by –1, log 10 [H + ] + { -log 10 [OH–]} = 14
❖ The first term on the left side of the equation is pH and the second term is pOH. therefore,
pH + pOH = 14
 7

Acidity, Acidity, Neutrality of Aqueous Solution:

1) Neutral solution: Pure water or any aqueous
neutral solution at 25°C, [H+ ]=[OH–]= 1.10–7 M.
Hence pH of neutral solution =pH= - log10 = -
log10 (1.0 x 10–7) = 7
2) Acidic solution: It has high concentration of H⁺
ions, so [H+ ] > [OH–]. Also [H+ ]> 1.0 x 10–7 M
and pH < 7 so acid solutions always have a pH
less than 7.
3) Acidic solution: It contains more OH- ions, so [H+] < [OH]. Also [H+]<1.0 x 10–7 M and pH > 7 so acidic
solutions always have a pH greater than 7.
➢ Acids decrease in intensity as they move from 0 to 7 on the pH scale. The lower the pH value of
acids, the greater the acid properties/intensity.
➢ pH then increases in acidity as we move along the range from 7 to 14. The higher the pH value of
the acid, the more acidic the property/intensity.
By using viewers in various substances, their nature can be studied. It is as follows –
Solution Red Litmus Blue Litmus Phenolphthalein Methyl Orange Form

1) Vinegar -– Red Colorless Orange Acidic

2) Lemon juice — Red Colorless Red Acidic

3) NH4OH Blue — Pink Yellow Amlari Dharmi

4) HCL — Red Colorless Colorless Acidic

Salts:
❖ Acids and acids react to form salts. These salts are of different types depending on their chemical
properties.
1) Acidic:
➢ Acidic salts are formed by the neutralization reaction of a strong acid and a weak acid.
➢ E.g. NH4Cl, NH4NO3, (NH4)2SO4 2)
2) Alkaline salts (Basic):
➢ Alkaline salts are formed by the neutralization reaction of a weak acid and a strong acid.
➢ E.g. Na2CO3, CH3COONa, NaHCO3, KCN
3) Neutral salts:
➢ Neutralization reactions of a strong acid and a strong acid or a neutral acid and a weak acid form
neutral salts.
➢ E.g. NaCl, KNO3, Na2SO4 (strong acid and strong acidity) CH3COONH4, NH4CN, (NH4)2CO3 (mild
acid and mild acidity)
4) Double salts:
➢ A mixture of two salts that form two types of metal ions when dissolved in water is called a double
salt.
➢ E.g. K2SO4.Al2(SO4)3.24H2O - alum, FeSO4 (NH4)2SO4.6H2O - Mohr's salt
 8

Uses of Acids:
Acid Manufacturing Process Use

Citric acid Fermentation of sugars For food as well as pharmaceutical preparation,

metallurgical cleaning and textile industry

Acetic acid from acetylene To make sour foods and vinegar

Formic acid Red ants and scorpions To preserve fruits, (as a bactericide and also in leather
and rubber industry

Sulfuric acid from sulfur As an electrolyte in batteries, for the manufacture of

explosives, dyes, and petroleum exploration

Nitric acid From saltpeter Amlaraj in photography, for medicinal as well as

fertilizer production

Benzoic acid from benzoyl chloride To preserve medicines and foodstuffs

Hydrochloric acid from sodium formate For bleaching leather, printing and dyeing on clothes
and removing ink stains from clothes

malic acid — To manufacture cosmetics as well as skin care products

tartaric acid — To prepare baking powder

Glutamic acid — For natural flavor in foods

Uses of Bases:
Bases Use

sodium hydroxide For soap making, petroleum refining, textile and paper industry,
pharmaceutical manufacturing as well as cleaning in homes and factories

Potassium hydroxide As a reagent in the laboratory, it has the ability to absorb CO₂ and SO₂ from the
air to produce mild soaps, shampoos and shaving creams.

Calcium hydroxide For coloring walls with lime, for making plaster, as bleaching powder, for
removing hair from skin and for reducing soil acidity.

Calcium oxide For construction, to make caustic soda, to make sodium carbonate as well as
bleaching powder

Magnesium hydroxide To reduce stomach acidity, as antidote in acid poisoning, in sugar industry

Magnesium oxide Used in medicine manufacturing, bar manufacturing as well as in boilers.

Aluminum hydroxide To remove grease from glass and remove ink stains from clothes
 9

Uses of salts:

Salt Use

sodium chloride To preserve pickles, chlorine, HCI, washing soda as well as sodium
hydroxide

sodium bicarbonate For making baking powder, in fire extinguishers as well as in antacids

sodium carbonate For cleaning clothes, dishes, detergents for manufacturing glass

Potassium Nitrate For gunpowder, crackers manufacturing, glass industry as well as

fertilizer manufacturing

copper sulphate For disinfection, electroplating, dyeing and printing

Potassium aluminum sulfate Water purification/disinfectant, pharmaceutical manufacturing, dyeing

as well as color barrier, in the leather industry as well as to stop
bleeding.

Potassium Chlorate For making matchsticks in match industry


 2

सजीवाांच्या वर्गीकरण पद्धती भार्ग 1

Index
❖ Classification methods of living things
CLASSIFICATION SYSTEMS
1. Artificial system:
➢ Based on growth habits and uses. A primitive system 300 BC-AD 1500. Theophratus and
Dioscorides, Greece.
2. Mechanical system:
➢ based on one or a few chosen characteristics. 1580-1760. Caesalpino, Italy; Bauhin, Swiss;
Linnaeus, Sweden.
3. Natural system
➢ Based on many characteristics. 1760-1880. Adanson, France; de Candolle, Swiss; Bentham and
Hooker, Britain.
4. Phylogenetic system:
➢ Based on many characteristics, with evolutionary interpretations. 1880-present. Engler, Germany;
Bessey, America; Hutchinson, Britain; Thorne, America.
1735 1866 1925 1938 1969 1990
Linnaeus Haeckel Chatton Copeland Whittaker Woese
2 Kingdoms 3 Kingdoms 2 Empires 4 Kingdoms 5 Kingdoms 2 Domains
Prokaryote Monera Monera Eubacteria
Protist
Protist Protist Archaea
Plant
Fungi
Plant Eukaryote Plant
Plant Eukaryote
Animal Animal Animal Animal

History and different methods of classification of organisms:

❖ The system of classification of living things has evolved in several stages. In ancient times classification
was based on simple observations, but over time a system based on scientific principles developed.
1. History of Classification of Organisms:
➢ Four major systems have been used to classify organisms:
1.1 Artificial System (300 BC to 1580 AD):
➢ This method was based on only some visual or simple characteristics of living things.
Main features:
➢ Classification based only on external characteristics (height, color, size).
➢ Biological or genetic relationships of living organisms are not considered.
➢ Simple and elementary method.
Examples:
➢ Aristotle (Aristotle) (384-322 BCE) – Divided living things into two groups, plants and animals.
➢ Theophrastus (371-287 BCE) – Classified plants into trees, shrubs and herbs.
➢ In medieval times there was a classification based on religious texts.
1.2 Mechanical System (1580 to 1760 AD):
➢ This method was a step up from the synthetic method and a bit more scientific.
 3

Main features:
➢ Classification of living things became more detailed.
➢ Some biological characteristics between animals and plants were considered.
➢ But, visual features were still preferred over natural relationships.
Examples:
➢ John Ray (1627-1705): Introduced the concept of species for the first time.
➢ Carl Linnaeus (1707-1778): developed Binomial Nomenclature and proposed two kingdom
systems for classification (Plantae and Animalia).
1.3 Natural System (1770 to 1880 AD):
➢ This method was more scientific and based on the natural properties of living organisms.
Main features:
➢ Classification of living organisms is based on their natural characteristics and biological
relationships.
➢ Anatomy, tissues, and other biological factors were considered.
➢ Began to consider the evolutionary process of species.
Examples:
➢ Georges Cuvier (1769-1832): Classified animals based on anatomy and tissues.
➢ Augustin Pyramus de Candolle (Augustin Pyramus de Candolle) (1778-1841): Classified plants
based on physical characteristics.
➢ Charles Darwin (1809-1882): Explained the evolutionary process of living organisms in the book
Origin of Species, which had a major impact on taxonomy.
1.4 Phylogenetic System (1880 AD to date):
➢ This modern method is based on genetics and evolution of living organisms.
Main features:
➢ Living organisms are classified on the basis of their phylogeny and common ancestor.
➢ Classification is done using Fossil Study, Biochemical Analysis and DNA Sequencing.
➢ It is considered the most accurate and advanced method in modern biology.
Examples:
➢ Ernst Haeckel (Ernst Haeckel) (1866): First proposed three kingdom system (Protista, Plantae,
Animalia).
➢ Robert Whittaker (1969): proposed a five kingdom system (Monera, Protista, Fungi, Plantae,
Animalia).
➢ Carl Woese (1990): developed a three kingdom system. (Archaea, Bacteria, Eukarya).
➢ The organism classification system has been constantly improved. Initially classification was based
on visual characteristics only, but now classification is based on DNA and biological relationships.
Today the genealogical method is considered to be the most accurate and scientific method.
Modern Classification Systems:
❖ The classification system of living organisms is constantly being improved. Initially, the classification
was based only on external characteristics, but with the advancement of modern science, classification
is now based on the genetic properties, cell structure, evolution, and biochemical characteristics of
organisms. Modern classification methods are detailed below.
1. Binomial Nomenclature – Carl Linnaeus
➢ Year: 1735
➢ Principle: Every organism is named in two parts – Genus + Species.
 4

Examples:
➢ Man → Homo sapiens
➢ Lion → Panthera leo
➢ Wheat → Summer wheat
Main features:
1. Each organism is given a single scientific name.
2. The name is in Latin and written in italics.
3. The first letter of the name is capital (Genus) and the second letter is small (Species).
4. This method has been accepted internationally.
Importance: This system led to the identification of living organisms on a global scale.
2. Three Kingdom System – Ernst Haeckel:
Year: 1866
Protista – Single celled organism
1. Plantae – Multicellular plants
2. Animalia – Multi Muscular animals
Main features:
➢ In this system, a separate group called "Protista" was created for microorganisms.
➢ Organisms were classified based on their structure and type of cells.
Limitations:
➢ Bacteria and Fungi were not included separately.
3. Two Empire System – Chatton:
Year: 1937
Department:
1. Prokaryota (Prokaryotic cells) – Organisms without a nucleus (e.g. bacteria)
2. Eukaryota (Eukaryotic cells) – Organisms with nuclei (e.g. animals, plants, fungi)
Main features:
➢ Living organisms are divided into two main groups on the basis of cells.
➢ Prokaryotes do not have a nucleus, while eukaryotes have a nucleus.
Significance: This system made clear the difference between microorganisms and multicellular
organisms.
4. Four Kingdom System – Copeland:
Year: 1956
1. Monera – microorganisms (bacteria and blue-green algae)
2. Protista – Unicellular Microorganism (Amoeba, Paramecium)
3. Plantae – Multicellular plants
4. Animalia – Multimuscular animals
Main features:
➢ A separate group named "Monera" was created for microorganisms.
➢ The separate inclusion of Monera and Protista improved the classification of microorganisms.
Importance: This brought more clarity to the classification of microorganisms and helped further
research in biology.
 5

5. Five Kingdom System (Five Kingdom System) – Robert Whittaker (Robert Whittaker):
Year: 1969
Department:
1. Monera – All Microorganisms (Bacteria)
2. Protista – unicellular eukaryotic organisms
3. Fungi – fungus, yeast
4. Plantae – All plants
5. Animalia – All animals
Main features:
➢ This is considered the foundation of modern taxonomy.
➢ Each group was classified based on type of nutrition (autotrophic/autotrophic), cell structure, and
function.
Significance:
➢ Monera – a separate group for bacteria.
➢ Fungi – distinguished from plants, because they do not photosynthesize.
➢ This classification is considered more scientific from an evolutionary point of view.
6. Modern Genealogical Classification System (Three Domain System) – Carl Woese (1990):
➢ This system is based on DNA sequencing.
Department:
1. Archaea – ancient bacteria (living in extreme conditions)
2. Bacteria – Common bacteria
3. Eukarya – This includes Protista, Fungi, Plantae and Animalia.
Importance: This system made the evolutionary interrelationships of organisms clearer.
Conclusion:
1. Carolus Linnaeus revolutionized scientific nomenclature by developing the binomial system.
2. Ernst Haeckel first created a separate group Protista for microorganisms.
3. Chatton proposed two kingdom systems based on
prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells.
4. Copeland revised the classification of
microorganisms and proposed a four kingdom
system.
5. Robert Whittaker created the most recognized Five
Kingdoms system.
6. Carl Woese further improved the classification
based on genomics and proposed a three-zone
system.
➢ Linnaeus was the first to successfully classify living
things, hence he is called the Father of Classification.
➢ Linnaeus classified organisms into specific groups / taxa according to their characteristics. That is
why he is also called the Father of Taxonomy.
➢ However, the term taxonomy was first used by the scientist D-Candolle.
 6

Binomial System:
❖ Classical name consists of 2 words. The first word is species and the second is caste.
❖ Both words have a minimum of 3 and a maximum of 13 letters each.
❖ The first letter of the genus reader is always Capital, while the first letter of the species reader is in
Small script.
❖ Classical name is always in Bold, or Italics font.
❖ While writing the classical name, both words are underlined separately by Liriky (Underline).
❖ In the classical name, some animals may have the same genus name but no two organisms have the
same species name.
BINOMIAL NOMENCLATURE OF SOME COMMON PLANTS AND ANIMALS:
PLANTS:
COMMON NAME & BINOMIAL NOMENCLATURE
1. Pes plant → Pisum sativam
2. Onion plant → Allium cepa
3. Mango plant → Mangifera indica
4. Wheat plant → triticum aestivim
5. Banyan tree → Ficus bengalensis
6. Soya bean → glycine max
B. ANIMALS:
1. Frag → Rana hexadactyla
2. Cat → felis domenstica
3. Dog → canis familiaris
4. Housefly → muska domestica
5. Cobra → naja naja
6. Common crap (fish) → cypatnus carpio
 7

Codes of Nomenclature:
❖ International Code of Botanical Nomenclature (ICBN) for plants
❖ (including Fungi & Cyanobacteria)
❖ International Code for Nomenclature of Cultivated Plants (ICNCP) only for cultivated plants
❖ International Code Zoological Nomenclature (ICZN) for Animals
❖ International Code of Nomenclature of Bacteria ICNB
❖ International Committee on Taxonomy of Viruses (ICTV) foy Viruses
Common Name Scientific Names

Tiger Panthera tigris

Lion Panthera leo

Cat Felis catus

Dog Canis lupus familiaris

Horse Equus caballus

India cobra Naja naja

Dolphin Delphinidae delphis

Frog Anura ranidae

Toad Rana tigris

Rabbit Oryctolagus cuniculus

Housefly Musca domestica

Cockroach Periplaneta americana

Common name Binomial name

Amoeba Amoeba proteus

Hydra Hydra vulgaris

Tapeworm Tape soles

Roundworm Ascaris lumbricoides

Earthworm Lampito Mauritii / Perionyx excavatus

Leech Hirudinaria granulosa

 8

Cockroach American periplanet

Snail Globular pile

Starfish Asterias blushing

Pearl oyster Painted painted

[Link]'s Five Kingdom Classification:

Characteristics Five kingdoms

Monera Protista Fungi Plantae Animalia

Cell type Prokaryotic Eukaryotic Eukaryotic Eukaryotic Eukaryotic

cell wall Noncellulosic present in present with Present Absent

(Polysaccharide some chitin (cellulose)
+ amino acid)

nuclear Absent Present Present Present Present

membrane

body Cellular Cellular multicellular/ Tissue / organ tissue/

organisation loose tissue organ/ organ
system

Mode of Autotrophic Autotrophic Heterotrophic Autotrophic Heterotrophi

nutrition (chemosyn- (Photosyn- (saprophytic/ (phytosynthetic) c
thetic and thetic) and parasitic) (Holozoic/Sa
photosynthetic) Heterotrophic prophytic
and Hetero- etc.)
trophic
(saprotrophic
phytic/parasitic)

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सजीवाांच्या वर्गीकरण पद्धती भार्ग 2

INDEX:
❖ Methods of Classification of Living Organisms Part - 2
KINGDOM- MONERA :
❖ Bacteria : prokaryotic
❖ Microscopic organisms
❖ Rigid cell wall
❖ Reproduction - Binary Fission
Nutrition :
❖ Photo-autotrophs
❖ Chemotrophs
❖ Saprotrophs
❖ Parasites
Bacteria:
❖ Bacteria are microorganisms and they are prokaryotic organisms. They are unicellular and can live in
different environments. Some bacteria are beneficial, some are harmful.
1. Types of Nutrition in Bacteria:
➢ Bacteria according to their mode of nutrition Autotrophic and Heterotrophic There are two main
types.
(1) Autotrophic Bacteria :
➢ These bacteria make their own food. They are divided into two types:
(i) Photosynthetic Bacteria : This bacteria Produces food using light energy (Photosynthesis). They use
a pigment like chlorophyll (Bacteriochlorophyll).
Examples:
❖ Chromatium
❖ Rhodospirillum
❖ Chlorobium
Main features:
❖ These organisms are mainly found in swamps or wetlands.
❖ They make their own food using sunlight.
❖ Some bacteria use water instead of sulfur (H₂S).
(ii) Chemosynthetic Bacteria : These bacterial Chemical compounds (eg ammonia, sulphur, nitrate) are
oxidized to produce energy And use it for food production.
Examples:
❖ Nitrosomonas : Converts to ammonia → nitrite.
❖ Nitrobacter : changes to nitrite → nitrate.
❖ Sulfur bacteria (Thiobacillus) : oxidize sulfur compounds.
Main features:
❖ These bacteria can produce food even without sunlight.
❖ They play an important role in ecological cycles (eg nitrogen cycle).
 3

(2) Heterotrophic Bacteria :

➢ These bacteria cannot produce food by themselves. They depend on other organisms.
Types of host bacteria:
1. Saprophytic Bacteria : It lives on dead and decaying matter.
➢ E.g. Bacillus subtilis, Pseudomonas
2. Parasitic Bacteria : These depend on living organisms and cause diseases.
➢ E.g. Mycobacterium tuberculosis (Tuberculosis disease), Salmonella typhi (typhoid)
3. Symbiotic Bacteria : They do symbiosis with other organisms.
➢ E.g. Rhizobium – Nitrogen fixation in pomegranate plants.
2. Useful Bacteria:
➢ Although some bacteria are pathogenic, many bacteria are beneficial to human life.
(1) Agriculturally Useful Bacteria:
Nitrogen Fixing Bacteria:
➢ Rhizobium – Pomegranate does nitrogen fixation by staying in the roots of plants.
➢ Azotobacter – Fixes nitrogen in bare soil.
➢ Nitrosomonas And Nitrobacter – Helps complete the nitrogen cycle.
Beneficial bacteria for soil:
➢ Bacillus polymyxa – Increases living nutrients in the soil by decomposing organic matter.
(2) Industrially Useful Bacteria:
Bacteria for fermentation:
➢ Lactobacillus - Makes curd from milk.
➢ Acetobacter aceti - Produces vinegar (acetic acid) from alcohol.
➢ Clostridium butyricum – Used in butter production.
In drug manufacturing:
➢ Streptomyces – Produces antibiotics (eg Streptomycin, Tetracycline).
In foods:
➢ Lactobacillus And Bifidobacterium – Used as probiotics.
(3) Environmentally Beneficial Bacteria :
Decomposition of solid and liquid waste:
➢ Pseudomonas putida – Used to clean up oil spills.
➢ Bacillus subtilis – Increases soil fertility by breaking down organic matter.
Water Purification:
➢ Nitrosomonas And Nitrobacter – Reduces harmful nitrates and ammonia in water.
 4

Kingdom Protista:
❖ Kingdom Protista It is a group of unicellular eukaryotic organisms. Plant-like, animal-like and fungal-
like can be Some live independently, while others are parasitic.
1. Characteristics of Protists:
➢ Unicellular Eukaryotic are living organisms.
Found in moist and watery places.
There are different types of nutrition:
➢ Autotrophic → plant-like
➢ Heterotrophic → Animal-like
➢ Mixotrophic → eg. Euglena
➢ Sensory eyespot and sometimes cilia or flagella are present for sensitivity.
➢ There is sexual and asexual reproduction.
2. Types of Protists:
Protista are divided into four major types:
1. Plant-like Protists – Algae
2. Animal-like Protists – Protozoa
3. Fungi-like Protists – Water molds & Slime molds
4. Euglenoids – Protista with characteristics of plants and animals
1. Plant-like Protists – Algae
➢ Autotrophic and photosynthetic organisms.
Contains chlorophyll and produces food through photosynthesis.
Found in water and form the base of the food chain.
Important Types:
1. Euglena – Can photosynthesize, but becomes peritrophic in the dark.
2. Diatoms – Tough cell walls due to walls containing silica.
3. Dinoflagellates – Some species emit light in water (Bioluminescence).
Examples:
❖ Euglena, Diatoms, Dinoflagellates
Significance:
❖ Diatomaceous is produced from diatoms for industrial use.
❖ A key role in the marine food chain.
2. Animal-like Protists – Protozoa:
➢ Heterotrophic and dependent on other organisms.
➢ Animals move like animals and mostly use flagella, cilia, or leg-like outgrowths (pseudopodia) for
locomotion.
➢ Most are parasitic or free-living.
Important Types:
1. Pseudopodia : Like amoebas, which project "pseudopodia" (false legs) from their bodies.
➢ Amoeba proteus
2. Ciliates : moves through castles.
➢ Paramecium
3. Flagellates : Contains one or more flagella.
➢ Trypanosoma (bacteria that cause sleeping sickness)
4. Sporozoans : do not move through anything and are parasitic.
➢ Plasmodium (the bacterium that causes malaria)
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Significance:
❖ Some protozoa cause disease (e.g. malaria, sleeping sickness).
❖ Some help improve soil fertility.
3. Fungi-like Protists – Water & Slime Molds:
➢ shaleIncludes slime molds and water molds.
➢ They are pro-nutrients and work to decompose organic matter.
➢ Reproduce both sexually and asexually.
Important Types:
1. Slime Molds: They grow in liquid form and produce spores under adverse conditions.
➢ E.g. Physarum
2. Water Molds : Live in water and affect plants as well as animals.
➢ E.g. Phytophthora (causes potato blight)
Significance:
❖ Some species cause crop diseases in agriculture.
❖ Act as decomposers in nature.
4. Euglenoids – Protista with plant and animal like features:
➢ Euglena is the most important type.
➢ It is autotrophic in sunlight, but becomes mixedotrophic in darkness.
➢ It has a flagella, which enables it to move.
➢ Outside the cells there is a proteinaceous pellicle, so it remains flexible.
Examples:
❖ Euglena viridis
Significance:
❖ An important organism for research.
❖ It can perform both photosynthesis and nutrition, so it is placed among plants and animals.
 6

Name of Mode of
Agent / cause Other facts
Disease Transmission
Symptoms-diarrhoea
Contaminated Anaemia may be developed due to
Amoebiasis Entamoeba histolytica
Water/food loss of blood.
Treatment - metronidazole

Symptoms-fever, fatigue, vomiting,

Female
Plasmodiums (vivax/malaria and and headaches.
Malaria Anopheles
falciparum) Treatment-Pentavalent antimonials
mosquito
are the first line drugs.

African Symptoms-fevers, headaches,

Infected tsetse
Sleeping Trypanosoma itchiness, and joint pains.
fly
sickness Treatment-Pentamidine.
Symptoms : Breathing difficulty,
spread by
Leishmaniasis Leishmania Skin sores, Stuffy nose, runny
sandflies
nose, swallowing difficulty.
Human malaria is caused by four Bites of female
Symptoms- Fever, headache,
different species of Plasmodium: anopheles
Malaria chills, vomitting
P. falciparum, P. malariae, P. ovale mosquito
Treatment- Quinine
and P. vivax

Kingdom Fungi :
❖ Fungi are a special group of organisms that are neither completely plants nor animals. They are
omnivores and depend on dead or living organisms. Some fungi are unicellular (E.g. Yeast), while some
are multicellular (E.g. mushroom).
❖ The study of fungi Mycology is done in this science.
His body Hyphae It is composed of a structure of microscopic fibers called
Fungi reproduce by spores.
1. Characteristics of Fungi:
1. Eukaryotic and protozoan organisms.
2. Cell wall is made of chitin.
3. Most fungi act as decomposers.
4. They reproduce with the help of spores.
5. These can be multicellular or unicellular.
6. Grows on both living and non-living matter.
2. Types of Fungi:
➢ Fungi are mainly divided into four groups:
No Type of fungus Examples

1 Zygomycota Rhizopus (Bread Mold)

2 Ascomycota – Sac fungus Yeast, Penicillium, Aspergillus

3 Basidiomycota – Club Fungi Mushroom, Puffballs

4 Deuteromycota – Imperfect Fungi Alternaria

 7

Fungal pathogens Disease Crops

Alternaria triticina Leaf blight Wheat
Fusarium oxysporum f. sp. lycopersici Fusarium wilt Tomato
Rhizoctonia solani Sheath blight Rice
Sclerotium rolfsii Wilt Potato
Pythiumaphani dermatum Damping off Tomato
Sclerotinia sclerotiorum Head rot Sunflower
Alternaria solani Early blight tomato, potato
Alternaria alternate f. sp. lycopersici Early blight Tomato
Ceratocystis paradoxa Pine apple disease Sugarcane
Phytophthora infestans Late blight Potato
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वनस्पती वर्गीकरण
TOPICS TO BE COVERED :
❖ Classification of Plants
❖ Cryptogamae : Thallophytes, Bryophyta
❖ Pteridophyta
❖ Phanerogamae : Gymnosperms & Angiosperms
❖ Angiosperm : Monocots & Dicots
Kingdom - Plantae :
1) Cryptogamae: Department - Thallophyta, Department - Bryophyta, Department - Pteridophyta.
2) Phanerogamae (Seed & flower bearing) :
Division : Spermatophyta :
i) Gymnosperm
ii) Angiosperms: Monocots and Dicots
Kingdom - Plantae :
❖ Plant life includes organisms that produce their own food (autotrophic). These plants produce food
through the process of photosynthesis.
❖ Plants are classified into two major groups according to their mode of reproduction:
1. Cryptogamae - Seedless plants
2. Cotyledons (Phanerogamae) - plants with seeds

Cryptogamae – Seedless plants:

❖ These plants have no flowers and no seeds.
❖ Reproduction is mainly by spores rather than seeds.
❖ The anatomy is simple.
❖ These plants are mostly found in moist, humid places.
❖ They are divided into three groups:
 3

1) Division– Thallophyta:
➢ These plants have no roots, stems and leaves.
➢ These plants do not have a vascular system i.e.
water and sap tissue.
➢ These plants are autotrophic and found in water.
➢ Exception : Fungus
➢ They reproduce asexually.
➢ Plants with the simplest anatomy.
➢ Body thallus-like (Thallus - without clear division
into root, stem, leaves).
➢ Plants that live in water, therefore Aquatic Plants is called
➢ Chlorophyll is there for photosynthesis.
➢ Mainly River, lake, sea Found in this.
➢ Examples: Spirogyra, Chlorella, Nostoc, Volvox, Eulothrix etc.
Algae:
❖ Some algae are unicellular while others are multicellular. Chlorella is a non-motile algae while
Chlamydomonas is a motile algae.
❖ Algae Spirogyra are branched and fibrous while Cara algae are branched and non-fibrous.
❖ Sargassum is a sea weed algae of very large size, about 60 meters long.
❖ The cell wall of algae is bilayered and the inner layer is made of cellulose and the outer layer is
made of pectin.
A) Chlorophycea (Green Algae):
➢ Among them are the pigments chlorophyll-a and chlorophyll-b. Food is also stored in the form of
starch.
➢ Their walls are mainly composed of cellulose and 2-8 flagella of the same size as diatoms.
➢ (Kashabhika) are there
➢ These algae are mostly found in freshwater and sometimes in salt water.
➢ E.g. Cara, Spirogyra, Chlamydomonas, Volvox, Eulothrix, Chlorella etc.
B) Phaeophyceae (Brown Algae) :
➢ They contain the pigments chlorophyll-a, chlorophyll-c and fucoxanthin. Also, food is stored in
the form of mannitol and laminarin.
➢ Their wall is made of cellulose and contains the compound algin.
➢ This algae is mostly found in sea water. Also some of these algae are used as food.
➢ E.g. Ectocarpus, Sargassum (largest Algae), Fucus, Dictyota, Laminaria etc.
a) Rhodophyceae (red algae):
➢ They contain the pigments chlorophyll-a,
chlorophyll-d and phycoerythrin. Also, food is
stored in the form of phloridin starch.
➢ Their wall is made of cellulose and pectin. This
algae is mostly found in sea water.
➢ E.g. Ccondus crispus, Gelidium, Polysaphonia,
Porphyra, Gracilaria (Agars are produced from red
algae, an important compound useful in tissue
culture.)
 4

Lichen :
❖ The growth of these plants is very slow and these plants live for many years. These plants are found
in all types of habitats on Earth, from sea level to arctic to antarctic.
❖ A type of lichen is a symbiotic existence of two different types of organisms, one being an alga and
the other being a fungus.
❖ Algae are called phycobionts or photobionts and belong to the phylum Chlorophyceae (green algae)
or Cyanobacteria (blue-green algae). Fungi are called mycobionts and usually belong to the group
Ascomycetes and sometimes Basidiomycetes or Deuteromycetes.
❖ Lichens are very sensitive to air pollution and do not grow near cities. Lichens are very simple plants
and are green or bluish green in color. Some exceptional lichens are yellow, orange, brown and even
black in color. (Alexopoulos and Mims 1979 classified lichens into three groups based on the type of
fungi found.
❖ The term lichen was first coined by Theophrastus et al. S. Used in the pre 300s.
1. Ascolichens : This group consists of Ascomycetes type of fungi.
2. Basidia olichens : These are basidiomycetes type of fungi.
3. Deuterolichens: This group consists of Deuteromycetes type of fungi.
There are three types of lichens based on their external appearance:
i) Crustose lichens :
➢ These lichens are very thin and flattened and are found on tree trunks or rocks.
➢ E.g. Graphics, lecanora, hematoma etc.
ii) Foliose lichen :
➢ This lichen is bag-like and is flattened on both sides and full. It always adheres to the support
and for this they have hair like appendages called hysines.
➢ E.g. Parmelia, Colema, Peltigera etc.
iii) Fruticose lichen :
➢ They are also called bushy lichen lichens. Their shape is
cylindrical, branched and straight.
➢ These plants adhere to the support by means of mucilaginous disc-
like structures. spice
➢ E.g. Cladonia, Usnia, Alectoria, Rosella tinctoria (litmus paper),
(Parmotrema (stone flower / blackstone) etc.)
2) Division – Bryophyta (Chlorophyta):
➢ These plants do not have true roots, stems and leaves. But there are rhizomes that look like
roots. These membranes are unicellular in liverworts and multicellular in mosses.
➢ The roots absorb water and salts and help the plant to adhere to the support.
➢ These plants are multicellular and autotrophic and are found
in shady as well as humid regions.
➢ About 960 varieties and 24 thousand species are found.
➢ Their bodies are originally haploid and produce gametes.
Hence they are also called gametophytes.
➢ Sphagnum moss is used to keep cut plant parts moist.
➢ Moss is the first type of terrestrial plant.
➢ They are classified into three groups namely Liverworts, Mosses and Hornworts.
 5

1) Asexual Reproduction in Bryophytes:

➢ Asexual reproduction in Bryophytes occurs by spores or vegetative reproduction instead of
seeds. In this, parts of the plant body produce new plants.
Types of Asexual Reproduction :
(i) Sporulation
➢ Main types of asexual reproduction.
➢ Haploid spores are formed in the sporangium.
➢ These spores produce a new gametophyte under favorable conditions.
➢ Example: Funaria, Marchantia.
(ii) Vegetative Reproduction
➢ The process of producing a new plant from parts of a plant is called vegetative propagation.
1. Fragmentation
➢ Thallus or mature gametophyte divides to form a new plant.
➢ Example: Marchantia, Riccia.
2. Gemmules (Gemmae Formation)
➢ A special type of reproductive body "Gemmae" is formed.
➢ These gemma form new plants under favorable conditions.
➢ Example: Marchantia.
2) Sexual Reproduction in Bryophytes
Main features:
➢ In Bryophytes, sexual reproduction does not take place in the diploid state, but in the haploid
state.
➢ Gametophyte is the major stage in this.
➢ The presence of water is essential for reproduction.
Process of sexual reproduction:
(i) Gametophyte and its structure
➢ Gametophyte is the major and independent life cycle stage in Bryophyta.
➢ It contains special gametangia (gametangia) i.e. sexual organs for reproduction.
➢ There are two types of gametangia:
1. Antheridia: The organ that produces the male gamete.
2. Archegonia: Organ that produces female gametes.
(ii) Process of sexual reproduction :
1) Process in Male Gametophyte: Antheridia Formation:
➢ Antheridia are produced on the gametophyte.
➢ Biflagellated male gametes (Antherozoids) are formed in the antheridia.
➢ These gametes can move and require water for reproduction.
2) Process in female gametophyte (Female Gametophyte: Archegonia Formation):
➢ An egg cell develops inside the archegonium.
➢ In this, the male gamete comes and fertilizes the ovum.
 6

3) Fertilization and Zygote & Sporophyte Formation :

➢ Diploid zygote is formed by fusion of egg and antherozoid.
➢ The zygote develops into a sporophyte.
➢ The sporophyte is attached to the gametophyte and is not self-fertile.
➢ A sporophyte consists of a sporangium, where haploid spores are produced.
➢ These spores propagate and form a new gametophyte.
(a) Hepaticopsida / Liverworts / Marchantiophyta (Hepaticae) :
➢ This group consists of very simple plants found in moist as well as shady areas and having
unicellular roots.
➢ Their vegetative reproduction takes place by division or gamey buds. Also, sexual reproduction
occurs from male and female cells and these male and female cells are produced on the same
plant or on different plants.
➢ E.g. Ricksia, Mercantia, Sphaerocarpus
(b) Biopsida / Masses (Musi / Masay):
➢ These plants belong to the higher class and are more developed than the hepatica. Their
reproductive stage consists of two stages called protonema and leaf or liphistage.
➢ Vegetative reproduction takes place with the help of protonema. During sexual reproduction,
two structures namely antheridia and archegonia are formed and through their union, zygote is
formed and reproduction takes place. eg Sphagnum, Faunaria, Polytrichum
➢ Sphagnum moss is used to prevent soil erosion. They are also used as fuel.
➢ Scamprum is also used to keep cut plant parts moist.
(a) Anthocerotopsida / Hornworts (Anthoceratophyta):
➢ These plants (are found in moist places while some are found on trunks of other trees.
➢ These plants are mostly hollow and contain photosynthetic blue-green bacteria of the (Nostoc)
species. Hence they have bluish green color (e.g.
Anthocyros, Foliosyros, Notothylas, Megasyros etc.).
Pteridophyta
❖ Pteridophyta is an important group in the taxonomy of
plants, "Plants with First Vascular Tissue" is known as
❖ In these plants Xylem and Phloem A similar system of
conducting fibers allows these plants to transport water and
nutrients.
1) Introduction to Pteridophyta
Characteristics:
➢ Pteridophyta is Advanced Seedless Vascular Plants group is
➢ In these plants Roots, Stem, and Leaves are clearly visible.
➢ Instead of reproduction seeds Occurs through spores.
➢ life cycle Sporophyte is the dominant and autonomous stage.
➢ hey mainly In a moist, shady place or found in wetlands.
➢ For the first time in Pteridophytes Vascular System has developed.
 7

Reproduction in Pteridophytes
A) Asexual Reproduction in Pteridophytes
➢ Asexual reproduction is mainly in Pteridophyta. spores was through
1) Sporulation:
➢ In the sporophyte Sporangia are, which Spores are produced.
➢ Special types of sporangia Sorai are in the nodules, which are on the underside of the leaves.
➢ Under favorable conditions after spore propagation Primary gametophyte is formed.
2) Vegetative Reproduction:
➢ New plants are formed from parts of the plant.
➢ Example:Through Rhizomes – Nephrolepis, By Brood Buds - Adiantum
B) Sexual Reproduction in Pteridophytes:
➢ In Pteridophyta Sexual reproduction takes place through gametophyte (Prothallus).
1) Gametophyte formation:
➢ After the spore germinates it develops into a green, heart-shaped gametophyte called prothallus.
➢ This gametophyte is independent but lives for a limited period.
2) Sexual Organs:
Two types of sex organs are formed on the prothallus:
1. Antheridia – Produce male gametes (Antherozoids).
2. Archegonia – Produces female gametes (Egg).
3) Fertilization process:
➢ in antheridia Biflagellate antherozoids reach archegonia with the help of water.
➢ Here there is fertilization (Fusion) with the ovum and Zygote is formed.
➢ The zygote is diploid (2n) and gradually develops into a new sporophyte
Cotyledon subfamily (Phanerogamae):
❖ All plants in this suborder produce seeds as well as flowers, hence this group is also called flowering
plants. They are classified under the group of cotyledons/cotyledons.
Cotyledon/Spermatophyta:
❖ These plants have roots, trunks and leaves as organs. Also there are vascular bodies i.e. water
vessels and sap vessels.
❖ Seeds and flowers are produced. Also, they reproduce sexually. They are also perennial, biennial and annual.
❖ Seeds are classified into two categories based on whether or not they have a protective covering.
1) Division - Gymnosperm
(Gymnos-Naked, Sperm - Seed)
➢ The seeds of these plants do not have a protective covering. The term gymnosperm was first S.
It was used by Theophrastus in his Inquiry into Plantus in 300 BC. About 70 species and 725
varieties are found all over the world while 16 species and 53 varieties are found in India.
➢ These plants do not bear fruit. These plants are perennial, evergreen, but do not have branches.
The roots of Cycus plants are found in symbiotic relationship with blue-green algae and the
roots of pine plants are found in symbiotic relationship with fungi.
➢ These plants have male and female flowers on different cotyledons and are called cones and
those plants are called dioecious plants.
➢ E.g. Psyche
➢ Ginkgo biloba plants in this group are also known as living fossils. Because these plants are
found in living as well as fossil forms.
➢ These plants vary in size. These include Sequoia sempervirens, the tallest plant in the world. This
plant is also known as coast redwood in California. The height of this plant is 366 feet. Omia
pygmaea is the smallest plant in this group, reaching a height of about 25 cm. Also Taxodium
➢ The circumference of the Mucronatum plant is 125 feet in width.
➢ Ex. Cycas, Pine, Deodar, Domia pygmaea, Sequoia sempervirens, Taxodium mucronatum, Ginkgo biloba
 8

They are classified into three groups:

1) Cycadopsida: E.g. Cycus, Zamia pygmaea
2) Gnetopsida : E.g. Netum, Ephedra, Welwitschia
3) Coniferopsida : e.g. Pine, Ginkgo biloba, Taxus, Tarchodium
Uses of the plant:
1) Sycacus produces sago palm from this plant.
2) Resin from pine plant, ephedrine drug (asthma) from ephedra plant and wood from Chilgoza plant.
3) Taxol is prepared from Ye tree and it is used for cancer treatment.
4) Picea abies is used to prepare agkadi.
5) Plants of this group are used to produce castor oil, pine oil and citrus oil.
6) Pine and Cedar plants are used in the paper industry, soap making, nail polish, varnish and wood
production.
2) Division - Angiosperms
(Angio-Covered, Sperm- Seed)
➢ The seeds of these plants have a protective covering. These plants bear fruits. Also the seeds are
inside the fruits.
➢ This group includes plants of different sizes. E.g. Wolfia is the smallest plant in the world with a
height of about 1 mm while Eucalyptus is 100 meters tall.
➢ These plants are perennial, biennial and annual. These plants reproduce with the help of
flowers.
➢ In between are aqueduct and sap vessel tissue and there are two types of aqueduct and canal
and sieve tube and co-cell of sap vessel.
➢ In between, microscopic spores or pollen grains are produced in the anthers and large spores or
ovules are produced in the ovary.
➢ The flowers of these plants contain additional mandals, nidalpunj and dalpunj, in addition to the
essential mandals, pumang and jayang.
➢ Among them, pollination takes place indirectly through various means and is either self-
pollination or cross-pollination.
➢ This plant produces dicotyledons. In which, after fertilization of one male gamete into an ovum,
fertilization of the other gamete into a second nucleus forms the embryo and the embryo
respectively. Then the seeds are formed in the ovary. Then the ovary transforms into fruits.
➢ Some seeds of these plants contain only one seed (monocot). Some plants have two seeds in
their seeds. Based on that they are classified into two categories.
A) Class : Monocotyledons:
➢ Seeds : Seeds have a single pod.
➢ Roots : Has fibrous type of roots. Some have visitor roots.
➢ Trunk : Has virtual/hollow/fruity/disc shaped stem.
➢ Leaves : Leaves have parallel venation. (eg bananas)
➢ Flowers : Flowers are tripartite i.e. in multiples of three.
➢ Vascular tissue: They are scattered in the trunk.
➢ For example, Grains (wheat, sorghum, millet, maize, rice), sugarcane, bamboo, banana,
evergreen, onion, garlic etc.
 9

B) Class Dicotyledons:
➢ Seeds : Seeds have two pods.
➢ Roots : Has strong and substantial roots.
➢ Trunk : Trunk is strong and firm.
➢ Leaves : Leaves have reticulate venation.
➢ Flowers : Flowers are Panchabhai i.e. in
multiples of five.
➢ Vascular tissue: The trunk is circular in
shape.
➢ E.g. Pulses and pulses (harbara, tur, moong, lentil, urad, pea, math), groundnut, mango, vad,
pimpal, tamarind, jaswand etc.
Uses of Variegated Plants:
1) Isabgol (Plantago ovata) This plant is used for making medicine for stomach disorders.
2) Rotenone, a neurotoxic compound obtained from the roots of the plant Deris elliptica, is used to stun
fish.
3) Salix alba plant is used to make cricket bats.
4) Morus alba plant is used to make hockey sticks, badminton handles as well as tennis rackets.
5) Rubber is obtained from the plants Ficus elastica and Hevea brasiliensis.
6) Saffron is obtained from the leaves and flowers of the plant Crocus centivus.
7) Cardamom is obtained from the plant Elateria cardamom.
8) Chewing gum is produced from the plant Acris sapota.
9) The Therobroma cacao seeds produce cocoa and chocolates.

 2

वनस्पती वर्गीकरण Part- 02

Topics to be Covered:
❖ Pteridophyta
❖ Spermatophyta
❖ Gymnosperms & Angiosperms
❖ Monocot & Dicot
Division: Pteridophyta
❖ These plants have organs like roots, stems and leaves. Also these are the first vascular plants on earth.
❖ These plants are multicellular and autotrophic. Their group includes about 400 genera and 10500
species.
❖ These plants have vascular and sap tissue. Hence, they are also called non seed vascular plants.
❖ These plants do not have flowers, fruits and seeds. These plants are terrestrial and are annual or
perennial and are found in moist and shady places. E.g. fern (neche)
❖ These plants are sporophyte and gametophyte is formed from sporophyte. That is, the gametophyte is
dependent on the sporophyte. This is also known as alternation of generation.
❖ The sporophyte stage is dominant in these plants.
❖ A sporophyll is formed between them, from which a cone or strobe is formed.
❖ E.g. Equisetum, Selaginella
❖ Spores are formed in their sporangia and gametophytes are formed from them.
❖ Gametophytes are transformed into prothallus, a multicellular structure.
❖ Some plants in this group are found in water. E.g. Azolla, Salvania / Marseille
❖ Some plants in this group are found on the trunks of other trees. E.g. Equisetum, Lycopodium
❖ Their aqueduct consists of only ducts and the sap canal consists of sieve ducts.
❖ Its three main groups are club moss, horsetail, and fern
❖ Azolla pinnata, an aquatic fern, is used as a biofertilizer.
Asexual Reproduction: Occurs through spore formation. (sporophyte)
Sexual Reproduction: occurs through the formation of gametes. (gametophyte)
Its two main types are heterosporous and homosporous
a) Hetero spores:
➢ Spores of micro/micro spores as well as macro/mega spores size are produced in between.
➢ E.g. Silaginella, Azolla salvinia
b) Homospores (homogeneous spores):
➢ In between, spores of the same size i.e. mega or microspores are produced.
➢ E.g. In Lycopodium, Dryopteris, male reproductive organs are called anthradium and female
reproductive organs are called archegonium.
➢ Anthradium produces spermatozoa and archegonium produces ovum.
Spore Formation in Pteridophytes
pteridophyta Two types of spore formation are found in plants:
1) Homosporous: The same type of spores are produced.
➢ In such plants all spores are similar and they develop in the same type of gametophyte.
➢ These spores are sexually transmitted and can be unisexual or bisexual.
➢ Reproduction is simple and an independent gametophyte is formed.
➢ Examples:
✓ Lycopodium
✓ Dryopteris
✓ Equisetum
 3

2) Heterosporous: Two different types of spores are produced.

➢ Two types of spores are produced in this type:
✓ Microspores – Produces small, male gametophytes
✓ Megaspores – Produces large, female gametophytes
➢ Due to heterospory The process of seed formation begins.
➢ It is considered a more advanced trait in plants.
➢ Examples:
✓ Selaginella
✓ Salvinia
✓ Marseille
In Pteridophyta Sometimes
reproduction also takes place
in the following ways:
1. Apogeny: In this, spores are formed without fusion of male and female gametes.
2. Apposure: In between, the development of gametes takes place with the help of cells other than
spores.
Ex. Nephrolepis (below), Adiantum, Lycopodium, Filicini, Marcellia, Selaginella, Equisetini.
Pteridophyta are classified into four groups.
1) Psilopsida: These are the most ancient plants and they produce the same type of spores.
➢ E.g. Rhynia, Homeophyton
2) Lycopsida: They are also known as Clubmoss. Between them hetero and homospores are formed.
➢ E.g. Lycopodium, Selaginella.
3) Sphenopsida: Their trunks contain sand/silica crystals. Homospores are formed between them.
➢ E.g. Equisetum
4) Pteropsida/Phyllopsida: They have large leaves called fronds. Its trunk is in rhizoid form.
Heterosporous or homosporous are formed between them.
➢ E.g. Adiantum, terris, filicinae
Use of Pteridophyta:
❖ Equisetum Arvense is used to prepare medicines (diuretic, hemostatic and hemopoietic).
❖ Fern Azolla pinnata is used as biological fertilizer as well as soil erosion control.
❖ Ancient pteridophyte forests are responsible for the formation of coal deposits.
Diuretic: Increases urine production
Haemostatic: Helps blood clotting.
Hemopoietic: blood forming
Cotyledon subfamily (Phanerogamae):
❖ All plants in this suborder produce seeds as well as
flowers, hence this group is also called flowering
plants. They are classified under the group of
cotyledons/cotyledons.
Cotyledon/Spermatophyta:
❖ These plants have roots, trunk and leaves as organs. Also there are vascular bodies i.e. water vessels
and sap vessels.
 4

❖ Seeds and flowers are produced. Also, they

reproduce sexually. They are also perennial,
biennial and annual.
❖ Seeds are classified into two categories based
on whether or not they have a protective
covering.
1) Division - Gymnosperm
(Gymnos-Naked, Sperm - Seed)
➢ The seeds of these plants do not have a
protective covering. The term gymnosperm
was first S. It was used by Theophrastus in
his Inquiry into Plantus in 300 BC. About 70 species and 725 varieties are found all over the world
while 16 species and 53 varieties are found in India.
➢ These plants do not bear fruit. These plants are perennial, evergreen, but do not have branches. The
roots of Cycus plants are found in symbiotic relationship with blue-green algae and the roots of
pine plants are found in symbiotic relationship with fungi.
➢ These plants have male and female flowers on different cotyledons and are called cones and those
plants are called dioecious plants.
➢ E.g. Psyche
➢ Ginkgo biloba plants in this group are also known as living fossils. Because these plants are found in
living as well as fossil forms.
➢ These plants vary in size. These include Sequoia Sempervirens, the tallest plant in the world. This
plant is also known as coast redwood in California. The height of this plant is 366 feet. Pygmia is the
smallest plant in this group with a height of about 25 cm. Also Taxodium
➢ The circumference of the Mucronatum plant is 125 feet in width.
➢ Ex. Cycas, Pine, Deodar, Domia pygmaea, Sequoia sempervirens, Taxodium mucronatum, Ginkgo
biloba
They are classified into three groups:
1) Cycadopsida: E.g. Cycas, Zamia pygmaea
2) Gnetopsida: E.g. Netum, Ephedra, Welwitschia
3) Coniferopsida: e.g. Pine, Ginkgo biloba, Taxus, Tar
codium
Uses of non-vegetable plants:
1) Cycus produces sago from the sago palm plant.
2) Resin from pine plant, ephedrine drug (asthma) from
ephedra plant and wood from Chilgoza plant.
3) Taxol is prepared from Yu tree and it is used for cancer
treatment.
4) Picea abies are used to prepare matchboxes.
5) Plants of this group are used to produce castor oil, pine
oil as well as citrus oil.
6) Pine and Cedar plants are used in the paper industry,
soap making, nail polish, varnish and wood production.
 5

2) Division - Angiosperms
(Angio-Covered, Sperm- Seed)
➢ The seeds of these plants have a protective
covering. These plants bear fruits. Also the
seeds are inside the fruits.
➢ This group includes plants of different
sizes. E.g. Wolfia is the smallest plant in the
world with a height of about 1 mm while
Eucalyptus is 100 meters tall.
➢ These plants are perennial, biennial and
annual. This plant reproduces with the
help of flowers.
➢ Between them there are water vessels and
sap vessels and there are two types of
water vessels and vessels and sieve tubes
and co-cells of sap vessels.
➢ In between, minute spores or pollen grains are produced in the anthers and large spores or ovules
are produced in the ovary.
➢ The flowers of these plants contain additional mandals, nidalpunj and dalpunj, in addition to the
essential mandals, pumang and jayang.
➢ Among them, pollination takes place indirectly through various means and is either self-pollination
or cross-pollination.
➢ This plant produces dicotyledons. In which, after fertilization of one male gamete into an ovum,
fertilization of the other gamete into a second nucleus forms the embryo and the embryo
respectively. Then the seeds are formed in the ovary. Then the ovary transforms into fruits.
➢ Some seeds of these plants contain only one seed (monocot). Some plants have two seeds in their
seeds. Based on that they are classified into two categories.
A) Class: Monocotyledons:
➢ Seeds: Seeds have a single pod.
➢ Roots: Has fibrous type of roots. Some have
visitor roots.
➢ Stem: Has virtual/hollow/fruity/disc shaped
stem.
➢ Leaves: Leaves have parallel venation. (eg
bananas)
➢ Flowers: Flowers are tripartite i.e. in multiples of
three.
➢ Vascular tissue: They are scattered in the trunk.
➢ For example, Grains (wheat, sorghum, millet, maize, rice), sugarcane, bamboo, banana, evergreen,
onion, garlic etc.
B) Class: Dicotyledons:
➢ Seeds: Seeds have two pods.
➢ Roots: Has strong and substantial roots.
➢ Stem: Trunk is strong and firm.
➢ Leaves: Leaves have reticulate venation.
➢ Flowers: Flowers are Panchabhai i.e. in multiples of five.
 6

➢ Vascular tissue: The trunk is circular in

shape.
➢ E.g. Pulses and pulses (harbara, tur,
moong, lentil, urad, pea, math),
groundnut, mango, vad, pimpal, tamarind,
jaswand etc.
Uses of the plant:
1) Isabgol (Plantago ovata) This plant is used for
making medicine for stomach disorders.
2) Rotenone, a neurotoxic compound derived from the root of the plant Deris elliptical, is used to stun fish.
3) Salix alba plant is used to make cricket bats.
4) Morus alba plant is used to make hockey sticks, badminton handles as well as tennis rackets.
5) Rubber is obtained from the plants Ficus elastica and Hevea brasiliensis.
6) Saffron is obtained from the leaves and flowers of the plant Crocus centivus.
7) Cardamom is obtained from the plant Elettaria cardamom.
8) Chewing gum is produced from the plant Acris sapota.
9) The Theobroma cacao seeds produce cocoa and chocolates.

 2

प्राणी वर्गीकरण भार्ग - 1

TOPICS TO BE COVERED :
❖ Classification of Animals-1
❖ Non chordates & chordates
❖ Non chordates-10 Phylums
❖ Characteristics & examples.
Animal Kingdom:
1) Non-chordates:
➢ Echinoderms do not have a notochord or a vertebral column. These animals are found in various
forms of anatomy ranging from simple to complex.
2) Chordates:
➢ Notochord Animals have a notochord at any stage of life. They are divided into following groups:
Features of Cordet:
❖ There is a notochord.
❖ Sushir is the dorsal nerve cord.
❖ Pharyngeal gill slits near the throat.
❖ There is a tail (Post-anal tail).
Non-chordates Chordates

1. The Vertical column is absent. 1. Vertebral column is present

2. The central nervous system is solid and ventral. 2. It is hollow and dorsal.

3. If the heart is present, it is dorsal. 3. The heart is ventral.

4. Haemoglobin, if present, is dissolved in plasma. 4. Haemoglobin is present in the red blood

corpuscles.

5. The anus is posterior, so no post-anal tail. 5. A post-anal tail is present.

e.g., Protozoa, Arthropoda, Annelida. e.g., Pisces, Birds, Reptiles, Mammals.
 3

1) Habitat:
➢ Echinoderms are found in a wide variety of habitats. Their main three types are as follows:
(i) Aquatic:
➢ These animals are found in seas, rivers, lakes and other water bodies.
➢ E.g. Sponge (Sycon), Jellyfish (Aurelia), Octopus (Octopus)
(ii) Parasitic:
➢ These animals depend on other organisms for their nourishment by living on or inside the
bodies of other organisms.
➢ E.g. Tapeworm, Liver fluke, Ascaris
(iii) Terrestrial :
➢ These animals live on land.
➢ E.g. Earthworm, Cockroach, Spider
2) Body Organization:
➢ The body structure of animals develops at different levels. In echinoderms it is divided into:
(i) Cellular Level:
➢ The body is made up of many cells, but they do not join together to form tissues.
➢ Ex. Sponges (Porifera - Sycon, Spongilla)
(ii) Tissue Level:
➢ Cells work together to form tissues with specific functions.
➢ E.g. Jellyfish (Aurelia), Hydra (Hydra) - Cnidaria
(iii) Organ Level:
➢ Tissues join together to form organs, which perform specific functions.
➢ E.g. Liver fluke, Earthworm
3) Germ Layers:
➢ Animals are classified according to the number of layers the embryo has during the
development of the body:
(i) Diploblastic:
➢ In these animals, the body structure consists of two layers (Ectoderm and Endoderm).
➢ For example, Hydra, Jellyfish
(ii) Three-layered (Triploblastic):
➢ These animals have three layers for body development: Endoderm, Mesoderm and Ectoderm.
➢ E.g. Earthworm, Tapeworm, Ascaris
4) Symmetry Plan:
➢ Body symmetry refers to whether an animal's body can be cut into two equal parts.
(i) Asymmetry:
➢ The body of these animals has no definite symmetry.
➢ E.g. Sponge (Sponge - Sycon, Spongilla)
(ii) Radial Symmetry :
➢ The body can be divided into many symmetrical parts from a central point.
➢ For example, Jellyfish, Hydra, C-Starfish
(iii) Bilateral Symmetry:
➢ A body can be divided into two equal parts only by a vertical line.
➢ E.g. Earthworm, Cockroach, Planaria
 4

5) Digestive System:
➢ Echinoderms have different types of digestive cavities in their bodies:
(i) Acoelomate : Without Body Cavity
➢ It has no cavity (coelom) inside the body.
➢ E.g. Planaria, Liver Fluke
(ii) Pseudocoelomate: False coelom
➢ It has a cavity in the body but it is not properly developed.
➢ E.g. Ascaris, Hookworm
(iii) Coelomate : With true body cavity (True Coelom).
➢ A well-developed cavity is present in the body.
➢ E.g. Earthworm, Octopus, Cockroach
6) Reproduction:
➢ Echinoderms use two modes of reproduction:
(i) Asexual Reproduction:
➢ A new offspring is created from one parent.
➢ E.g. Budding - Hydra, Fragmentation - Sponge
(ii) Sexual Reproduction:
➢ The union of male and female gametes produces new offspring.
(a) Hermaphrodite: Male and female gametes in the same body
➢ E.g. Earthworm, Tapeworm
(b) Unisexual: Separate male and female
➢ E.g. Cockroach, Octopus

1) Phylum Porifera:
➢ These animals have numerous pores on their bodies, hence they are called Pore-Bearers.
➢ The name Porifera was given by scientist Robert Ant in 1836.
Characteristics :
❖ Habitat: Found in salt water. Some organisms are solitary (Solitary) while some are found in groups
(Colonial).
❖ Body Organization: There is a cellular organization between them. (Cellular Level)
❖ Germ Layers: (Diploblastic) - outer layer (Ectoderm) and inner layer (Endoderm)
❖ Symmetry: (Asymmetry)
❖ Coelom Plan: Asylomet (no hollow)
❖ Reproduction: Asexual budding, sexual
 5

Bisexuals are classified into three categories.

i) Class : Calcarea (in the sea): E.g. (Cycon (Scypha), Leucosolenia
ii) Class: Hexactinellida (in the sea): Eg Hyalonema (rope sponge), Euplectella (Venus flower basket)
iii) Class : Demospongia (Marine/Freshwater): E.g. (Spozilla, Euspongia (Bath Sponge) / Cleona
(Boring Sponge)
CHARACTERISTICS OF PHYLUM PORIFERA :
❖ They are multicellular organisms found mainly in
aquatic habitats, including freshwater and marine
environments.
❖ Their body consists of numerous small openings
called ostia, allowing water to flow through.
❖ Sponges are filter feeders, extracting tiny food
particles from the water using specialized cells
❖ Sponges possess a unique cell type called
choanocytes or collar cells.
❖ amoebocytes, which play a role in digestion, transportation, and reproduction.
(2) Phylum Coelenterata:
➢ The body of these animals is hollow inside, so they are called hollow bodied animals.
➢ They also have cnidocytes type of cells in their body. The name Cilentrata was given by
Hatschek in 1888 and the name Nidaria was given by Leukkart.
Characteristics :
❖ Habitat: Found in salt water as well as fresh water. Some organisms are solitary and some are found
in groups (Colonial).
❖ Body Organization: There is tissue level organization between them. (Tissue Level)
❖ Germ Layers: Bilayered (Diploblastic) outer layer (Ectoderm) and inner layer (Endoderm)
❖ Symmetry: Radial Symmetry
❖ Coelom Plan: Asilomet (no cavity)
❖ Respiratory Organ: By absorption/diffusion method
❖ Locomotion: Surrounding the mouth are hollow tubular
finger-like structures, called tentacles. It is used for
locomotion as well as for catching prey.
❖ Reproduction: Asexual (Asexual) budding or budding,
sexual (Sexual) - monosexual / bisexual
They are classified into three categories.
1. Class - Hydrozoa E.g. Hydra, Physalia (Portuguese Man of War), Obelia, Porpita, Millepora (Coral)

2. Class – Scyphozoa E.g. Aurelia (Jellyfish), Rhizostoma

E.g. Metridium (Sea-Anemone), Pennatula (Sea-Pen), TubiPora (Pipe Coral),

Gorgonia (Sea-Fan), Corallium (Red Coral), Fungi (Mushroom Coral)
3. Class- Anthozoa
Occurring in groups - Sea-corals, Sea-anemones, Phycelia (Solitary - Hydra,
Jellyfish, Obelia
 6

3) Phylum Ctenophora:
➢ The body of these animals is jelly-like. They are also called comb jellies.
➢ The name Tinophori was given by Eschscholzia in 1829.
Characteristics :
❖ Habitat : in salt water
❖ Body Organization: Tissue Level
❖ Germ Layers: Bilayered (Diploblastic) outer layer
(Ectoderm) and inner layer (Endoderm)
❖ Symmetry: Radial Symmetry
❖ Coelom Plan : Asilomet (no cavity)
❖ Respiratory Organ: By diffusion diffusion method
❖ Locomotion: There are four pairs of cilia.
❖ They have the property of emitting light from photosites. It is called bioluminescence. It is a very
small team consisting of 100 to 150 species.
❖ Their size usually ranges from a few millimeters to one and a half meters.
❖ They have three classes - Tentaculenta, Nuida, Sclerotenophora
❖ E.g. Tinoplana, Flurobacia (Comb Jelly), Beroid (C-miter) Nimiopsis, (Cydipid, (Lobate), System
(Venus Gill)
4) Phylum Platyhelminthes :
➢ The body of these animals is flattened on both sides and these animals are like worms, so they
are also called flatworms (Anquilostoma).
➢ Platyhelmythys was given by Bourne in 1859.
Characteristics :
❖ Habitat: Parasitic animals but some aquatic / terrestrial
❖ Body Organization: component level (Organ Level)
❖ Germ Layers: Bilayer (Triploblastic) - outer layer (Ectoderm), middle layer (Mesoderm) and inner
layer (Endoderm).
❖ Symmetry: Bilateral Symmetry
❖ Coelom Plan : Asilomet (no cavity)
❖ Reproduction: asexual (asexual)-monosexual-binary pheasants, sexual (Sexual)-bisexual

1. Class Turbellaria The digestive system is present and separate. E.g. Planaria, Due Jessia, Otplana

It has a digestive system and is parasitic. E.g. Cassiola (Liver Fluke), Schistosoma
2. Class - Trematoda
haematobium

They do not have a digestive system and are anaerobic. E.g. Taenia solium
(tapeworm) eg. Tapeworm (Tinea), Planaria, Lyser Fluke (Fasciola), Gyrocotyle,
3. Class- Cestoda
Paragonimus ringeri (in blisters), Schistosoma haematobium (in blood),
Echinococcus manulosat (in ringworm).
 7

General Characters :
❖ Usually flattened dorsoventrally, triploblastic, acoelomate,
bilaterally symmetrical
❖ 20000 species
❖ Unsegmented worms
❖ Incomplete gut usually present; gut absent in Cestoidea.
❖ Somewhat cephalized, with an anterior cerebral ganglion
and usually longitudinal nerve cords
❖ Protonephridia as excretory/osmoregulatory structures
❖ Hermaphroditic ; complex reproductive system
5) Phylum Nemathelminthes:
➢ Their body is like a roundworm and the structure is like a worm, so they are called
RoundWorms.
➢ The name Nemathelminthes was given by Gagan Balli in 1859. The name Nematoda was given
by Kalan Rudolph in 1808.
Characteristics :
❖ Habitat : Endoparasites
❖ Body Organization : component level (Organ Level)
❖ Germ Layers : three tier (Triploblastic)- outer layer (Ectoderm), middle layer (Mesoderm) and inner
layer (Endoderm)
❖ Symmetry : Bilateral Symmetry
❖ Coelom Plan : turn silomet (there is a virtual cavity)
❖ Respiratory Organ : By absorption/diffusion method
❖ Locomotion : There is no organ.
❖ Digestive System : They have a developed digestive system and a muscular pharynx.
❖ Circulatory System : There is no
❖ Excretion : There are rennet cells. (Renate Cells)
❖ Fertilization : Internal Fertilization
❖ Reproduction : Sexual- monogamous / dioecious
GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS OF NEMATODES :
❖ They are unsegmented, elongated and cylindrical.
❖ They have separate sexes with separate appearances.
❖ They have a tough protective covering or cuticle.
❖ They have a complete digestive tract with both oral and anal openings.
❖ The nematodes are free living (Majority) or parasites of humans, plants or animals.
 8

Ascaris (roundworm) Ascariasis The intestines

Pinworm Vomiting/stomach disorders The intestines

Filaria (beccaria) Filariasis Skin/muscle

Ancylostoma (hookworm), Guniaworm, Tricura,

Abdominal pain The intestines
Dacunculus, [Link], americanus

❖ Elephantiasis is transmitted by the female Culex mosquito. Also, this disease is found in 11 out of 14
districts of Kerala state in India.
❖ Because the quantity of these mosquitoes is high in Kerala.

 2

प्राणी वर्गीकरण भार्ग - 2

Topics to be Covered :
❖ Classification of Animals-2
❖ Non Chordates- 6 to 10 Phylums.
❖ Chordates - study
6) Phylum Annelida:
➢ The body of these animals is made up of many equal sized segments.
➢ Therefore, these animals are also called segmented animals.
➢ The name Annelida was coined in 1802 by the scientist Marc.
Features:
❖ Habitat: Terrestrial as well as aquatic but some parasitic animals
❖ Body Organization: component level (Organ Level)
❖ Germ Layers: Triploblastic outer layer (Ectoderm), middle layer (Mesoderm) and inner layer
(Endoderm)
❖ Symmetry: Bilateral Symmetry
❖ Coelom Plan: Melomet (has a true cavity) status
❖ Respiratory Organ: By means of skin or gills
❖ Locomotion: CT or parapodia
❖ Digestive System: They have a developed digestive system.
❖ Circulatory System: enclosed
❖ Excretion: There are kidneys or nephridia, (Kidney).
❖ Fertilization: Internal/External Fertilization
❖ Reproduction: Sexual-monoecious / dioecious or bisexual / Honcrocytum
They are classified into three categories.
(i) Class-Polychaeta: Found in free as well as brackish water. They are unisexual and use parapodia for
locomotion. E.g. Nereis chicane Sis (rag worm or clam or sand worm), Aphrodite (sea-mouse), Arenicola
(lungworm), Alitta (clam worm), Chaetopterus (paddle worm)
(ii) Class -Oligochaeta : Independent as well as terrestrial animals, bisexual and use CT organ for
locomotion. E.g. Pheretima (Indian earthworms get their brown color from a pigment called porphyrin.
They also contain chloragogen, a yellow cell similar to human liver cells.), Eutychus, Lunicus (European
earthworm), Megascole (South Indian earthworm), Tubifex (bloodworm).
(iii) Class -Hirudinea: Parasitic and also found in freshwater. These animals are bisexual and use CT or
parapodia for locomotion. E.g. Hirudinaria (The saliva of leeches contains a substance called hirudin that
prevents the blood they absorb from forming or clotting.)
General Characteristics Phylum: Annelida
1. Annelid: means tiny rings
2. Class: Oligochaeta
3. Examples: bristle worms, earthworms, leeches.
4. Bilateral animals w/ 2 body openings (mouth and anus).
 3

5. Segmented Body
6. Live soil or freshwater
7. Nocturnal burrowing worm
8. Feeds on dirt filtering out organic matter
9. Beneficial to the soil aeration (opening up soil to
allow air to circulate better), fertilization
10. Respiration: oxygen diffuses across moist skin
11. Sexual Reproduction-hermaphrodites
(Earthworm 12. Closed circulatory system blood
contained within vessels.
13. Well Developed Nervous System.
(7) Phylum Arthropoda:
➢ These animals were the first to develop legs as independent limbs, hence they are called jointed
legs or opportunistic animals.
➢ Orthopoda was named in 1848 by Carl Theodor Siebold.
Features:
➢ Habitat: Terrestrial as well as aquatic animals
➢ Body Organization: component level (Organ Level)
➢ Germ Layers: Triploblastic outer layer (Ectoderm), middle layer (Mesoderm) and inner layer
(Endoderm)
➢ Symmetry: Bilateral Bilateral Symmetry
➢ Coelom Plan : Silomet (has a true cavity)
➢ Respiratory Organ: Gills, book gills, book lungs, trachea have spiracles.
➢ Locomotion: Jointed Legs and Pair of Wings.
➢ Circulatory System: is open
➢ Digestive System: They have a developed digestive system.
➢ Excretion: Green gland Coccal gland / Malphigian duct, superior humeral gland
➢ Fertilization: Internal/External Fertilization
➢ Reproduction: Sexual - monogamous/dioecious
General Characters :
➢ This is the largest phylum having organ-system level of organization.
➢ The body consists of the head, thorax and abdomen.
➢ They are bilaterally symmetrical, triploblastic, segmented and coelomate animals.
➢ The body of arthropods is covered by Chitinous exoskeleton.
➢ Respiratory organs are gills book gills book lungs of the tracheal system.
➢ Circulatory system is of open type.
➢ Sensory organs like antennae, eyes (compound and simple), statocysts balance organs are
present.
➢ Excretion takes place through Malpighian tubules.
➢ They are mostly dioecious and oviparous.
 4

Social Breathing Part Pairs of Pairs of Antenna E.g.

class composition feet wing pairs
insecta Trakia Three- head, Three Two One Mosquitoes,
torso and cockroaches etc.
abdomen
Crustacea Giles Two - 5 to 7 Not present Two Crayfish, Lobster,
head/torso and Crab
abdomen
Arachnida book Two- head/torso Four Not present Not Spiders, Scorpions,
lungs and abdomen present Vultures etc.

Diplopoda Trakia About 80-500 2 for each Not present Not millipedia (penny)
volumes volume present
Chilopoda Trakia About 15-173 1 for each Not present Two centipedes (round)
volumes volume

8) Phylum Mollusca :
➢ The body of these animals is very soft and flexible, so they are called soft-bodied animals.
➢ The Mollusca group was initially named Cuttlefish by Aristotle. Then in 1650 Johnson, a scientist,
coined the term Mollusca.
 5

Features :
❖ Habitat: Terrestrial as well as aquatic animals
❖ Body Organization: Organ Level
❖ Germ Layers: Triploblastic – Ectoderm, Mesoderm and Endoderm
❖ Symmetry: Bilateral Symmetry
❖ Coelom Plan: Silomet (has a true cavity)
❖ Respiratory Organ: Gills, taenidia (aquatic), lungs in terrestrial animals
❖ Locomotion: Muscular Feet
❖ Digestive System: They have a developed digestive system.
❖ Circulatory System: is open
❖ Excretion: Kidney/Bojanus, Cabercet Organs
❖ Fertilization: Internal/External Fertilization
❖ Reproduction: Sexual - Monosexual/Diocesan
❖ In the mouth there is an organ called radulo which contains teeth.
❖ The blood of animals in this group is blue in color because it contains the pigment hemocyanin
and contains copper instead of iron.
❖ Their nervous system consists of three pairs of glial cells. Among them are cerebellar gaglia in the
head, pedal gaglia in the leg and visceral gaglia in the gut.
❖ Among them are sensory organs for vision (eyes, pincers for touch) and osphradia (for checking
the purity of water).
❖ Winter (Hibernation) and summer (Aestivation) are samadhis.

Class - Gastropoda (Univalvia) has a single covering or shell. (e.g. Pyla (apple snail), Aplysia (sea-
her), Helix (snail), Limax (greslums)

Class - Cephalopoda They have muscular legs for locomotion (no shell) e.g. Octopus (devil fish), loligo
(skid largest non-caudate), nautilus, sepia (cuttlefish)

Class - Bivalvia There is a double sheath or shell between them. E.g. Pinktenda (Oyster), Mytilus
(Mussels - Marine), Unio (Mussels - Freshwater) Teredo (Sheep Worm)

Class - Polyplacophora Its shell is made up of eight pieces. E.g. Chiton/Chiton

Class - Scaphopoda Their shell is like blue. E.g. (Dentalium (tusk shell)

General Characteristics of Phylum Mollusca Mollusca (Molluscus-soft bodies) :

❖ Study of Mollusca is called Malacology.
❖ The term Mollusca was first applied by Aristotle to cuttlefish.
❖ Lamarck coined the term Molluscus.
❖ Study of molluscan shells is called conchology.
 6

❖ The animals of this phylum are soft-

bodied, non-metameric, triploblastic,
coelomates and fundamentally bilaterally
symmetrical invertebrates with a thin
fleshy envelope the mantle, around the
visceral (internal organs of the body)
which may secrete calcareous shell.
❖ They are sluggish animals.
9) Phylum Echinodermata:
➢ These animals have spiny skin on their body, hence they are called spiny skinned or spiny
animals.
➢ The name Echinodermata was given by Jacob Theodore Cohn in 1734 and Bruggeri in 1791.
characteristics:
❖ Habitat: Exclusive Marine
❖ Body Organization: Organ Level
❖ Skin Address (Germ Layers): Triploblastic – Ectoderm, Mesoderm and Endoderm
❖ Symmetry: ARadial Symmetry
❖ Coelom Plan : Silomet (has a true cavity)
❖ Respiratory Organ: Giles
❖ Locomotion: Muscular Tube Feet
❖ Digestive System: They have a developed digestive system.
❖ Circulatory System: is open
❖ Excretion: through the skin
❖ Fertilization: External Fertilization
❖ Reproduction: Sexual - monoecious/chioecious
PHYLUM ECHINODERMATA (means spiny skinned)
ex: sea stars, sea urchins, sand dollars, sea cucumbers, sea
lilies
Sea Stars Characteristics:
1. Radial (pentamerous) symmetry
2. Internal skeleton (endoskeleton)
3. Complete digestive system
4. Water vascular system with tube feet (hold or sense)
5. Highly regenerative can eviscerate
6. Separate sexes; external fertilization
10) Phylum Hemichordata:
➢ As these animals have some characteristics of echinoderms, they are called semi-echinoderms.
➢ The name Hemichordata was given by Bateson in 1885. They are also called Acorn Chums.
 7

characteristics:
❖ Habitat: Exclusive Marine
❖ Body Organization: Organ Level
❖ Germ Layers : Triploblastic - Outer layer (Ectoderm), Middle layer (Mesoderm) and Inner layer
(Endoderm)
❖ Symmetry: Bilateral Symmetry
❖ Coelom Plan : Silomet (has a true cavity)
❖ Respiratory Organ: Giles
❖ Locomotion: Proboscis (Muscular and Ciliated Organ)
❖ Digestive System: They have a developed U-shaped digestive system.
❖ Circulatory System: is open
❖ Excretion: Proboscis gland / Glomerulus
❖ Fertilization: External Fertilization
❖ Reproduction: Sexual-Monogamous/Diocesan
Phylum Hemichordata :
❖ Marine worms
❖ Share characteristics with echinoderms and chordates
❖ Deuterostomes (radial cleavage)
❖ Pharyngeal gill slits
❖ Some have dorsal, hollow nerve cord
8
 9

A) Subphylum – Euro cordata:

Features :
❖ They are also called tunicate. Its body is soft and has a tunisian covering called test.
❖ Among them, only the embryo, or larval stage, has a nerve in the tail, which disappears during
metamorphosis.
❖ These animals are found only in the sea and breathe with the help of gills.
❖ E.g. Herdmania, Salpa, Doliolum, Batrillus, Ascidian, Pyrosoma
B) Subphylum – Cephalochordata:
➢ These animals are also known as lancelets because they resemble blades or razors.
➢ These animals swim like small fish and their length does not exceed 5 cm.
➢ These animals are usually found partially buried on the beach. Nerves are found throughout the
body and last throughout life.
➢ There are gills for breathing and tail and nervous system in the back. E.g. Amphioxus
(Branchiostoma)
Urochordata :
Tunicates: at young age have dorsal nerve cord :
❖ As larvae, they swim, looking for a place to settle
❖ Once they find a place to anchor, they undergo metamorphosis, losing many chordata


 2

प्राणी वर्गीकरण भार्ग - 3

Topics to be Covered:
❖ Classification of animals - 3
❖ Vertebrate
❖ 6 classes of Echinoderms
Vertebrata/craniata:
1. Cyclostomata
2. Pisces (Fishes) – Chondrychaeus & Astechaeus
3. Anfibia (amphibians)
4. Reptilia (reptile)
5. Aves (birds)
6. Mammals
 3

Vertebrata/Craniata:
❖ Sagittal cord Animals (Vertebrata) are the most
evolved and diverse group of animals.
❖ It consists of Vertebral Columns and Cranium, so it is
also called Craniata.
❖ It is found in a wide variety of aquatic, amphibian,
reptile, bird and mammal species.
Features:
1) Exoskeleton:
➢ The protective covering of the animal's body is
known as exoskeleton. It comes in different forms:
Without Scales:
❖ Cyclostomata animals do not have scales.
❖ E.g. Mixin (Hagfish), Petromyzon (Lamprey)
With Scales:
❖ Fish and reptiles have scales on their bodies for protection.
❖ Ex. Chondrichthyes (Sharks – Placoid Scales), Osteichthyes (Bony Fishes – Cycloid/Ctenoid Scales),
Reptilia – Epidermal Scales.
With Feathers:
❖ Birds have feathers on their bodies to regulate heat in the air and to fly.
❖ E.g. Chicken, eagle, pigeon
With Hairs:
❖ Mammals have hair on their bodies. They help regulate temperature.
❖ E.g. Tiger, Lion, Man
2) Endoskeleton:
➢ The endoskeleton is the bony or cartilage structure inside the body.
Cartilaginous Skeleton:
❖ Chondrichthyes i.e. sharks, rays have endoskeleton cartilage.
Bony Skeleton:
❖ Osteichthyes i.e. bony fishes have a bony endoskeleton.
❖ Mammals, amphibians, reptiles and birds have bony skeletons.
3) Respiratory Organs:
➢ Animals respire in different ways depending on their environment.
Gills:
❖ Aquatic animals have gills for respiration.
❖ E.g. Fish, cyclostomata, larval stage of amphibians
Skin:
❖ Amphibians breathe with the help of their moist skin.
❖ E.g. Frog, Salamander
Lungs:
❖ Amphibians, reptiles, birds and mammals breathe through lungs.
❖ E.g. Snake, Tortoise, Pigeon, Tiger
 4

4) Chambers of the Heart:

➢ The number of chambers in the heart increases with the evolution of animals.
2 Chambers:
➢ Fishes and Cyclostomata have a 2-chambered heart (one atrium and one ventricle).
3 Chambers:
➢ Amphibians and some reptiles have a 3-chambered heart. (2 atria and 1 incompletely separated
ventricle)..
E.g. Frogs, Salamanders, Lizards
4 Chambers:
➢ Birds and mammals have a fully separated 4-chambered heart (2 atria and 2 ventricles).
Ex. Pigeon, Lion, Human
5) Body Temperature and Blood Circulation:
➢ Animals are divided into two groups based on their ability to regulate body temperature.
Cold-Blooded):
❖ depends on the external temperature.
❖ E.g. Fish, Amphibians, Reptiles
Warm-Blooded):
❖ body temperature can control themselves.
❖ E.g. Birds, Mammals
6) Reproduction Types:
➢ Animals reproduce in two ways.
Oviparous:
❖ These animals lay eggs in the external environment.
❖ E.g. Fish, Amphibians, Reptiles, Birds
Viviparous:
❖ The egg develops in the mother's uterus and the pup is born.
❖ E.g. Mammals – Humans, Tigers, Lions
1) Division Agnatha (jawless animals):
➢ This group includes vertebrates that are very simple and lack rudimentary jaws. They are classified
under the single class Cyclostomata.
1. Class Cyclostomata:
Features:
➢ Habitat: Exclusive Marine
➢ Symmetry: Bilateral Symmetry
➢ Exoskeleton (Exoskeleton): Without Scales
➢ Endoskeleton: Cartilaginous
➢ Respiratory Organ: 5 to 12 pairs of gills
➢ Locomotion: Unpaired fins for swimming
➢ Heart Chambers: Two atria and one ventricle
➢ Circulatory System: Closed
➢ Body or Blood Temperature: Cold-blooded animals (Hintroethermus Cold Blooded)
➢ Red Cells (RBC's): Irregular and Nucleated
➢ Excretion: A pair of kidneys
➢ Function (Fertilisation): External Function
➢ Reproduction: Sexual, dioecious, oviparous
 5

Other Features:
❖ These animals have jawless mouth suckers. Also, the
skin is very soft and contains unicellular mucus
glands.
❖ Their exoskeleton is fibrous and calcium rich. Also the
digestive system does not have a stomach, but a bell-
shaped intestine, called a typhlosole. The brain
contains ten or fewer cranial nerves.
❖ E.g. Petromyzon (lamprey fish), myxine (hagfish),
Dalystoma (hagfish)
a) Superclass pisces:
Features:
➢ Habitat: Aquatic - Freshwater and Marine
➢ Symmetry: Bilateral Symmetry
➢ Exoskeleton (Exoskeleton): Scaled
➢ Endoskeleton: Cartilaginous or Bony
➢ Respiratory Organ: 4 to 7 Gills
➢ Locomotion: Paired and Unpaired Fins for Swimming
➢ Heart Chambers: Two - Atria and Ventricle
➢ Circulatory System: Closed
➢ Body or Blood Temperature: Cold Blooded Animals/Hetero Thermos
➢ Red Cells (RBC's): Rounded and Nucleated
➢ Excretion: A pair of kidneys
➢ Fertilisation: Internal fertilization and external fertilization
➢ Reproduction: Sexual-Monoecious /Daboisius Viviparous/Oviparous
Chondrichthyes Osteichthyes

(1) Animals are marine only. (1) Animals are marine and freshwater.

(2) Stream-lined body and skin is covered with (2) Skin is covered by cycloid or ctenoid scales.
placoid scales only.

(3) Caudal fin is heterocercal. (3) Caudal fin is homocercal.

(4) Internal skeleton is made up of cartilage. (4) Internal skeleton is made up of bones.

(5) 5-7 pairs of gills and operculum are absent. (5) Pairs of gills which are covered by an
operculum.

(6) Monoecious fertilization is internal oviparous (6) Monoecious fertilization of external oviparous
or ovoviviparous animals. animals.

(7) Mouth is anterior ventral, jaws are present. (7) Mouth is anterior and jaws are with teeth.

(8) e.g. shark, ray fish. (8) e.g. sea horse, labeo, catla etc.
 6

1) Class- Amphibia / Amphibians:

Features:
➢ Habitat: Amphibians water, land
➢ Symmetry: Bilateral Symmetry
➢ Exoskeleton (Exoskeleton): Without scales
➢ Endoskeleton: Bony
➢ Respiratory Organ: Skin, Gills or Lungs
➢ Locomotion: Short Forelimbs and Long Hind Limbs
➢ Heart Chambers: Three - two atria and one ventricle
➢ Circulatory System: Closed
➢ Body or Blood Temperature: Cold Blooded Animals /
Hetero Thermos
➢ Red Cells (RBC's): Biconvex and Nucleated
➢ Excretion: Pair of kidneys
➢ Function (Fertilisation): External Function
➢ Reproduction: Sexual (dioecious, oviparous)
➢ Their front legs are thin and their hind legs are long and their green toes are connected by a thin
membrane of skin.
➢ They breathe through the buds in the ovum stage and through the lungs and skin during the
samadhi stage.
➢ They have developed nervous systems and their growth and development takes place in aquatic
habitats.
➢ There is an organ called tympanum in between.
➢ These animals excrete urea and ammonia and have 10 pairs of cranial nerves.
Animals in this class are classified into three categories:
i) Gana - A poda Animals with tail and no legs eg. Ichthyophis Euryotysflu, Caecilian

ii) Gana-Eurodela/ Animals with legs and tails e.g. Amphiuma, Salamander, Ambystoma,
caudata Necturus

iii) Order Anura Animals with legs but no tail eg. Rana (bull frog/frog), Bufo (toad), Hyla
(tree frog), Xenopus laevis (African frog)
 7

2) Class – Reptilia:
Features:
➢ Habitat: (Terrestrial and Aquatic)
➢ Symmetry: Bilateral Symmetry
➢ Exoskeleton (Exoskeleton): Scales
➢ Hence endoskeleton bony
➢ Respiratory Organ: Lungs
➢ Locomotion: Pairs of Legs
➢ Heart Chambers: Three - two atria and one ventricle
➢ Circulatory System: Closed
➢ Body or Blood Temperature: Cold Blooded
Animals/Hetero Thermos
➢ Red Blood Cells (RBC's): Biconvex and Nucleated
➢ Excretion: A pair of kidneys
➢ Fertilization: Internal
➢ Reproduction: Sexual – Dioecious, Oviparous
Other Features:
❖ These animals are the first terrestrial animals on earth. But they are called reptiles as they have very
short/underdeveloped legs or some have no legs at all so they appear to be crawling.
❖ Their skin is dry, rough and these animals are carnivores.
❖ Their feet have developed toes and they have claws. But snakes don't have legs, they crawl on their
stomachs.
❖ The body has four parts namely head, neck, trunk and tail. It also has a developed brain.
❖ Olfactory lobe as well as cerebellum are fully developed.
❖ A crocodile's heart has four chambers. A viper gives birth to its young.
❖ They have 12 pairs of cranial nerves.
❖ E.g. Chahunga (roof-terrapin), testudo (land turtle), chilon (green turtle), uromastyx (sand lizard),
hemidactylus (wall lizard), calotus (garden lizard), drunko (flying lizard), chameleon lizard, duko,
vonus (Indian monitor), python (python), naja (kola), crocodylus (crocodile), gavialis (clock)
3) Class - Aves:
Features:
➢ Habitat: Aerial, Terrestrial
➢ Symmetry: Bilateral Symmetry
➢ Exoskeleton: In the form of feathers
➢ Endoskeleton: Bony
➢ Respiratory Organ: Lungs
➢ Locomotion: Pairs of Wings and Legs
➢ Heart Chambers: Four, two Atria and two
Ventricles
➢ Circulatory System: Closed
➢ Body or Blood Temperature: (Warm Blooded Animals / Homoiothermous)
➢ Red cells (RBC's): Biconvex and Nucleated
➢ Excretion: Pair of kidneys
➢ Fertilisation: Internal
➢ Reproduction: Sexual-dioecious, oviparous
➢ Their body has an organ called crop for storing food and an organ called gizzard for biting.
 8

➢ Their vocal apparatus is called syrinx. So

it excretes urea.
➢ Its collar bone is also known as poison
bone. Also, their visual field is more
developed.
➢ They have only one bone in their ears
and they do not have the ability to smell.
➢ Their spines are called synsacrum, while
the tail spine is called pygostyle.
➢ E.g. Gallus (chicken), Passer (sparrow),
Corvus (crow), Columba (pigeon),
Citacula (parrot), Pavo (peacock),
Eudynamis (cuckoo), Bubo (owl), Milvus
(kite), Gypus (vulture), Stutheo (ostrich),
Kodacius (blue-throated), Apteryx (Kiwi), Aptenodites (Penguin), Bulbul, Emu, Parva, Duck,
Hummingbird, Kingfisher, Ghar, Siberian Crane etc.
4) Class- Mammalia:
Features:

➢ Habitat: Terrestrial, Aquatic

➢ Symmetry: Bilateral Symmetry
➢ Exoskeleton: in the form of hairs
➢ Hence Endoskeleton: bony
➢ Respiratory Organ: Lungs
➢ Locomotion: Pairs of Legs
➢ Heart Chambers: Four - two atria and two ventricles
➢ Circulatory System: Closed
➢ Body or Blood Temperature: Warm Blooded Animals/Homoiothermous
➢ Red Blood Cells (RBC's): Biconcave and anucleated
➢ Excretion: A pair of kidneys
➢ Fertilisation: Internal
➢ Reproduction: Sexual-Monoecious / Dioecious, Viviparous
Animals are classified into three classes:
i) Subclass – Prototheria These animals lay eggs. E.g. Echidna, Duckbill Platypus
(Monotremata)

ii) Subclass - Metatheria They give birth to immature pups. eg kangaroo, wallaby, koala,
(Marsupiales) opossum, tasmanian devil.

iii) 3) Subclass Eutheria They give birth to fully developed chicks. E.g. Human, Deva Fish, Dog,
(placental) Cow

❖ Bats, bears and mice are cold-blooded because they cannot regulate their body temperature.
❖ Elephants, rhinoceroses and deer use infrasound to communicate with each other.
 9

❖ Bats can hear and produce highly audible sounds. E.g.

Homo (human), bat (genus Chiroptera), balena
(demon/whale), canis (dog), cow, ellipse (elephant),
rhinoceros (rhinoceros), horse, rattus (mouse),
macropus (kangaroo), camelus (camel), dolphin,
macaca (monkey), gorilla, zebra, chimpanzee,
oryctolagus (rabbit), donkey, Deer, Boar, Fox, Platypus,
Echidna, Mongoose, Walrus, Panthera (Cheetah, Tiger,
Lion), Faunambulus (Khar), Manis, Ursus (Sloth Bear,
Brown Bear), Hyena, Seal, Felis (Cat) etc.
❖ Some animals are considered to be a mixture or
intermediate stage of less evolved and more evolved
animals.
Connecting links:
Organism Connecting link between

1. Viruses Living and nonliving

2. Euglena (Protozoa) Plants and animals

3. Protera Spongia (Protozoa) Protozoa and Porifera

4. Peripatus (Arthropods) Annelids and Arthropods

5. Neopilina (Mollusca) Annelida and Mollusca

6. Balanoglossus (Chordata) Non Chordata and Chordata

7. Dipnoi (Lungfish) Pisces and Amphibia

8. Archaeopteryx (Aves) Reptiles and Birds

9. Prototheria (Mammalia) Reptiles and Mammals


 2

पचन संस्था
INDEX:
❖ Human Digestive System
❖ Digestive gland
❖ Digestive process
❖ Teeth, Tongue, Salivary gland
❖ Stomach Structure and function
❖ Human Digestive System:
❖ The esophagus mainly consists of the following parts.
❖ Mouth/ Buccal Cavity
❖ Pharynx
❖ Esophagus
❖ Stomach
❖ Small Intestine
❖ Large Intestine
❖ The esophagus is 950 cm (32 ft) long and is bell-shaped.
❖ Digestion of food is a chemical reaction, and glands are present in the esophagus to keep it running
smoothly. They help in digestion.
Digestive System:
❖ Salivary gland, Stomach, Liver, Pancreatic gland are connected to the esophagus at certain places.
❖ Different organs in the digestive system do the work of food digestion systematically.
 3

Mouth / Buccal Cavity:

❖ Digestion of food starts when it is taken in the mouth. The food in the mouth is chewed with the teeth.
It is cut into fine pieces. The food we eat is complex. The amylase/tylin of that food is converted into
simple substances with the help of biological catalysts i.e. vicars. That is why it is said that digestion
starts from the mouth. There are 2 jaws in our mouth, the upper jaw is called the upper jaw (maxilla)
and the lower jaw is called the lower jaw (mandible). It has teeth. There is also the tongue, which plays
an important role in digestion. Salivary glands are also present.
Tooth Type:

Types of teeth (in adults):

❖ Incisors: There are 4-4 below and above.
❖ Canines: 2-2 below and above.
❖ Premolars: There are 4-4 below and above.
❖ Molars: Lower and upper are 6-6.
❖ An adult has a total of 32 teeth, while a child has 20 teeth.
 4

Tongue:

❖ Taste buds are present on the tongue so we perceive taste. They are called papillae.
❖ Papillae are of following types,
1. Circumvallate Papillae
2. Foliate Papillae
3. Filiform Papillae
4. Fungiform Papillae
❖ 4 types of taste are perceived on the tongue,
1. Sweet - Perceived in front of the tongue.
2. Salty- Feels sideways on the tongue.
3. Sour - Feels back on the tongue.
4. Bitter - Perceived at the back of the tongue.
❖ The pungency is not a taste but a chemical called capsisan.
Salivary glands:
❖ Saliva is a watery and sticky secretion from the mouth.
❖ Salivary gland gets its name from its location in the mouth.
❖ Parotid glands: secrete 25% of saliva.
❖ Sublingual gland: secretes 71% of saliva.
❖ Submandibular gland: Secretes 34% of saliva.
❖ The function of this gland is to produce saliva.
❖ The most viscous saliva is secreted by the submandibular gland.
Pharynx:
❖ The esophagus and the trachea open into the pharynx.
❖ There is a membrane called epiglottis at the mouth of the trachea so that swallowed food does not go
into the trachea.
Esophagus:
❖ The esophagus from the pharynx/throat to the stomach is called the esophagus.
❖ The esophagus acts to push food forward. The length of grass is usually 30-50cm.
 5

Stomach:
❖ Food comes from the esophagus to the stomach.
❖ The stomach is composed of mucosa, submucosa, muscle layers and serosa.
❖ The stomach has 5 cells for processing food.
1. Goblet cells: produce mucus. It protects the lining of the stomach from HCL.
2. Parietal cells: produce gastric acid and HCL. This processes the food.
3. Chief cells: produce pepsinogen (pepsin). This leads to protein digestion.
4. Delta cells: It produces somatostatin. It works to inhibit HCL.
5. Gastrin cells: It produces gastrin. It increases HCL formation.
 6


 2

पचन सं �ा - 2
Index:
❖ Human Digestive System-2
❖ Small intestine, liver, pancreas
❖ Large intestine
❖ PH of the digestive system
Human Digestive System-2
❖ Food is churned from the esophagus to the stomach.
❖ The high concentration of HCl in the stomach helps in faster digestion of food.
❖ Food becomes acidic and passes into the small intestine.
❖ Complete digestion of food takes place in the small intestine.
❖ To digest food in the small intestine; It should be neutral, not acidic.
❖ To neutralize acidic food from the stomach; Liver secretes alkaline bile juices and Brunner's gland
located in the submucosa layer of duodenum (small intestine) secretes alkaline substances. It
facilitates the passivation of food.
❖ Enzymes play a catalytic role in facilitating rapid chemical reactions during digestion.
❖ These enzymes are provided by the pancreas. Pancreatic juices secreted by the pancreas are mixed
with food.
❖ The food is then finally digested in the small intestine.
❖ Digested food in liquid form is absorbed into the blood and carried to all cells of the body.
❖ The digested food is then transferred to the large intestine.
❖ The large intestine plays no role in digestion. It simply removes or eliminates waste from the body.

Metabolism
All the biochemical processes that take place in cells are called metabolism.
Catabolism + Anabolism = Metabolism
 3

Small Intestine: Diameter (less)

❖ The small intestine is about 6 meters long (20-25
feet) and is the largest part of the esophagus.
❖ Food is mainly digested here.
❖ Absorption of digested food in the stomach takes
place here.
❖ The first part of the small intestine is called the
Duodenum.
❖ Pancreatic juice and bile are mixed in the intestine.
❖ In the small intestine, food is mixed with three
digestive enzymes. The small intestine absorbs
nutrients from the digestive process into the blood.
Glands and cells in the small intestine
1. Brunner's gland:These glands submucosa of duodenum That is, the submucosa of the intestine is
found in this layer. through acid free mucus The secretion is secreted. Thus, the intestinal walls are
protected from acid and an acid-free condition is helpful for digestion. These glands originate in the
crypts of Lieberkuhn in the medulla/jejunum.
2. Crypts of lieberkuhn’s glands : In this Four types of cells are:
A) enterocytes muscle : Aids in digestion and absorption.
B) goblet muscle : Secretes mucus and protects the intestine.
C) Paneth muscle : lysozyme And immunoglobulin Secretes and protects against bacteria.
D) Enterochromaffin/Argentine cells: These secrete serotonin, which causes the feeling of hunger.
Stem cells in Lieberkuhn are regenerative and due to them, wear and tear is replenished.
❖ The walls of the intestine have small finger-like projections called villi.
❖ These blood vessels absorb the digested food and send it to every cell in the body.
❖ Excess glucose is converted to glycogen and stored in the liver
❖ Undigested food is sent to the large intestine.
 4

Liver:
❖ Bile production – Bile (hepatic bile - pH 8.6) is secreted from the liver and stored in the gallbladder
(gallbladder bile - pH 7.6). The liver produces about 500 to 1000 ml of bile per day.
❖ The liver contains hepatic cells that are surrounded by a connective tissue covering called the Glisan
capsule.
❖ Apart from this, the liver also contains cells that store fat.
There are five types of cells in the liver:
(a) Hepatocytes :
➢ They constitute about 80% of the liver and
are regenerative.
➢ They produce bile, proteins, cholesterol, bile
salts and phospholipids.
➢ Because of Bile juice, proteins,
cholesterol, bile salts and phospholipids
are created.
(b) Kupffer cells :
➢ These cells detoxify microorganisms and
toxins.
(a) Stellate cells :
➢ These cells control liver function and fibrosis.
(d) Endothelial cells :
➢ These cells control blood circulation in the liver.
(e) Cholangiocytes (muscle) :
➢ These cells form the bile ducts through which bile is transported.
Liver function
❖ Bile production – Bile (hepatic bile - pH 8.6) is secreted
by the liver and stored in the gallbladder (gallbladder bile
- pH 7.6). About 500 to 1000 ml per day from the liver
❖ Glycogenesis – Liver cells convert excess glucose into
glycogen through the hormone insulin secreted by the
pancreas. (Glucose - glycogen)
❖ De-amination – In this process, the amino group removed
from the amino acid is converted into ammonia to form
urea. (NH₃ → Urea)
❖ Glycogenolysis – This involves the conversion of stored
glycogen in liver cells into glucose. ( glycogen → Glucose)
❖ Haemopyogenesis – The process of formation of blood cells is called Haemopyogenesis.
❖ Heparin production – Heparin is produced by the liver to prevent blood from thinning or clotting in
the body.
❖ Vitamin A production – Vitamin-A is produced in the liver with the help of beta-carotene.
 5

Pancreatic Gland:
Pancreas is an endocrine as well as an exocrine gland and weighs
about 60 grams, length is about 12-15 cm and width is 2-5 cm.
❖ Various hormones are secreted from the islets of Langerhans
in the endocrine gland.
❖ Pancreatic juice is secreted from the acinar cells in the
exocrine gland.
❖ It contains amylase, lipase, trypsin, nuclease and bicarbonate.
❖ Bile from the liver and bile from the pancreas enter the small
intestine through the same duct.
❖ That tube is called the ampulla of water.
❖ Various pancreatic enzymes are secreted from the walls of
the small intestine, thus completing the digestion process.

❖ Amylase – This enzyme converts complex starches into glucose.

❖ Trypsin – This enzyme converts proteins into amino acids.
❖ Lipase – This enzyme converts fats into carbohydrates.
❖ Nuclease – This enzyme converts DNA and RNA into nucleotides.
 6

Related vicars and their functions:

1. Starchy foods → maltose
2. Fat → Medamle + Glycerol
3. Trypsinogen → Trypsin
4. Proteins + peptones + proteases → polypeptide
5. Chymotrypsinogen → Chymotrypsin
Large Intestine:
greater in diameter
❖ The large intestine is about 1.5 meters long. (4 to 5 ft )
❖ Here only water absorption takes place.
❖ Attached to the beginning of the large intestine is the
appendix.
❖ After digestion of food in the small intestine, the
undigested food and the remaining solids from the
digested food enter the large intestine.
❖ They are then excreted from the body.
The large intestine falls into three parts:
1. Caecum:
➢ It absorbs water and salts.
➢ It is found here by beneficial bacteria (E. Coli).
➢ Below it is the appendix and it is known as a vestigial organ.
➢ In primitive man it was used to digest raw food as well as cellulose.
2. Colon:
➢ It is the largest part of the large intestine and is divided into four parts:
✓ Ascending Colon
✓ transverse colon
✓ descending colon
✓ sigmoid colon
3. Rectum :
➢ It is the last part of the esophagus where faeces/faeces are stored and expelled through the anus.
➢ Mucus is helpful in this process.
Peptide Hormones Related to Digestive System:
1. Gastrin
➢ This stimulates the gastric glands in the stomach to secrete HCl and pepsinogen.
2. Secretin
➢ This stimulates the pancreas to secrete water and bicarbonate ions in the form of gastric juice.
3. Cholecystokinin (CCK)
➢ This stimulates the pancreas to secrete pancreatic juice and stimulates the gallbladder to secrete
bile.
 7

4. Gastric Inhibitory Peptide (GIP)

➢ This reduces gastric secretion in the gastric glands.
PH of the digestive system


 2

श्वसन संस्था

Index:
❖ Human respiratory system
❖ Anaerobic Respiration
❖ Aerobic Respiration
❖ Glycolysis, Krebs cycle
❖ Respiratory Types
Respiratory System:
❖ The respiratory system includes the respiratory tract starting from the nose and mouth, the lungs, the
rib cage, and the center in the brain that controls respiration.
❖ Breathing is not limited to inhalation and exhalation.
Respiration:
❖ Respiration is the process of generating energy to carry on the work in living organisms.
❖ Energy is produced from food and glucose.
❖ Some living things require less of this energy while others require more.
❖ More or less energy consumption depends on whether or not oxygen is consumed. High-energy
organisms use oxygen, while low-energy organisms do not.
There are 2 types of respiration:
1. aerobic respiration
2. anaerobic respiration
Difference between the two:
Aerobic respiration Anaerobic respiration

This is done with the help of oxygen. It does not need oxygen.

It expels carbon dioxide. Carbon dioxide is either released or not released.

It produces 38 ATP molecules. It produces only 2 molecules of ATP.

In this process, glycolysis takes place in the This process takes place in the cytoplasm.
cytoplasm.

Krebs cycle and electron transport processes take In some higher animals it takes place in the cell.
place in mitochondria.

E.g. More than 90% of animals perform oxygen E.g. Bacteria, yeast, Ascaris
respiration.

Anaerobic Respiratory System:

❖ In Anaerobic respiration, glucose is converted to pyruvic acid (a 6 carbon compound) which is then
converted to alcohol in some organisms and lactic acid in some organisms. It produces 2 molecules of
ATP.
❖ This process takes place in the cytosol.
 3

❖ In Anaerobic respiration, glucose (a 6-carbon compound) is converted into pyruvate acid (a 2-3-carbon
compound) after entering the cytoplasm. Alcohol is produced if the organism is a fermenter, or lactic
acid is produced in the case of human muscle, Lactobacillus.

❖ Anaerobic respiration takes place in 2 stages - glycolysis and yeast.

Glycolysis:
❖ It breaks down glucose.
❖ C6H12O6 (glucose) is converted to C3H6O3 + C3H6O3 (pyruvate acid). Then 2 ATP are produced from
pyruvate acid. At the same time, lactic acid or alcohol is produced. Carbon dioxide is formed along with
alcohol.
❖ Lactic acid is produced in human muscle (due to overwork), Lactobacillus, while alcohol is produced in
a yeast called Saccharomyces.
Respiration in humans:
Organs of Human Respiratory System:
❖ External Nostrils
❖ Pharynx
❖ Larynx
❖ Trachea
❖ Respiratory (Bronchi)
❖ Bronchioles
❖ Lungs
❖ Alveoli
❖ Diaphragm
Human respiration has 2 stages,
1. external respiration
2. internal respiration
 4

➢ This respiration is also called cellular respiration

because this respiration takes place in the cell.
Difference between the two:
❖ In external respiration only air is exchanged.
❖ It does two things.
1. Inhale
2. Exhale
❖ Together these two complete the breathing process.
❖ When we breathe in, the diaphragm contracts. This causes
the lungs to expand, and outside air is drawn in. This is
called inhalation.
❖ The trachea then expands. This causes the lungs to contract,
and the air inside is pushed out. This is called exhalation.
❖ This process usually happens 18-20 times every minute. This process happens 28,800 times in 24
hours.
❖ When humans breathe in, they take in 21% oxygen, and 0.03% carbon dioxide.
❖ Exhalation consists of 4-5% carbon dioxide, and 15-16% oxygen. That means we only use 5-6% of the
oxygen we take.
❖ This exchange of gasses takes place in the alveoli of the lungs.
❖ Pulmonary artery carries the impure blood from the heart. It contains carbon dioxide.
❖ As the impure blood moves into the alveoli, carbon dioxide from the impure blood is released into the
alveoli and oxygen from the alveoli is released into the blood, increasing the oxygen content of the
blood. This process produces hemoglobin.
❖ This process is called diffusion.
❖ Pulmonary veins carry the pure blood to the heart.
❖ 1 molecule of hemoglobin carries 4 molecules of oxygen, it is called oxyhemoglobin.
❖ Carbon dioxide is transported from the plasma in the form of bicarbonate. Carbon dioxide is also
carried along with hemoglobin called carbaminohemoglobin.
Internal or cellular respiration:
❖ Internal or cellular respiration has 3 steps,
1. glycolysis
2. Crab cycle
3. Electron (Hydrogen) Transport Chain
Stages of Glycolysis:
❖ Glucose enters the cytoplasm where glucose is converted to
glucose-6-phosphate.
❖ It is converted to fructose-6-phosphate, which is converted
to fructose-1,6-bisphosphate. It can be converted to
glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate or dihydroxyacetone
phosphate. Pyruvate is then produced in this process.
❖ Pyruvate is converted to acetyl coenzyme-a. It is sent to the
mitochondria to generate energy.
❖ All these processes generate 2 ATP.
 5

Krebs cycle:
❖ This is called the Krebs cycle, citric acid cycle
or TCA cycle.
❖ It is formed from acetyl coenzyme-a in the
order of citrate, fumarate, malate,
oxaloacetate.
❖ Fumarate is useful in generating ATP or
energy.
❖ In this process, 5 NADH2 (nicotinamide
adenine dinucleotide) and 1 FADH2 (flavin
adenine dinucleotide) are produced from
acetyl coenzyme-a.
❖ It produces 1 ATP.
Electron (Hydrogen) Transport Chain:
❖ It produces 15 ATP from NADH and 2 ATP from FADH. A total of 18 ATP is produced from one acetyl
coenzyme-a in this process. Two acetyl coenzyme-a produce 36 ATP. And 38 ATP are produced in 1
glucose as per 2 ATP produced in glycolysis.
❖ When 1 glucose reacts with oxygen in our body, 686 kcal of energy is produced. Out of this we can use
266 kcal of energy, because 420 kcal of energy is wasted.
❖ To store 266 kcal of energy, energy needs to be converted into ATP.
❖ 1 glucose gives 38 ATP while 1 ATP gives 7 kcal of energy.
❖ 1 molecule of sucrose yields 60 ATP.

1 Glucose=686 kcal
420 kcal- waste
266 Kcal- ATP n
1 Glucose = 38 ATP
266 kcal=?
1 ATP =7 Kcal
 6

Respiratory organs in animals:

Through the plasma membrane:
❖ In unicellular organisms such as amoeba, exchange of gasses takes place through the cell surface. They
absorb oxygen from the surrounding air or water and give off carbon dioxide by diffusion through the
plasma membrane.
Body skin or through the skin:
❖ Tapeworms, earthworms and leeches use their skin for gas exchange. The skin of earthworms is very
thin and moist. Many blood cells are spread on this skin. These blood cells are known as capillaries.
Exchange of gasses takes place in capillaries. If their skin dries out, they suffocate to death. Amphibians
like frogs use more than one respiratory organ in their lifetime. When they are tadpoles they breathe
through gills. Adult frogs breathe primarily through the lungs and exchange gasses with the
atmosphere through the skin.
Through the respiratory system:
❖ In insects like cockroaches, locusts, gas transport or gas exchange takes place through special types of
fine tubes called tracheae. Oxygenated air enters the bronchial tubes through the spiracles. Then it
spreads through the tissues of the body and reaches every cell in the body. Carbon dioxide from the
cells passes into the bronchial tubes and exits through the spiracles.
Through gills:
❖ Most aquatic animals such as fish and shrimp breathe through special organs called gills.
❖ Calluses are skin projections that help use oxygen dissolved in water. The gills contain blood vessels
that help in the exchange of gasses. Fish live in water. Fish slurp water through their mouths and pump
it over their gills to get oxygen dissolved in the water. Water passes through the gill slits into the gill
chamber. In each chamber, water passes through the filaments. They absorb oxygen from water and
replace it with carbon dioxide produced. Then the water escapes through the gill opening and the
process is repeated.
Through the lungs:
❖ Amphibians, mammals, and birds exchange gasses through specialized respiratory organs called lungs.
A lung is an air-filled sac-like structure in the chest cavity. They are connected externally by a series of
tubes and small openings.
Types of Respiration
Types of Respiration Respiratory organs Animals

Cell surface respiration Body surface (Exchange of gasses Sponges, Coelenterates, Flatworms
takes place by simple diffusion.)

Cutaneous respiration Moist cuticle, gills or modified Annelida

parapodia

Tracheal respiration Trachea or book lungs, Gills or book Arthropoda

gills

Branchial respiration Pulmonary sacs Mollusca (Aquatic forms)

example: Garden Snails
 7

Branchial respiration Ctenidia or gills Mollusca (Aquatic forms)

Example: Unio

Branchial respiration Gills Fish

Cutaneous respiration Gills, lungs or skin surface Amphebians

Pulmonary respiration Lungs Reptiles

Pulmonary respiration Lungs Aves (Birds)

Pulmonary respiration Lungs Mammals


 2

मानवी रक्ताभिसरण संस्था िाग 1

Index
❖ Human Circulatory System – 1
❖ Types of circulation
❖ Human Heart - Structure
❖ Cardiovascular system
Human Circulatory System:
❖ The pure blood in the body is sent from the
heart to various parts of the body.
❖ The lungs send the used impure blood back
to the heart.
❖ This impure blood is sent to the lungs for
purification. In the lungs, the oxygen taken
into the body through breathing is mixed
with the blood and this pure blood is sent
back to the heart. This process is called blood circulation.
❖ The blood circulation transports food, gases, enzymes, hormones and waste products through the
body. Due to this, useful elements are supplied to the necessary parts of the body.
❖ The human circulatory system was discovered by the scientist Dr. William Harvey.
Types of circulatory system:
Open blood circulatory system Closed circulatory system

Blood is not in blood vessels but in the cavity. Blood is confined in blood vessels.

Blood pressure is low. Blood pressure is high.

Pure and impure blood is mixed in the body. Pure and impure blood does not mix in the body.

E.g. Team snails, scorpions, cockroaches and spiders E.g. Humans, squid, cats, earthworms.
 3

❖ In open circulatory systems, the blood supply is

delivered to a cavity within the tissues. This cavity is
called the hemocoel.
❖ An open circulatory system is found in the groups
mollusks and arthropods.
❖ In a closed circulatory system, blood is pumped by the
heart and delivered to the cells through blood vessels.
❖ Closed circulatory systems are found in some
vertebrates as well as some invertebrates.
❖ In a closed circulatory system, there are separate blood vessels
to carry clean and dirty blood.
Human Heart: Structure and Function:
❖ The human heart is made up of cardiac muscles.
❖ The science that studies the heart is called cardiology.
❖ Our heart is involuntary. It cannot contract and dilate
according to our will.
❖ The human heart is triangular in shape and is located slightly obliquely to the left in the chest cavity
between the two lungs.
❖ The space where the heart is located is called the mediastinum.
❖ The outer covering of the heart is called the ‘pericardium’.
❖ The pericardium has two parts, the fibrous pericardium and the serous pericardium.
❖ The parietal pericardium in the serous pericardium contains pericardial fluid through which the
heart is nourished.
❖ There is a wall around the heart to protect the heart.
❖ This wall is three-layered. The outermost layer is the epicardium. The myocardium is the second
and thickest. The innermost layer is the endocardium.
❖ The human heart has four chambers.
❖ The two upper chambers of the heart are collectively called the atria, while the two lower chambers
of the heart are collectively called the ventricles. That is, our heart has two atriums and two
ventricles.
❖ The right atrium and ventricle contain impure blood, while the left atrium and ventricle contain pure
blood.
❖ The blood in the heart enters the right atrium first.
 4

Hearts of different animals:

Blood vessels related to the heart:

❖ (Vena Cava) - Carries the impure blood from the body to the heart
❖ Pulmonary artery - Impure blood from the heart is carried to the lungs
❖ Pulmonary vein - Purified blood is carried from the lungs to the heart
❖ Aorta
❖ Coronary sinus (Coronary artery) and coronary artery (coronary artery) - These are the vessels
that supply blood to the heart

Valve:
❖ There are ten types of valves in the human heart to ensure that
blood flows in one direction in the body.
❖ When the valves close and open, a specific sound is created,
which is called ‘lub dub’.
❖ When the bicuspid and tricuspid valves close, a lub sound is
made.
❖ When the heart contracts, it is called systole and when it relaxes,
it is called diastole.
❖ First, the contraction of the atria occurs, which is called
atrial systole, which is shown as a P-wave on the ECG.
After this, the contraction of the ventricles occurs, which
is called ventricular systole. This is shown as a QRS
complex on the ECG.
❖ Combined relaxation, i.e. atrial diastole and ventricular
diastole, is shown as a T-wave.
 5

Valves in human heart are named and located as follows:

Electrical system of heart:

❖ There are five types of electrical systems in the heart.
❖ SA node (sino auricular) - in the upper part of the right
atrium
❖ AV node (Atrioventricular) - In the lower part of the
right atrium
❖ Bundle of his - in the wall of atrium and ventricle in
the middle
❖ Bachmann's bundle - In the upper part of Left atrium
❖ Purkinje fibers -In the wall of both ventricles
cardiac output
❖ It takes 0.8 sec/heartbeat for the heart to beat. So,
there are 72 heartbeats in a minute.
❖ 70ml of blood is pumped in one heartbeat. This is called
the stroke volume of our heart.
❖ The amount of blood pumped by the heart in one
minute is 5040 ml, which is called the cardiac output of the heart.


 2

मानवी रक्ताभिसरण संस्था िाग 2

Topics to be Covered :
❖ Human Circulatory System
❖ Heartbeat, ECG
❖ Electrical System of Heart
❖ Blood Vessels
❖ Heart Diseases
Human Circulatory System :
1. Structure of the Heart:
➢ The heart is a hollow and muscular organ responsible for circulation. Its average weight is
approximately 300 grams (in adults) and is located towards the left side of the central chest.
The heart consists of four chambers:
❖ Right Atrium
❖ Right Ventricle
❖ Left Atrium
❖ Left Ventricle
2. Functioning of the Heart:
The heart goes through three phases while circulating blood:
(i) Atrial Systole:
➢ In this phase, atria contract and push blood into the ventricles.
➢ Atrial contraction lasts for 0.1 seconds.
(ii) Ventricular Systole:
➢ In this phase, ventricles contract and pump blood into the Aorta and Pulmonary Artery.
➢ Ventricular contraction lasts for 0.3 seconds.
(iii) Joint Diastole:
➢ In this phase, all heart muscles relax, and the heart fills with fresh blood.
➢ This phase lasts for 0.4 seconds.
Total time for one heartbeat = 0.1 + 0.3 + 0.4 = 0.8 seconds
 3

3. Heart Rate:
➢ The normal heart rate in a healthy adult is 72 beats per minute.
➢ The heart beats approximately 100,000 times per day.
➢ The heart rate is regulated by Sino-Atrial (SA) Node, also known as the Natural Pacemaker.
4. Cardiac Output:
➢ The amount of blood pumped by the heart per minute is called Cardiac Output.
➢ Formula:
Cardiac Output = Heart Rate × Stroke Volume
Where:
❖ Heart Rate (HR) = 72 beats per minute
❖ Stroke Volume (SV) = 70 ml per beat
Cardiac Output = 72 × 70 = 5040 ml/min ≈ 5 liters per minute
5. Blood Pressure (BP):
➢ Systolic BP: 120 mmHg (when the heart contracts)
➢ Diastolic BP: 80 mmHg (when the heart relaxes)
➢ Blood Pressure is measured using a Sphygmomanometer.
Types of Circulation:
(i) Pulmonary Circulation:
➢ This type of circulation occurs between the heart and the lungs.
➢ Deoxygenated blood flows from the right ventricle to the lungs, where it gets oxygenated.
➢ Oxygenated blood then returns to the left atrium.
(ii) Systemic Circulation:
➢ This type of circulation occurs between the heart and all parts of the body.
➢ Oxygenated blood is pumped from the left ventricle to the body.
➢ Deoxygenated blood returns to the right atrium.
(iii) Double Circulation:
➢ In the human body, blood passes through the heart twice, hence it is called double circulation.
➢ The heart separates oxygenated and deoxygenated blood, ensuring efficient circulation.
➢ Mammals (including humans) and birds exhibit double circulation.
Electrical System of the Heart :
❖ For the heart to function properly, a specialized electrical system controls its beating. This system
generates electrical impulses in the heart muscles and regulates heart contractions.
1) Components of the Electrical System of the Heart:
(i) Sino-Atrial (SA) Node : "Natural Pacemaker"
➢ Location: Upper part of the right atrium.
➢ Function: Initiates the heartbeat and sets the heart rate.
➢ Characteristics:
✓ Generates electrical impulses automatically.
✓ Normal Rate: 60-100 beats per minute.
(ii) Atrio-Ventricular (AV) Node :
➢ Location: Between the right atrium and right ventricle.
➢ Function: Delays the impulses from the SA node before passing them further.
➢ Characteristics:
✓ Slows down the electrical signal, allowing time for the ventricles to fill with blood.
✓ Normal Rate: 40-60 beats per minute.
 4

(iii) Bundle of His :

➢ Location: Below the AV node.
➢ Function: Transmits electrical impulses downward into the
ventricles.
(iv) Purkinje Fibers :
➢ Location: In the walls of the ventricles.
➢ Function: Distribute electrical impulses to the ventricles,
causing them to contract.
➢ Characteristics:
✓ Rapidly spreads impulses to ensure proper contraction.
✓ Normal Rate: 20-40 beats per minute.
2) Cardiac Conduction System Process:
➢ SA Node Generates Impulse: The electrical impulse spreads
through both atria, causing them to contract and push blood
into the ventricles.
➢ AV Node Delays the Impulse: This pause allows the ventricles to fill with blood before
contracting.
➢ Bundle of His & Purkinje Fibers: They transmit the impulse to the ventricles, making them
contract and pump blood to the lungs and the rest of the body.
Types of Blood Vessels:
(i) Artery:
➢ Carries oxygenated blood from the heart to various parts of the body (except the pulmonary
artery).
➢ High blood pressure, so the walls are thick and strong.
➢ Blood flows rapidly.
➢ Largest artery: Aorta
➢ Smaller arteries: Arterioles
Key Features:
❖ Transports oxygenated blood.
❖ Thick walls due to high blood pressure.
❖ Blood is pushed forward with each heartbeat.
(ii) Vein:
➢ Carries deoxygenated blood back to the heart (except the pulmonary vein).
➢ Low blood pressure, so the walls are thin.
➢ Blood flows slowly.
➢ Valves prevent the backward flow of blood.
➢ Largest vein: Vena Cava
➢ Smaller veins: Venules
Key Features:
❖ Transports deoxygenated blood.
❖ Thin walls due to low blood pressure.
❖ Valves prevent backflow of blood.
 5

(iii) Capillaries:
➢ Microscopic blood vessels that connect arteries and veins.
➢ Very thin walls allow exchange of oxygen, carbon dioxide, nutrients, and waste.
Key Features:
❖ Extremely thin walls (only one cell thick).
❖ Enable exchange of substances between blood and body tissues.
❖ Present throughout the body.

Blood Vessels → Aorta & Vena Arterioles &

Arteries & Veins Capillaries
Wallagen ↓ Cava Venules

Tunica Externa Yes Yes Yes No

Tunica Media Yes Yes No No

Tunica Intima Yes Yes No No

Endothelial Yes Yes Yes Yes

Important Hormones Related to Circulation:

❖ Adrenaline: Increases heart rate.
❖ Thyroxine: Regulates heart function.
❖ Renin: Controls blood pressure.
Heart Diseases:
Congenital Heart Disease:
❖ Birth defects in the heart, such as holes in the heart.
❖ Babies born with this condition are called "Blue Babies"
because their lips, nails, and skin appear bluish.
(i) Heart Attack (Myocardial Infarction):
➢ Occurs when a blockage forms in the coronary artery, cutting
off blood supply to the heart muscles.
➢ Main Causes: High cholesterol, high blood pressure, stress, smoking.
(ii) Hypertension (High Blood Pressure):
➢ Normal BP: 120/80 mmHg.
➢ BP above 140/90 mmHg is considered high.
➢ Causes: Excessive salt intake, obesity, mental stress.
(iii) Arrhythmia:
➢ Irregular heartbeat (too fast or too slow).
(iv) Atherosclerosis:
➢ Cholesterol and fat deposits in artery walls reduce blood flow.
 6

Key Points :
❖ One heartbeat takes 0.8 seconds.
❖ Normal heart rate = 72 beats per minute.
❖ Cardiac output ≈ 5 liters per minute.
❖ Aorta = Largest artery.
❖ Vena Cava = Largest vein.
❖ SA Node = Natural pacemaker.
❖ Double circulation occurs in mammals and birds.
Heart Surgery:
❖ First heart transplant: December 3, 1967, performed by Dr. Christiaan Barnard in Groote Schuur
Hospital, South Africa.
❖ First successful heart transplant in India: Dr. P. Venugopal on August 3, 1994.
❖ First Open-Heart Surgery in India: Performed by Dr. K. N. Dastur in 1961.

 2

मानवी उत्सर्जन संस्था

Topics to be Covered :
❖ Human Excretory system
❖ Excretion - types
❖ Human Kidney - Nephron
❖ Excretion - Process, Kidney Hormones
❖ Kidney stones
Animals Excretory Organs

Protozoa/Amoeba Contractile vacuole

Sponges, Cnidarians/Hydra Specialized cells in the body wall

Flatworms Flame cells

Earthworm Nephridia

Lobster Paired green glands

Crab Antennal glands

Insects Malpighian tubules

Scorpion Malpighian tubules, Coxal glands

Mollusks/Snail Kidney

Conch (Shell Fish) Paired kidneys

Echinoderms/Starfish Amoebocytes

Sea Cucumber Respiratory tree

Hemichordates Proboscis gland

Vertebrates Paired kidneys, sweat glands

Modes of Excretion:
1) Ammonotelism -
➢ Excretion of highly toxic and highly water-soluble ammonia.
➢ Example: Amoeba, Paramecium, Sycon, Hydra, Prawn, etc.
2) Ureotelism -
➢ Excretion of less toxic urea compared to ammonia.
➢ Example: Humans, Whales, Seals, Kangaroos, Frogs, Toads, etc.
3) Uricotelism -
➢ Excretion of uric acid.
➢ Example: Snakes, Lizards, Birds, Insects, Snails, etc.
 3

Excretion in Humans:
❖ In the human body, metabolic processes generate solid,
liquid, and gaseous waste, which are eliminated through
various organs and the excretory system.
1) Liver -
➢ Breaks down various chemical and toxic substances and
sends them to the kidneys for excretion.
➢ Example: Conversion of toxic ammonia into urea.
2) Bile -
➢ Produced by the liver and stored in the gallbladder. Helps in breaking down ethanol, fats, and
ammonia-based waste in the small intestine.
3) Large Intestine -
➢ Removes solid waste left after digestion.
4) Skin -
➢ Sweat glands help excrete excess urea, sweat, and salts.
5) Eccrine Glands -
➢ Present all over the body, including the forehead, palms, and soles. Help excrete excess water.
6) Lungs -
➢ Remove carbon dioxide generated during respiration.
The process of removing nitrogenous waste products such as ammonia, urea, and uric acid produced
during metabolic processes from the body is called 'excretion'.
Excretory System (Organs of Excretion):
(1) Pair of Kidneys
(2) Pair of Ureters
(3) Urinary Bladder
(4) Urethra
Human Excretory System:
Kidneys (Renal System):
❖ Humans have two kidneys, one on each side of the body.
❖ Kidneys are bean-shaped and reddish-brown.
❖ Length: 10–12 cm, Width: 6 cm, Thickness: 4 cm
❖ Weight: 125–170 g in males, 115–155 g in females
❖ The outer layer of the kidney is called the Cortex, while the inner Medulla consists of 8–18 renal pyramids.
 4

Stages of Urine Formation:

1) Ultrafiltration:
➢ Each nephron has a Bowman’s capsule (a cup-shaped structure).
➢ Inside, there is a network of capillaries called the Glomerulus.
➢ The liver-generated urea enters the blood and is filtered through the glomerulus.
➢ Blood plasma, proteins, and small molecules pass through the selectively permeable membrane
of Bowman’s capsule.
➢ Filtration pressure: 55 mmHg in the glomerulus, 30 mmHg osmotic pressure, and 15 mmHg
hydrostatic pressure, resulting in net filtration pressure of 10 mmHg.
➢ 125 ml per minute (~180 liters per day) of filtrate is formed, out of which 99% is reabsorbed,
producing 1–1.5 liters of urine per day.
2) Selective Reabsorption:
➢ The filtrate moves through the nephron tubules, where essential proteins, water, and ions are
reabsorbed.
➢ Proximal Convoluted Tubule (PCT) reabsorbs 70–80% water and electrolytes, maintaining blood
pH and ion balance.
➢ The descending loop of Henle reabsorbs 20% water.
➢ The ascending loop of Henle absorbs electrolytes like sodium and potassium.
➢ Distal Convoluted Tubule (DCT) reabsorbs sodium, bicarbonate, and chloride ions.
➢ Glucose levels in the blood should be 45–90 mg per 100 ml. If it exceeds 160 mg, glucose
appears in urine (Glycosuria), leading to Diabetes Mellitus.
Nephron Part Reabsorption

Glucose, proteins, vitamins, urea, uric acid, 70–80% water, sodium,

PCT
potassium, calcium, magnesium, chloride, bicarbonate ions

Henle’s Descending Loop 20% Water

Henle’s Ascending Loop Electrolytes, sodium, potassium, chloride ions

DCT Water, bicarbonate, sodium, chloride ions

Collecting Duct Water, urea

 5

3) Secretion:
➢ The remaining waste forms urine, which is stored in the collecting ducts.
➢ Secreted substances include ammonia, urea, uric acid, hydrogen ions.
➢ Hydrogen ion secretion regulates blood acidity.
➢ The kidneys also excrete creatinine, potassium, and certain drugs like penicillin.
➢ The adrenal gland releases aldosterone, which helps regulate sodium levels, while calcitonin
and parathormone regulate calcium levels.
Nephron Part Secretion

PCT Urea, uric acid, creatinine, drugs, ammonium, hydrogen ions

Henle’s Loop Urea

DCT Hydrogen, potassium, ammonium ions, drugs

4) Excretion:
➢ Urine flows from the ureter to the urinary bladder, then out through the urethra.
➢ Urethra length: 4 cm in females, 20 cm in males.
➢ The bladder is under voluntary nervous control, allowing controlled urination.
➢ Urine gets its yellow color from urochrome.
➢ Urine composition: 95% water, 2.5% urea, uric acid, creatinine.
➢ Normal blood urea levels: 0.01–0.03%. If it exceeds 0.05%, it can cause Uremia, leading to
kidney failure.
 6

Hormones in Kidney:

Hormone Function

Erythropoietin Regulates red blood cell production.

Thrombopoietin Regulates platelet production

Renin Increases blood pressure and produces angiotensin

Angiotensin Stimulates aldosterone, leading to sodium and water reabsorption

Calcitonin Reduces calcium reabsorption in kidneys

ADH (AntiDiuretic Maintains water balance; deficiency leads to Diabetes Insipidus, causing
Hormone) frequent urination and excessive thirst

Interesting Facts about Kidneys:

❖ 1% of people worldwide are born with duplex (double) kidneys. One in 400 newborns has a
horseshoe-shaped kidney.
❖ Kidney biopsy is used to diagnose kidney diseases.
❖ If all nephrons were connected, their total length would be 16 km (10 miles).
❖ Kidneys also produce ‘Vitamin - D’.
❖ The first kidney transplant was performed in 1954 by Joseph Murray, who won the 1990 Nobel
Prize in Medicine.

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 2

अलैंगिक प्रजनन आगि वनस्पती प्रजनन

Index:
❖ Reproduction
❖ Types of reproduction
❖ artificial reproductive methods
❖ Plants - sexual reproduction methods
Reproduction:
❖ Reproduction is the process by which each living organism produces a new organism similar to
itself.
❖ Its basic function is to copy DNA. As these DNA copies are being made, there are always some subtle
changes taking place. So the copies of DNA are identical to the original DNA. But they do not match
the original DNA.
❖ Constantly changing atmospheric temperatures, changing water levels and other environmental
changes beyond our control can all lead to the extinction of a species. But only if the mutations in
the DNA are adapted to the changing environment are the species likely to survive.
Living Populations:
❖ There are 2 types of reproduction in living organisms,
1. asexual reproduction
2. sexual reproduction
 3

Difference between asexual reproduction and sexual reproduction

asexual reproduction sexual reproduction

Only one parent is involved Two organisms are involved

Gametes are not formed Gametes are produced by organisms

An offspring is genetically identical to the parent Genetic variation occurs in the offspring

Gametes are formed by meiotic division and

Cell division is only mitotic zygote developed by mitotic division

A very large number of plants are produced in a The number is relatively less
short period of time

Asexual Reproduction:
❖ Reproduction that takes place without gametes is called asexual reproduction. In this method, a new
organism is formed from only one gene by chromosomal division. Therefore, the newborn cell is
exactly like the parent cell.
Types of asexual reproduction:
Fission:
❖ This method is found in unicellular organisms. In this method, a living cell divides into two or more
equal parts. This is called fragmentation. If it splits into two equal parts, the process is called binary
fission and if it splits into more parts, it is called multiple fission.
❖ E.g. Dimitosis – Bacteria, Paramecium (horizontal fission), Multifission Amoeba, Euglena (vertical
fission)

Budding:
❖ After the full growth of multicellular organisms, their body forms a spherical swelling structure
called a bud. It grows and forms an evolved organism. When that organism develops the ability to
nourish itself, it separates from the original organism and is called Budding. If the same process
takes place in unicellular organisms, it is called Encystment. E.g. Hydra (multicellular), yeast
(unicellular)
 4

Fragmentation:
❖ Some multicellular organisms are divided into many small
fibrous segments. The process of growth and formation of
new organisms when water and nutrients are provided in
proper quantity is called Fragmentation.
❖ E.g. Spirogyra
Regeneration:
❖ In some multicellular organisms, the process of forming a
complete body from a detached part of their body is called
regeneration.
❖ E.g. Planaria, Liverfluke

Spore Formation:
❖ In some organisms, sporangia (sporangia) are formed on small leaves
and numerous spores (spores) are formed in them. After maturation,
the spore bursts and its spores produce new organisms under
favorable conditions, this is called sporulation. E.g. Mosses, mosses,
Rixie (Bryophyta) and some Neche group plants
 5

Vegetative Propagation:

❖ Propagation from vegetative organs like root, trunk, leaves, buds of plants is called vegetative
propagation.
❖ [Link] - potato, beet, sugarcane, ginger etc.
❖ Root - sweet potato, carrot, radish
❖ Leaves - Bryophyta (Panfuti)
Artificial methods of reproduction
Artificial method Examples

Cutting Bryophyllum, tamarind, grapes, sugarcane, rose

Layering Jasmine, grapefruit, lychee, orange

Grafting Rose, apple, mango, peach, plum

Micropropagation Bananas, orchids, research plants

Sexual Reproduction in Plants:

❖ Flower is the main functional unit of sexual reproduction in plants. The flower structures are of
various shapes and colors so it is called a Zygomorphic flower. Various structures in the flower
participate in the reproductive process. E.g. Hibiscus Flower, Calyx, Corolla, Androecium and
Gynecium
 6

Flower Structure:
❖ Flowers are the reproductive structure of the plant.
❖ In different plants, the number of petals, sepals, stamens and pistils can vary. The presence of these parts
differentiates a flower into complete or incomplete. Apart from these parts, the flower has reproductive
parts - stamens and pistils. A flower may have only female parts, only male parts, or both.
❖ The reproductive parts of flowers contain the following components;
❖ Stamen: It is the male reproductive organ and is also called androecium. It consists of two parts:
anther and filaments.
❖ Anther is a yellowish, sac-like structure, which is involved in the production and storage of pollen grains.
❖ A filament is a thin, thread-like substance that acts as a support to the anther.
❖ Pistil: It is the innermost part of the flower and the female reproductive organ which consists of
three parts – stigma, style and ovary. These are collectively known as the pistil.
❖ Stigma: It is the uppermost part of the carpels or receptive tip in the gynoecium of the flower.
❖ Style: It is a long tube-like slender stalk that connects the stigma and the ovary.
❖ Ovary: It is a ductless reproductive gland that contains many ovules. This is the part of the plant
where seeds are produced.

Whorls:
❖ Along with the vegetative and reproductive parts, a flower is also composed of four petals, which are
mainly responsible for the radial arrangement of the flower. A normal flower has a circular central
section, which can be clearly seen and identified from the top of the flower. There are four bells:
 7

Calyx:
❖ The calyx is the outermost whorl of the flower. It consists of sepals and small leaves at the base of
the flowers. These protect the flowers from mechanical injuries and odors. Some plants have calyx
colored sepals and are called petaloids.
❖ If the sepals are free, the calyx is called polysepalous and if they are united, it is called gamosepalous.
❖ In many flowers, the sepals fall off before the flower fully opens. Such sepals are known as caduceus.
❖ In some, the sepals fall off after fertilization. Such sepals are known as deciduous.
❖ Forced sepals remain until the fruiting stage.
Corolla:
❖ This is the second petal of the flower. It has petals that perform two main functions:
❖ To attract pollinators.
❖ To protect the reproductive parts of flowers
❖ Petals are brightly colored and fragrant to attract animals and insects for pollination. Calyx and
corolla together are called perianth.
❖ Different types of corolla are found in flowers.
1. Polypetalous Regular
2. Polypetalus Irregular
3. Gamopetalous regular
4. Gamopetalous Irregular
Stamens:
❖ The stamen is also known as the third whorl of the flower and is the male reproductive part. It
consists of a filament which is a thread-like structure topped by a spherical structure called anther.
Pollen is produced by the anther which contributes to the male reproductive process of the plant.
Not all stamens bear fertile anthers.
Carpals:
❖ The carpel is the fourth whorl of the flower in the center. Carpels contain the pistil, the female
reproductive part of the flower.
❖ It consists of ovary, style and stigma.
❖ Ovaries contain eggs or ovules.
❖ After fertilization, sometimes the ovary turns into a fruit to hold the seed. At the top of the ovary is a
vertical structure called the style that supports the stigma.
❖ Dispersed pollen grains adhere to the stigma and pass
through the style to the ovary.
❖ The process of sexual reproduction in a plant is
accomplished in the following steps.
Gamete Formation:
❖ Pollen grains are produced in the anther in the stamens
and from them, the zygotes are formed. After maturity,
the anther bursts and the pollen grains are released.
❖ Many ovules are formed in the ovary in the female stamen
and each ovule is transformed into an egg.
Pollination:
❖ The transfer of pollen grains from the anther to the stigma is called pollination. This pollination
takes place through birds, insects, air, water etc.
❖ When the pollen grains land on the anther, the anther produces a sticky secretion and the pollen
grains stick to it. One of the two pollen grains on the anther is transformed into an anther and the
other one reaches the ovary.
 8

Types according to means of pollination:

1) Anemophily-wind
2) Canthrophylly - weed
3) Chiroterophylly- Bats
4) Entomophily - Insects
5) Hydrophily - water
6) Melitophily/Hymenotherophily – Masha
7) Myrmcophili - Ants
8) Nacrocoleotherophily - Carrion beetle
9) Ornithophily- Birds
10) Phalenophily - Kite
11) Psychophilia - Butterfly
12) Sapramoeophily -Mushroom fly
Types of Pollination:
1) Self Pollination - When pollination takes place in
one flower or two flowers of the same plant, it is
called self pollination.
2) Cross Pollination - When pollination takes place between the flowers of two plants of the same
species, it is called cross pollination. This is also called allogamy or xenogamy.
Fertilization:
❖ Fertilization is the union of male and female gametes i.e. pollen grains and ovules to form a zygote.
Male and female gametes form a zygote
Double fertilization:
❖ Double fertilization is a phenomenon that occurs in flowering plants i.e. angiosperms. After
pollination, when the pollen grains fall on the stigma, it forms a pollen tube that travels through the
entire style to reach the ovary.
❖ The most successful pollen tube reaches the embryo sac of the ovule and fuses with it. Inside the
pollen tube, there are 2 sperm cells that are released into the embryo sac.
❖ One of them fertilizes the egg to form a zygote and the other fertilizes the egg with two polar nuclei
to form a secondary nucleus (triple fusion).
❖ After double fertilization the fertilized ovule is
capable of producing fruit and seed.
❖ It is through double fertilization that the seed
produces the endosperm that nourishes the
growing embryo.
❖ The process of double fertilization has played an
important role in the evolution of flowering
plants.
Seed Germination Process:
❖ During the early stages of germination, the seeds
absorb water rapidly and thus the seed coat
swells and softens at optimum temperatures.
This stage is called Imbibition. It initiates the growth process by activating enzymes. The seed
activates its internal physiology and begins to respire and produce proteins and metabolize stored
food. This is an intermediate stage of seed germination.
❖ The seed coat ruptures, forming a radicle to form the primary root. The seed starts absorbing water
from the ground. After the emergence of the radicle and plumule, the shoot begins to grow upwards.
❖ In the final stage of seed germination, the seed cell becomes metabolically active, enlarges, and
divides to form a plant.
 9


 2

मानवी प्रजनन संस्था

INDEX:
❖ Institute of Human Reproduction
❖ Male and Female Fertility Institute
❖ Reproduction - Process
❖ Birth of twins
Sexual reproduction:
❖ Animals fall into 2 groups in sexual reproduction.
1. Hermaphrodites
2. Unisexual Animals
Unisexual Animals:
❖ Some animals have male and female glands in different organisms and are called unisexuals.
❖ E.g. Humans, mosquitoes, butterflies, cattle, dogs, fish, snakes, birds, sails etc.
Hermaphrodites:
❖ Some animals have both male and female glands together and are called hermaphrodites.
❖ Testes and ovaries are combined in this animal.
❖ E.g. Slugs, snails, earthworms etc.
Classification of animals on the basis of breeding:
❖ 2 groups and 1 sub-group based on reproduction of sexually reproducing animals.
1. Oviparous
2. Viviparous
3. Ovoviviparous
Oviparous:
❖ Animals that lay eggs are called oviparous.
❖ This animal is the most abundant on earth.
❖ E.g. Frogs, insects, toads, snails, octopuses, fish, snakes, sails, birds, (platypus and echidna mammals)
Viviparous animals:
❖ Animals that give birth to young are called juvenile animals.
❖ This animal is the most abundant and most developed on earth.
❖ E.g. Humans, Scorpions, Cockroaches, Godfish, Sharks, Sea Snakes etc.
Ovoviviparous animals:
❖ Animals that develop fertilized eggs and the embryo is released from the female's body are called
oviparous animals.
❖ E.g. Gambusia Fish, Insect
Sexual Reproduction in Human Beings:
❖ Sexual reproduction in humans takes place with the help of various organs, all of which are
collectively known as the human reproductive system.
Sexual Reproduction in Human Beings:
❖ There are 2 types of sexual reproduction in humans,
1. Male Reproductive System
2. Female Reproductive System
Male Reproductive System:
❖ The male reproductive system includes the testes, reti testes, vas efferent (duct), epididymis
(epididymis) and vas deferens (sperm tube), prostate gland, penis, and the testis is the major organ
of the male reproductive system.
❖ In infancy, i.e. before birth, the testis is an organ located in the abdominal cavity below the kidneys,
and then in the seventh month it becomes permanently attached to the scrotum. It contains
numerous spermatogenic ducts in which sperm cells are produced by meiosis.
 3

❖ These sperm cells are sent further through the ducts of Rete
Testis, Vas efferens, Epididymis, Vas deferens, Ejaculatory Duct
and Urinogenital Duct.
❖ The secretions of the testes are secreted into the ejaculatory
glands while the secretions of the prostate and Cowper's glands
are secreted into the ureters. All these secretions and
spermatozoa are combined to form chiriya or sand. A sperm is
60 micrometers in length. While epididymis is up to 6 meters in
length. That is, the sperm has to travel a distance of about 6.5
meters to exit the reproductive organ and requires a lot of
energy. That is why semen contains a sugar called fructose.
Female Reproductive System:
❖ The female reproductive system consists of two ovaries, two
fallopian tubes, uterus, cervix and vagina. Of these, the pair
of ovaries is the major organ in the female reproductive
system and is 3 cm long, 1.5 cm wide and 1 cm thick. The
ovaries are located in the lower abdomen and are attached
to the uterus by ligaments. It produces immature ovules i.e.
testicles and the sex hormones estrogen and progesterone.
Ovulation begins before birth. Normally, more than 2 million
eggs are produced in both ovaries six months before birth.
Steps of Reproduction:
❖ There are 3 important steps in sexual reproduction in humans.
1. Gamete Formation
2. Fertilization
3. Reproduction
1) Gamete Formation
Spermatogenesis:
❖ In men, the male gamete i.e. sperm is produced in the testes. This formation takes place in three stages.
1. Multiplication phase: Immature cells divide repeatedly to form numerous spermatogonia.
2. Growth phase: Spermatogonia accumulate food and increase in size. It is called spermatocyte.
3. Maturation phase: The mitotic division of the spermatocyte i.e. maturation and formation of
spermatids. Also, in the final maturation process of this stage, immobile spermatozoa are
transformed into motile male gametes i.e. spermatozoa. (Spermatogonia Spermatocytes Spermatids
Sperm or Spermatozoa) The male reproductive system consists of some accessory ducts.
❖ They include the reti testes, vas efferents, epididynes, and vas deferens.
Structure of Venus cell:
❖ Sperm cells are cylindrical and small in size. They are about 60 µm in [Link] are active for
up to 72 hours but may only flower for the first 12 to 14 hours in the ovary.
❖ Their body has 4 parts.
1. Head: It is a spherical part containing a large nucleus and a part called acrosome. Hyaluronidase
is secreted from the acrozoa and it helps to penetrate the ovum during fertilization.
2. Neck: It is the smallest segment and contains 2 centrioles.
3. Middle part: It contains fibroblasts and is called the energy center of the sperm.
4. Tail: It is a long and tapering part made up of muscle tissue.
 4

Oogenesis:
❖ Ovulation takes place in three stages in the ovary.
1. Multiplication phase: Multiple ovules are formed before birth due to the serial division of
microscopic egg cells.
2. Growth phase: Prior to adulthood, under the influence of follicle stimulating hormone, the
ovaries grow in size and produce primordial ova.
3. Maturation phase: The primary ovule undergoes meiosis i.e. it matures to form the secondary
ovule. Later, this secondary ovum moves to the ovary where it is transformed into a mature
ovum at the time of fertilization.
Structure of egg cell:
❖ Egg cells are spherical and the cytoplasm in them is called Yolk or Ooplasm. The nucleus is also
called a germinal vesicle. There is a plasma membrane around the cell substance.
❖ Inside it is a perivitelline cavity. It is surrounded by the zona pellucida. Surrounding this mantle is
the mantle of corona radiata.
❖ An ovule has a polar body on one side. That part is called an animal pole. The opposite part is called
the Vegetal Pole.
Fertilization:
❖ Sperm cells travel from the uterus to the ovum in the fallopian tubes. Fertilization is the process by
which the ovum and sperm unite to form a zygote.
❖ This action takes place inside the body, so it is called internal. E.g. Humans, all mammals,
amphibians.
❖ In some animals the zygotes are released into the environment i.e. water or soil or on the leaves of
plants. Fertilization of Venus and ovum takes place there. Fertilization outside the body is called
external fertilization. E.g. Frogs, mosquitoes, etc.
❖ Fertilization takes place in an area called the ampulla.
❖ The zygote attaches to the uterus on the eighth day, this is called implantation. And the embryo
begins to form.
❖ Nerve cells are formed first in the embryo.
❖ Fertilization takes place inside the body of some animals. E.g. Mammals, birds
❖ Excretion occurs outside the body of some animals. It can be in water, on a rock, on a tree. E.g.
Insects, fish, mosquitoes, butterflies, frogs.
Male Reproductive Gland:
❖ Male reproductive glands include seminal vesicles, prostate, and bulbourethral glands. There is a
pair of seminal vesicles. The seminal vesicles are located above the prostate. The vas deferens are
connected to form the ejaculatory ducts that pass through the prostate.
❖ Produces fluid that nourishes sperm. It is called seminal plasma. This liquid is rich in fructose,
calcium and certain enzymes. It forms the maximum volume of semen, in which sperm are released
during ejaculation.
Conveyance of semen:
❖ Sperm move to the epididymis, where they complete their development. The sperm then travel to
the vas deferens (VAS DEF-uh-runz) or the spermatic duct. The seminal vesicles and prostate gland
produce a whitish fluid called seminal fluid, which mixes with sperm to form semen when a man is
sexually stimulated.
 5

Reproduction:
❖ After fertilization, the zygote divides to form a spherical structure of cells. It is called Embryo. The
complete development of the embryo takes place in the uterus and its transformation into a fetus.
❖ After a certain period of time, a newborn is born from an infant.
❖ Development takes place in the first 9 weeks.
❖ In the 12th week, the sex organs separate.
❖ Arms and legs develop at 16 weeks.
❖ The ability to hear is acquired in the 20th week.
❖ Lungs develop at 24 weeks.
❖ At 28 weeks the brain develops.
❖ Bones develop in the 32nd week.
❖ Muscles develop at 36 weeks.
❖ The embryo is born at 38 to 40 weeks.
❖ A woman needs a hormone called oxytocin, which is produced in the pituitary gland, to give birth to
a baby. If this does not occur, a cesarean delivery should be performed.

 2

मानवी रक्तगट
Topics to be Covered :
❖ Human Blood groups
❖ ABO System
❖ Rh system
❖ Blood transfusion
❖ Blood donation
Blood Group:
Blood Group ‘A’ Blood Group ‘B’ Blood Group ‘AB’ Blood Group ‘O’
Red Blood Cells A B AB O
Antibodies in Antibody - B Antibody - A No Antibody Antibody - A and
Plasma Antibody - B
Antigens in Red Antigen - A Antigen - B Antigen - A and B No Antigen
Blood Cells

What is a Blood Group?

❖ A blood group is a classification of human blood based on the presence of specific antigens and
antibodies in the blood.
❖ These antigens are found on the surface of red blood cells (RBCs) and play a crucial role in
determining blood group compatibility.
❖ The discovery of blood groups is considered a significant advancement in the medical field, as blood
transfusions require compatible blood groups to ensure safety.
Major Types of Blood Groups:
Human blood groups are primarily classified based on two systems:
1) ABO Blood Group System
2) Rh Blood Group System
1) ABO Blood Group System:
➢ This system was discovered by Austrian scientist Karl Landsteiner in 1901.
➢ He classified blood groups based on the presence of A and B antigens in red blood cells.
According to this system, there are four main blood groups:
✓ Group A → Has A antigen on red blood cells and B antibodies in plasma.
✓ Group B → Has B antigen on red blood cells and A antibodies in plasma.
✓ Group AB → Has both A and B antigens, but no antibodies in plasma.
✓ Group O → Has no antigens on red blood cells but has both A and B antibodies in plasma.
➢ Key Features:
✓ O group is the Universal Donor because it has no antigens, meaning it can be safely
transfused to all blood groups.
✓ AB group is the Universal Recipient because it has no antibodies, meaning it can receive
blood from all groups.
 3

2) Rh Blood Group System:

➢ In 1940, Karl Landsteiner and Alexander Wiener discovered the Rh factor (Rhesus factor), which
is based on the presence of the D antigen on red blood cells:
✓ Rh Positive (Rh+) → Has D antigen on red blood cells.
✓ Rh Negative (Rh-) → Does not have the D antigen on red blood cells.
➢ When combined with the ABO system, there are a total of eight blood groups:
✓ A+ ✓ AB+
✓ A- ✓ AB-
✓ B+ ✓ O+
✓ B- ✓ O-
Discovery of Blood Groups:
Karl Landsteiner (1901):
❖ Discovered the ABO blood group system and explained the cause of blood transfusion incompatibility.
❖ For this groundbreaking discovery, he was awarded the Nobel Prize in 1930.
Rh Factor (1940):
❖ Landsteiner and Wiener discovered the Rh factor through research on Rhesus monkeys.
❖ This discovery was crucial in understanding Rh incompatibility in pregnant women, which can cause
complications such as Hemolytic Disease of the Newborn (HDN).
Characteristics and Importance of Blood Groups:
Blood Transfusion:
❖ Matching blood groups is essential for safe transfusion.
❖ Example: A person with A+ blood can receive blood from A+ or O+, but receiving B+ or AB- may
trigger an immune reaction.
❖ O- is the Universal Donor as it lacks any antigens.
❖ AB+ is the Universal Recipient as it has no antibodies.
Pregnancy and Rh Incompatibility:
❖ If an Rh-negative mother carries an Rh-positive baby, there is usually no issue during the first
pregnancy.
❖ However, during the second pregnancy, the mother's immune system may develop Rh antibodies,
which can attack the baby’s red blood cells, leading to Hemolytic Disease of the Newborn
(Erythroblastosis Fetalis).
❖ To prevent this, Rh-negative mothers are given an Anti-D injection.
Relation to Diseases:
Research suggests that certain blood groups may be linked to specific diseases:
❖ O group → Lower risk of heart disease.
❖ A, B, and AB groups → Higher risk of blood clotting disorders.
 4

Genetics of Blood Groups:

❖ Blood groups are inherited from parents.
❖ Example: If the mother has blood group A and the father has blood group B, the child’s blood group
could be A, B, AB, or O.
Blood group Donor Receiver
A+ A+, AB+ A+, A-, O+, O-
A- A+, A-, AB+, AB- A-, O-
B+ B+, AB+ B+, B-, O+, O-
B- B+, B-, AB+, AB- B-, O-
AB+ AB+ (A+, A-, B+, B-, AB+, AB-, O+, O-)
AB- AB+, AB- AB-, A-, B-, O-
O+ O+, A+, B+, AB+ O+, O-
O- (A+, A-, B+, B-, AB+, AB-, O+, O-) O-

What is the Bombay Blood Group?

❖ The Bombay Blood Group is a rare blood group that differs from the ABO and Rh blood group systems.
It is also known as the "hh" or "Oh" blood group. This blood group is identified by the absence of the H
antigen, which is the precursor for the A and B antigens in the ABO system.
❖ Individuals with this blood group lack A, B, or H antigens on their red blood cells, and their plasma
contains anti-A, anti-B, and anti-H antibodies.
Discovery of the Bombay Blood Group
❖ When and Where?
➢ Discovered in 1952 by Dr. Y. M. Bhende in Mumbai (then Bombay), India.
➢ This is why it is named the "Bombay Blood Group".
Characteristics of the Bombay Blood Group
Lack of H Antigen:
❖ Normally, blood group O has H antigen, which forms the base for A and B antigens.
 5

❖ However, in Bombay Blood Group, H antigen is completely absent, preventing the formation of A or B
antigens.
❖ This makes it appear similar to the O group, but it is actually genetically different.
Presence of Antibodies:
❖ Individuals with Bombay Blood Group have anti-H, anti-A, and anti-B antibodies in their plasma.
❖ This means they cannot receive blood from any common blood group, including O, A, B, or AB, as all of
them contain the H antigen.
❖ Receiving incompatible blood can cause severe hemolytic reactions.
Blood Donation and Transfusion
❖ Can Donate To: People with any ABO blood group since their red blood cells lack antigens.
❖ Can Receive From: Only from another Bombay Blood Group donor, as all other groups contain H
antigen, which will be attacked by their anti-H antibodies.
Additional Information on Blood Donation :
❖ A person can donate approximately 350–450 ml of blood at a time.
❖ After donating blood, it takes around 24 hours for the body to replenish the lost blood volume.
❖ Blood donation is allowed once every three months.
❖ Eligibility for Blood Donation:
➢ Age: 18 to 65 years
➢ Weight: At least 50 kg
➢ Hemoglobin level: At least 12 mg/dL
➢ Should be free from infectious or genetic diseases
➢ Pregnant women and people consuming alcohol or drugs cannot donate blood.
Storage and Preservation of Blood
❖ To prevent blood from clotting, a chemical called heparin is naturally present in the body.
❖ In blood banks, an anticoagulant such as sodium oxalate is added to prevent clotting during storage.
❖ Storage Conditions:
➢ Red Blood Cells: 2°C to 6°C
➢ White Blood Cells and Platelets: 20°C to 24°C
➢ Plasma: Stored at -18°C or lower
➢ Whole Blood: 18°C to 25°C, can be stored for up to 8 hours.


 2

वनस्पती आणि प्रािी संप्रेरके

Index:
❖ Hormone Institute
❖ Plant hormones
❖ Glands and hormones in humans
❖ Gland - Type and location
❖ Hormones - Function
Hormones:
❖ Hormones are chemicals that essentially act as the body's messengers. These chemicals are secreted by
specialized glands known as endocrine glands. These endocrine glands are distributed throughout the
body. These messengers regulate many bodily functions as well as mental health. They are also very
important in maintaining homeostasis in the body.
Plant Hormones:
Auxins:
❖ This causes the plant to grow upwards.
❖ Its natural forms are 1) indole acetic acid (IAA), 2) indole 3 acetaldehyde, 3) indole 3 pyruvic acid
❖ Synthetic forms – 1) 2,4-dichlorophenoxyacetic acid, 2) trichlorophenoxyacetic acid
Gibberellins:
❖ This hormone causes trunk growth.
❖ Type- gibberellic acid
Cytokinins:
❖ It was discovered by the scientist Miller and the scientist Latham obtained this hormone from corn
seeds. This hormone induces cell division and acts with cytokinins auxins in root growth.
❖ Type- Ziatin
Ethylene Gas:
❖ Discovered in 1962 by a scientist named Berg, this hormone is a gaseous form made from ethephon (2-
chloroethyl phosphonic acid). This gas is associated with fruit ripening, fruit drop, leaf drop and
senescence in plants.
Abscisic Acid:
❖ It was discovered by
Cornes and Eddicott
through the cotton
plant. This hormone
is involved in plant
leaf wilting, stunting,
seed dormancy and
sporulation.
Types of glands:
❖ Glands are of
following types,
1. Endocrine gland
2. exocrine glands
3. Mixed glands
 3

Endocrine Glands:
❖ Endocrine glands are also known as
ductless glands because their secretions are
released directly into the blood, without
any ducts or ducts. The major glands that
make up the human endocrine system are
the hypothalamus, pituitary gland, pineal
body, thyroid, parathyroid, adrenal gland,
pancreas, and gonads.
Exocrine Glands:
❖ Exocrine glands are glands of external
secretion. These are the ones that secrete substances through ducts to the surface of the body. There
are salivary glands, mammary glands, sweat glands, and some exocrine glands.
Compound Gland:
❖ Compound glands are glands that function as both an exocrine gland and an endocrine gland.
❖ These glands exhibit a unique and diverse secretory function that includes protein and non-
proteinaceous compounds, endocrine and exocrine secretion Release into the bloodstream and ducts,
respectively, bridging the body's internal and external communication zones. This allows them to play
an important role in regulating various physiological processes and maintaining homeostasis. These
include the gonads (testicles and ovaries), pancreas, and salivary glands.
❖ The pancreas releases digestive enzymes into the small intestine through ducts (exocrine) and secretes
insulin and glucagon into the bloodstream (endocrine) to regulate blood sugar levels. The testicles
produce sperm, which are released through a duct (exocrine), and they also secrete testosterone into
the bloodstream (endocrine). Similarly, the ovaries release ova through the ducts (exocrine) and
produce estrogen and progesterone (endocrine). Salivary glands secrete saliva through ducts to aid in
digestion (exocrine) and produce epidermal growth factor and insulin-like growth factors (endocrine).
Pineal Gland:
❖ It is a small pinecone-shaped gland located in
the center of the human brain between the two
hemispheres in an area called the epithalamus.
It was once known as the "Third Eye". It is a
major site of melatonin secretion, which
regulates the body's internal clock (circadian
rhythm).
❖ This gland is rich in calcium. Calcium acts as a
radiographer to locate the center of the brain
in X-ray images. It was one of the last glands to
be discovered.
❖ The pineal gland synthesizes melatonin and
serotonin, hence they are also called pineal
gland hormones. The pineal gland also
produces neurosteroids.
❖ Serotonin is a precursor to melatonin.
Serotonin is acetylated and methylated to produce melatonin in the pineal gland. Light on the eyes
affects the synthesis and secretion of melatonin.
 4

❖ Two melatonin receptors have been found in mammals - Mel1A and Mel1B. These are G-protein
coupled cell surface receptors.
❖ Melatonin affects the circadian rhythm.
❖ The secretion of gonadotropins from the anterior
pituitary gland is blocked by melatonin which
affects reproduction. These hormones help in the
development of ovaries and testes.
Pituitary gland:
❖ The pituitary gland, also known as the hypophysis,
is a pea-sized endocrine gland located at the base of
our brain. It is often referred to as the 'master
gland' as it produces some of the most important
hormones in the body. It is located in a bony structure called the pituitary fossa, just below the
hypothalamus, near the optic nerve. The pituitary gland is divided into three parts, also called lobes:
Anterior Pituitary:
❖ Intermediate pituitary (absent in adult humans)
❖ Posterior pituitary
Anterior Pituitary Hormones:
❖ The anterior pituitary is responsible for the synthesis and secretion of many key hormones in the body.
These hormones include:
❖ Human Growth Hormone (HGH): Responsible for the growth and repair of all cells in the body.
❖ Thyroid stimulating hormone (TSH): Thyroxine, which influences the thyroid gland to release its own
hormone. TSH is also called thyrotropin.
❖ Adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH): Influences the adrenal gland to release cortisol, or the "stress
hormone." ACTH is also known as corticotropin.
❖ Luteinizing hormone (LH) and follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH): Collectively known as
gonadotropins, LH and FSH regulate sexual and reproductive characteristics in males and females.
❖ Prolactin (PRL): Produces milk in the breast. Although it is always present, the discharge increases
during and after pregnancy.
❖ Melanocyte-stimulating hormone (MSH): Involved in the stimulation of melanin production by the skin
and hair.
Posterior pituitary hormones:
❖ The posterior pituitary is responsible for the storage and secretion of two very important hormones:
❖ Antidiuretic hormone (ADH): Regulates water balance in the body by affecting water reabsorption by
the kidneys
❖ Oxytocin: Controls certain aspects of
pregnancy and childbirth such as uterine
contractions and milk production.
Thyroid Gland:
❖ The thyroid gland is a ductless endocrine
gland located in the front/anterior part
of the neck. It generally looks like the
shape of a butterfly. It is one of the
largest endocrine glands, weighing an
average of 25 - 30 grams.
 5

❖ This gland has two lobes on either side of

the trachea, each lobe is 4 - 6 cm in length
and 1.3 - 1.8 cm in width.
❖ The primary function of the thyroid gland
is to secrete two hormones,
triiodothyronine (T3) and thyroxine (T4).
❖ Both T3 and T4 hormones play a very
important role and affect almost every
tissue in the body.
Location of Thyroid Gland:
❖ The thyroid gland is located in the
anterior neck between C5 and T1 vertebrae. It consists of two lobes and on their posterior surface are
parathyroid glands.
Thyroid hormone:
❖ There are two thyroid hormones:
1. T4: thyroxine (tetraiodothyronine)
2. T3: Triiodothyronine
❖ T4 - Thyroxine is a hormone secreted by the thyroid gland into the bloodstream. It then travels to
organs such as the kidneys and liver where it is metabolized and converted to its active form,
triiodothyronine.
❖ T3 - This is a thyroid hormone that affects physiological processes such as growth, development,
metabolism, etc.
Pancreas:
❖ The pancreas is an abdominal organ located behind the stomach and surrounded by the spleen, liver,
and small intestine. It is an important part of the digestive system and is responsible for regulating
blood sugar levels.
❖ The pancreas secretes digestive enzymes such as amylase,
proteases and lipase into the duodenum. These enzymes help
digest sugar, protein and fat respectively. The islets of
Langerhans are contained within the pancreas which secrete
hormones such as insulin and glucagon into the blood.
Islets of Langerhans:
❖ Pancreas is a ductal gland as well as a ductless gland. As a
ductless gland, it contains specialized groups of hormone-
secreting cells called islets of Langerhans, which are scattered
throughout the gland. Islets produce 3 hormones: insulin from
beta cells, glucagon from alpha cells and
somatostatin from delta cells.
❖ The islets of Langerhans are the regions of the
pancreas that contain its endocrine (ie, hormone-
producing) cells. The islets of Langerhans comprise
approximately 1 to 2% of the mass of the pancreas.
A healthy adult human pancreas contains about one
million islets, distributed throughout the organ.
 6

❖ Islets of Langerhans, also known as the islets of

Langerhans, are irregularly shaped areas of endocrine
tissue in the pancreas.
❖ They are named after Paul Langerhans, a German physician
who first described them in 1869.
❖ About 1-2 million islets make up the average human
pancreas.
❖ These cells make up only 1-2% of the pancreatic tissue in a
healthy pancreas.
❖ Each islet contains two major types of cells:
❖ Alpha cells (about 25%)- It secretes a peptide hormone called glucagon.
❖ Beta cells (about 60%)- secrete another peptide hormone called insulin.
Adrenal glands:
❖ Adrenal glands are endocrine glands that perform many functions in the body.
❖ The adrenal glands produce hormones that help maintain the immune system, blood pressure, and
metabolism.
❖ They produce hormones like adrenaline which is known as stress hormone.
❖ They are also known as suprarenal glands and are located on top of the kidneys.
❖ Adrenaline is released in large quantities by these glands in case of stress, emergency or any danger.
❖ It also helps regulate emotions like fear and anger by releasing hormones.
❖ Each part of the adrenal glands releases specific hormones. These are –
Cortisol:
❖ It is a glucocorticoid hormone that is secreted by the zona fasciculata to regulate the sleep/wake cycle,
handle emergencies, and monitor the use of body fat among many other functions.
Aldosterone:
❖ Aldosterone is a mineralocorticoid hormone secreted by the zona glomerulosa to regulate blood
pressure and the level of electrolytes such as sodium in the body.
Androgenic steroids and DHEA:
❖ These are some of the weaker male hormones
secreted by the zona reticularis. They are the
precursors of male (androgen) hormones and
female (estrogen) hormones.
Adrenaline (epinephrine) and noradrenaline
(norepinephrine):
❖ As the names suggest, these are the most
important hormones secreted by the adrenal
glands. The adrenal medulla plays an important
role in regulating these hormones and inducing
the flight or fight response. They are able to
increase your metabolism, heart rate and also maintain your blood pressure.
❖ Overall, hormones secreted by the adrenal glands are activated during times of stress, fear or anxiety
and help the body cope by providing resources and energy to withstand the stress.
Reproductive Glands:
❖ The human reproductive glands include the following glands,
 7

Men:
Testosterone:
❖ The testes produce testosterone, which is a sex hormone.
❖ Testicular cells called interstitial or Leydig cells produce testosterone in response to LH production.
❖ Testosterone maintains typically male body characteristics (eg facial hair).
❖ When the body does not produce enough testosterone, decreased muscle development, minimal facial
hair, body hairlessness, and erectile dysfunction can all
occur.
Woman:
Estrogen:
❖ Estrogen is a female sex hormone produced in the
adrenal glands, ovaries and fatty tissue, which is mainly
responsible for the development of breasts during
puberty and the growth of the lining of the uterus during
menstruation. In women, the hormone estrogen prepares the uterus and other reproductive organs for
pregnancy. It also regulates menstruation, pubic and underarm hair growth and also maintains bone
strength with the help of calcium, vitamin D and other essential vitamins and minerals.
Progesterone:
❖ Progesterone levels can fluctuate, leading to irregular periods and menopausal symptoms.
❖ Progesterone (P4) is an endogenous steroid and progestogen sex hormone that plays a role in human
menstruation, pregnancy, and embryogenesis.
❖ It belongs to the progestogen family of steroid hormones and is the predominant progestogen in the
body.
❖ It helps in the development of mammary glands during childbirth.
❖ Throughout pregnancy, the uterus is kept in a dormant state.
❖ In the adrenal glands, it acts as a precursor to corticosterone and cortisol.
❖ If taken between the 5th and 25th day of a regular menstrual cycle, progesterone has an anovulatory
effect.

 2

पोषद्र�ये प्रकार आ�ण कायर् भाग 1

INDEX:
❖ Health science
❖ Nutrients
❖ Carbohydrates
❖ Proteins
❖ Fats
Nutrients :

1) CARBOHYDRATES
Introduction:
Carbohydrates are -
❖ A major source of energy from our diet.
❖ composed of the elements C, H and O
❖ also called saccharides, which means sugars.
❖ are produced by photosynthesis in plants.
❖ such as glucose are synthesized in plants from CO₂, H₂O, and energy from the sun.
❖ They are oxidized in living cells to produce CO₂, H₂O, and energy.
 3

Sources of Carbohydrates :
❖ Dairy : Milk, yogurt, and ice cream
❖ Fruit : Whole fruit and fruit juice
❖ Grains : Bread, rice, crackers, and cereal
❖ Legumes : Beans and other plant-based protein
❖ Starchy Vegetables : Potatoes and corn
Source of Energy :
❖ Carbohydrates are the least expensive source of energy to the body.
❖ Every gram of carbohydrate, when oxidised yields on an average 4 kilocalories.
Classification of Carbohydrates :
❖ The carbohydrates are further classified into simple and complex which is mainly based on their
chemical structure and degree of polymerization.
Simple Carbohydrates (Monosaccharides, Disaccharides and Oligosaccharides) :
❖ Simple carbohydrates have one or two sugar molecules. In simple carbohydrates, molecules are
digested and converted quickly resulting in a rise in the blood sugar levels. They are abundantly
found in milk products, beer, fruits, refined sugars, candies, etc. These carbohydrates are called
empty calories, as they do not possess fiber, vitamins and minerals.
❖ Plants, being producers, synthesize glucose (C6H12O6) using raw materials like carbon dioxide and
water in the presence of sunlight. This process of photosynthesis converts solar energy to chemical
energy. Consumers feed on plants and harvest energy stored in the bonds of the compounds
synthesized by plants.
1. Monosaccharides :
➢ Glucose is an example of a carbohydrate monomer or monosaccharide. Other examples of
monosaccharides include mannose, galactose, fructose, etc. The structural organization of
monosaccharides is as follows:

Monosaccharides may be further classified depending on the number of carbon atoms:

(i) Trioses (C3H6O3): These have three carbon atoms per molecule. Example: Glyceraldehyde
(ii) Tetroses (C4H6O4): These monosaccharides have four carbon atoms per molecule. Example:
Erythrose.
 4

Similarly, we have-
(iii) Pentoses,
(iv) Hexoses, and
(v) Heptoses
2. Disaccharides :
➢ Two monosaccharides combine to form a disaccharide. Examples of carbohydrates having two
monomers include- Sucrose, Lactose, Maltose, etc.

3. Oligosaccharides :
➢ Carbohydrates formed by the condensation of 2-9 monomers are called oligosaccharides. By this
convention, trioses, pentoses, hexoses are all oligosaccharides.
➢ Complex Carbohydrates (Polysaccharides)
➢ Complex carbohydrates have two or more sugar molecules, hence they are referred to as starchy
foods. In complex carbohydrates, molecules are digested and converted slowly compared to
simple carbohydrates. They are abundantly found in lentils, beans, peanuts, potatoes, peas, corn,
whole-grain bread, cereals, etc.
➢ Polysaccharides are complex carbohydrates formed by the polymerization of a large number of
monomers. Examples of polysaccharides include starch, glycogen, cellulose, etc. which exhibit
extensive branching and are homopolymers – made up of only glucose units.
1. Starch is composed of two components- amylose and amylopectin. Amylose forms the linear
chain and amylopectin is a much-branched chain.
2. Glycogen is called animal starch. It has a structure similar to starch, but has more extensive
branching.
3. Cellulose is a structural carbohydrate and is the main structural component of the plant cell
wall. It is a fibrous polysaccharide with high tensile strength. In contrast to starch and
glycogen, cellulose forms a linear polymer.
Functions of Carbohydrates :
❖ The main function of carbohydrates is to provide energy and food to the body and to the nervous
system.
❖ Carbohydrates are known as one of the basic components of food, including sugars, starch, and fibre
which are abundantly found in grains, fruits and milk products.
❖ Carbohydrates are also known as starch, simple sugars, complex carbohydrates and so on.
❖ It is also involved in fat metabolism and prevents ketosis.
❖ Inhibits the breakdown of proteins for energy as they are the primary source of energy.
❖ An enzyme by name amylase assists in the breakdown of starch into glucose, finally to produce
energy for metabolism.
 5

Oxidation of Fats :
❖ In oxidation of fats, the acetyl CoA formed from the oxidation of fatty acids reacts with oxaloacetic
acid from carbohydrate and amino acid metabolism to form citric acid which is oxidised through the
TCA cycle back to oxaloacetic acid through a series of reactions. Hence, for ẞ-oxidation of fats,
carbohydrate is essential.
❖ If an adequate amount of carbohydrate is not consumed, intermediary products of fat oxidation are
accumulated.
❖ Acetone, acetoacetic acid and B-hydroxy butyric acid accumulate and produce ketosis.
Indispensability for Nervous System :
❖ The main source of energy for the central nervous system is glucose.
❖ Prolonged hypoglycemia can lead to irreversible damage to the brain tissue.
Role in Muscle :
❖ Carbohydrates are the major source of energy for muscular work.
❖ During muscular contraction, glycogen is broken down to lactic acid through glycolysis.
❖ During the recovery period, lactic acid is first oxidised to pyruvic acid and then to acetyl CoA which
is then oxidised to C02 and H2O, thus producing energy for muscular work.
Role in Liver :
❖ These include detoxifying action and regulating the influence of protein and fat metabolism.
❖ Liver is rich in glycogen and is more resistant to certain poison such as carbon tetrachloride, alcohol,
arsenic and toxins of bacteria.
❖ The rate of oxidation of amino acids in the liver is diminished if an abundant supply of
carbohydrates are available.
Source of Energy for Heart Muscle :
❖ The heart muscle mainly uses glucose as a source of energy.
❖ In hypoglycemia, a definite adverse change in the working of the heart has been observed.
Synthesis of Ribose from Glucose :
❖ The pentose ribose is present in RNA and in many nucleotides.
❖ It is formed in the body from glucose by Hexose Monophosphate pathway.
Conversion to Fat :
❖ Excess of calories fed in diet in the form of carbohydrate is stored as fat in adipose tissue.
❖ When the body is in need of energy, it can be released from the adipose tissue.
Promotes Growth of Desirable Bacteria :
❖ Lactose has several functions in the gastrointestinal tract.
❖ It promotes the growth of desirable bacteria, some of which are useful in the synthesis of B-complex
vitamins.
❖ Lactose also enhances the absorption of calcium.
Contribution of Dietary Fiber :
❖ A small amount of energy is produced from the release of short chain fatty acids in the large
intestine.
❖ Fibre stimulates the peristalic movement.
❖ It helps in preventing many degenerative diseases.
Biosynthesis of Amino acids :
❖ The carbon skeleton for the synthesis of alanine, aspartic acid and glutamic acid are provided by
glucose during its oxidation, from pyruvic acid, oxalo acetic acid and B- ketoglutaric acid
respectively.
 6

Structural Component :
❖ Carbohydrates are precursors for many organic compounds.
❖ As glycoproteins and glycolipids participate in the structure of cell membrane and cellular functions
such as cell growth adhesion and fertilisation.
❖ Carbohydrates are structural components of many organisms.
❖ These include the fibre of plants, exoskeleton of some insects and cell wall of microorganisms.
2) PROTEIN :
Proteins- Introduction :
❖ Came from a Greek word “prota" meaning "of the first rank" or "of primary importance'
❖ These molecules were first described and named by the Swedish chemist Jöns Jakob Berzelius in 1838.
❖ The first protein to be sequenced was insulin, by Frederick Sanger.
❖ Max Perutz and Sir John Cowdery Kendrew were the first to include protein structures to solve
hemoglobin and myoglobin, respectively.
Protein-Definition :
❖ Proteins may be defined as the high molecular weight mixed polymers of alpha-amino acids joined
together with peptide linkage.
NATURE OF PROTEINS :
❖ It's a Macronutrient.
❖ Besides water, proteins are the most abundant kind of molecules in the body.
❖ Proteins constitute the chief solid matter of muscles, organs and endocrine glands.
❖ constitute about 20% of the body weight in an adult.
❖ Proteins differ from carbohydrates and fats in that they contain Nitrogen, this usually amounting to
about 16%.
❖ 1 gm of protein provide 6.25 gm of nitrogen
Building blocks of Protein: Amino Acids
❖ Molecules containing an AMINE group, CARBOXYLIC ACID group and a SIDE CHAIN which gives it
variability.
❖ There are 22 different amino acids ordinarily required for synthesis of tissue proteins.
❖ Its key elements are C, H, O, and N
❖ Can be linked together in varying sequences to form a vast variety of proteins
❖ Absence of any of these amino acids could prevent body protein formation.
Essential :
❖ Histidine
❖ Isoleucine
❖ Leucine
❖ Methionine
❖ Phenylalanine
❖ Threonine
❖ Tryptophan
❖ Valine
❖ Lysine
Conditionally Non-Essential :
❖ Arginine
❖ Asparagine
❖ Glutamine
❖ Glycine
❖ Proline
❖ Serine
❖ Tyrosine
 7

Non-Essential :
❖ Alanine
❖ Aspartate
❖ Cysteine
❖ Glutamate
Protein Description Examples
❖ The simplest. ❖ Albumins
SIMPLE ❖ Made of amino acid units only, joined by peptide bond. ❖ Globulins
PROTEINS ❖ Upon hydrolysis, they yield a mixture of amino acids and ❖ Glutelins
nothing else. ❖ Albuminoids
❖ Composed of simple proteins combined with a non-protein ❖ Nucleoproteins
CONJUGATE substance. ❖ Glycoproteins
D PROTEINS ❖ The non-proteinous substance is called prosthetic group or ❖ Phosphoproteins
cofactor. ❖ Hemoglobins
❖ Not naturally occurring proteins.
❖ Peptones
DERIVED ❖ Obtained from simple proteins by the action of enzymes and
❖ Peptides
PROTEINS chemical agents.
❖ Proteoses
❖ Results from hydrolysis of proteins.
(b) Based on conformation and solubility :
Fibrous Protein: Tough and insoluble in ordinary solvents.
❖ Collagen of tendon and bone matrix
❖ Alpha keratin of hair, skin and nails
❖ The elastin.
Globular Protein: Soluble in body fluids.
❖ Haemoglobin
❖ Insulin.
❖ Albumin
❖ Enzymes and others.
(c) Based on nutritional properties
❖ Biologically Complete proteins: Which contain enough of the indispensable amino acids to
maintain body tissue and to promote a normal rate of growth. Include proteins found in eggs, milk,
cheese, meat, poultry, and fish
❖ Biologically Incomplete proteins: Incapable of replacing or building new tissue, and hence cannot
support life, let alone promote growth. Eg: Proteins found in grains, nuts, fruits, vegetables
Sources of Protein :
❖ Humans obtained protein from two main dietary sources
❖ Animal Sources: Proteins of animal origin are found in Milk, Meat, Fish, eggs and Cheese. Egg
proteins are considered to be the best among food proteins, known as "reference protein"
❖ Vegetable Sources: Vegetable proteins are found in pulses/legumes, cereals, beans, nuts, oil seed
cakes etc.
Functions of Proteins :
❖ Proteins are important for body building, growth, repair and maintenance of body tissues.
❖ Proteins are required for the synthesis of plasma proteins, haemoglobin, enzymes and hormones.
❖ Proteins like collagen, actin and myosin form the structural tissues - skin and muscles
❖ Maintenance of osmotic pressure.
❖ Albumin, a protein, acts as a buffer in the maintenance of blood pH (7)
❖ Protein can also supply energy (4 Kcal per one gm) when the calorie intake is inadequate, but this is
not their primary function.
 8

❖ Proteins are also an important source of N, S and Phosphorus for the body.
❖ The proteins immunoglobulin act as prime defence against bacterial and viral infections.
❖ The contractile proteins actin and myocin aid in the movement of muscle fibre and microvilli.
❖ The enzymes are protein in nature and have high catalytic activity to speed up the chemical reaction
in the body.
❖ The hormones which are protein in nature have a great effect on metabolism and reproduction.
❖ Some proteins bind specific substances to be present as storage e.g. Ferritin
❖ Some proteins help in transportation. eg. Haemoglobin, transferrin etc.
❖ The neurotransmitters are derived from amino acids. Eg. GABA from glutamate, Serotonin from tryptophan.
Classification of proteins based on function :
Class Properties Examples

I. CATALYTIC PROTEINS

1. Enzymes Catalyze chemical reactions Lactate dehydrogenase (LDH)

amylase pyruvate
dehydrogenase

II. NONCATALYTIC PROTEINS

1. Carrier proteins Carry molecules or ions through the Hemoglobin, albumin

bloodstream

2. Receptor proteins Bind hormones and neurotransmitters The insulin receptor

to cell membranes

3. Membrane transport Carry molecules across cell membranes Na⁺/K⁺-ATPase protein's function
proteins in transporting ions.

4. Structural proteins Form extracellular structures such as Collagen keratin

hair and nails

5. Contractile proteins Extend or contract to produce movement Myosin, tubulin

of muscles cells or subcellular parts

6. proteins hormones Messenger molecules that direct the Insulin, adrenocorticotropic Hormone
activities of various sales and organs. (ACTH), growth hormone.

7. Antibodies Buying to foreign substances and Anti Rh, Anti-A,

activate their elimination from the body.

3) FATS :
➢ Fat usually means any ester of fatty acids or mixture of such compounds most commonly those
that occur in living beings or in food.
➢ Fat is used as the fatty components of foods and diet.
➢ Fats are best known members of a chemical group called the lipids.
➢ The term lipid is applied to a group of naturally occurring substances characterized by their
insolubility in water, greasy feel and solubility in organic solvent like ether, chloroform, benzene
or other fat solvents.
➢ The term lipid was first used by the German biochemist Bloor in 1943.
 9

Composition :
❖ Lipids like carbohydrates are composed of the 3 elements carbon, hydrogen and oxygen.
❖ The lower amount of O in relation to the other two elements results in lipids being a more
concentrated source of energy than carbohydrate.
E.g.
❖ 1 gram of Carbohydrate (C) = 4 kcal
❖ 1 gram of Protein (P) = 4 kcal
❖ 1 gram of Fat (F) = 9 kcal
Chemical Composition :
❖ Triglycerides- Triglycerides or Triacylglycerols are the main form of fat both in foodstuffs and in
the storage depots of most animals.

Classification : Lipids are classified as simple, compound and derived lipids. based on composition.
1. "Simple lipids – Esters of fatty acids with certain alcohols. They are usually further classified
according to the nature of the alcohol.
eg. Fats and oils, waxes
2. Compound or complex lipids- ster of fatty acids which, on hydrolysis, yield other substances in
addition to fatty acids and alcohols."
3. Derived lipids : Derived lipids are substances liberated during the hydrolysis of simple and
compound lipids, which still retain the properties of lipids."
4) Lipids
 10

Compound lipids :
❖ Phospholipids: Phospholipids are a major component of the lipid bilayer of the cell membrane and
are found in many parts of the body.
❖ Sphingolipids: Sphingolipids are mostly found in the cell membrane of neural tissue.
❖ Glycolipids: The main role of glycolipids is to maintain lipid bilayer stability and facilitate cell
recognition.
❖ Glycerophospholipids: Neural tissue (including the brain) contains high amounts of
glycerophospholipids.
❖ Cholesterols: Cholesterols are the main precursors for different hormones in our body such as
progesterone and testosterone. The main function of cholesterol is controlling the cell membrane
fluidity,
❖ Steroid- Steroids are important cell signaling molecules.
❖ Eicosanoids: Eicosanoids are made from fatty acids in the body and they are used for cell signaling.
❖ Ketone bodies: Ketone bodies are made from fatty acids in the liver. Their function is to produce
energy during periods of starvation or low food intake.
❖ Lipoproteins: These compounds found in mammalian plasma are composed of lipid material bound
to proteins. The lipids mostly consist of cholesterol esters and phospholipids containing principally
stearic, palmitic and oleic acids although palmitoleic, linoleic and arachidonic acids have been
identified.
Saturated Fat Unsaturated Fat

"saturated" with Hydrogen Unsaturated fats have one or more double bonds
between carbon atoms, which results in fewer
hydrogen atoms compared to saturated fats.

Solid at room temperature Liquid at room temperature

Can clog arteries and increase risk of heart attack Can benefit you
and stroke

Mainly found in animal foods Mainly found in plant foods and fish

Meat and dairy often high in saturated fat oils


 2

पोषद्रव्ये प्रकार आणि कार्य भाग 2

Index:
❖ Nutrients Part - 2
❖ Fat - work
❖ Vitamins – sources and functions
❖ Salt - function
❖ water
Fats:
❖ According to dietetics, fat is an essential part of diet and plays an important role in maintaining a
healthy life.
Types of Fat:
❖ There are following types of fat:
1. Saturated fat
2. Unsaturated fat
Saturated Fat:
❖ Saturated fat is called bad fat. They are found in most animal products like cheese, milk, meat and so
one should limit their intake.
Unsaturated Fat:
❖ Unsaturated fat is a substance that is used in place of saturated fat to lower cholesterol levels.
❖ Unsaturated fats come from plants.
❖ This is called good fat.

Fatty Acid:
❖ There are 2 types of Fatty Acid,
1. Saturated fat
2. Unsaturated fat
Saturated Fat:
❖ Fats that contain single bonds are called saturated fats. Animal fats are saturated, while plant and fish
fats are unsaturated. Processed and deep-fried foods are also rich in saturated fat.
 3

❖ Dairy products made from whole milk, such as yogurt, cheese, butter, and ice cream, are high in
saturated fat. Coconut and palm kernel oils are also high in saturated fat.
❖ Examples: butyric acid, lauric acid, myristic acid, palmitic acid, stearic acid
Unsaturated Fat:
❖ Unsaturated fats contain at least one double bond.
❖ Sources of unsaturated fat include walnuts, flax, avocado, sunflower oil, soybean oil, fish oil, canola oil,
red meat, etc.
❖ These are of the following types:
Monounsaturated Fats:
❖ Containing a carbon-to-carbon double bond, monounsaturated fats can help control blood sugar and
insulin levels, as well as lower your cholesterol levels to reduce your risk of cardiovascular disease.
They can help lower LDL (bad) cholesterol levels.
❖ Cholesterol is a waxy, sticky substance that can clog or restrict blood vessels (blood vessels).
Maintaining healthy LDL levels reduces the risk of heart disease and stroke.
❖ Monounsaturated fatty acids help in cell growth and maintenance. Doctors recommend replacing
saturated fats as much as possible with monounsaturated fats found in foods like peanut oil, canola oil,
olive oil, nuts, seeds and avocados.
Polyunsaturated Fats:
❖ Containing two or more double bonds in their chemical structure, polyunsaturated fats are important
for regular body functions such as covering nerves, forming cell membranes, blood clotting,
inflammation, and muscle movement. But the body cannot make this fat itself, so it is recommended.
That you get polyunsaturated fats from your diet. Eating polyunsaturated fats can lower LDL (bad)
cholesterol. Cholesterol is a waxy, squishy substance that can clog or block blood vessels (blood
vessels). Lower LDL cholesterol reduces the risk of heart disease.
Functions:
❖ Energy supply – Fats are excellent sources of energy. 1 gram of fat provides about 9 calories of energy.
Excess carbohydrates from the diet are made into fat and stored in the muscle cells.
❖ The protective covering of delicate organs is made of lipids. E.g. Heart, intestines
❖ The fat stored under the skin is useful in regulating body temperature. They also absorb shocks on the
body.
❖ Sex hormones like estrogen, progesterone, testosterone are in the form of fat.
❖ Dietary fat is used in the absorption of fat-soluble vitamins A, D, E, and K.
Cholesterol:
❖ Cholesterol is the most prominent member of the steroid family of lipids. It is a waxy, fatty substance
found mainly in the cells of animals and humans, where it is also the main sterol. All cells and other
body fluids contain some cholesterol, either in free form or in storage form. Cholesterol levels are
measured in milligrams (mg) of cholesterol per deciliter (DL) of blood. The average cholesterol level
should be between 200-300 mg/DL.
❖ Cholesterol is insoluble in blood because blood is a water-based fluid and cholesterol is an oil-based
fluid. Therefore, as cholesterol enters the bloodstream, it hardens into clots, called plaques.
 4

Types of Cholesterol:
❖ According to the rate of lipoprotein, cholesterol is divided into two types,
1. HDL cholesterol (HDL - high density lipoprotein)
2. LDL Cholesterol (LDL – Low Density Lipoprotein)
HDL Cholesterol:
❖ HDL - high density lipoprotein - is considered good cholesterol, as high levels of HDL protect against
heart attacks and strokes. It brings cholesterol back to the liver. HDL cholesterol levels can be 40 or
higher.
LDL Cholesterol:
❖ LDL - low density lipoprotein - is considered bad cholesterol, as it is associated with an increased risk
of coronary heart disease, stroke and peripheral artery disease. Too much LDL cholesterol circulating
in the blood can slowly build up plaque, blocking blood flow and forming a clot. A heart attack can be
caused by the formation of clots or clots in blood vessels near the heart. LDL cholesterol levels should
be less than 100. The liver and intestines play an important role in controlling LDL levels in our blood
cells.

Vitamins:
❖ Vitamins are organic compounds, found in natural substances that are essential for the normal growth
and maintenance of the body. Both humans and animals need vitamins for their growth.
❖ The word vitamin is a combination of the Latin words "vita" and "amine" meaning life and nitrogen
respectively. Casimir Funk discovered and named the substance in 1884 to aid in the growth and
maintenance of the body.
History of Vitamins:
❖ In 1912 E. Vi. McCollum discovered the first fat-soluble vitamin, vitamin A; Butter fed to mice was
found to be healthier.
❖ 1912 Dr. Casimir Funk coined the term 'vitamins' (from vital and amine) as important dietary
components. The presence of these unknown substances in food can prevent diseases such as scurvy,
beriberi and pellagra (due to niacin, vitamin B3 deficiency).
❖ The water-soluble vitamins B and C were identified in the 1940s.
 5

Types of Vitamins:
❖ There are two types of vitamins:
1. Fat soluble – A (retinol), D (calciferol), E (tocopherol), K (phylloquinone)
2. Water Soluble - Those that dissolve in water - B (B Complex), C (Ascorbic Acid)
Differences between fat soluble and water soluble vitamins:

Fat soluble vitamins Water soluble vitamins

Does not produce coenzymes. can produce coenzymes.

are not excreted in the urine; If accumulated in These are non-toxic; large amounts are excreted in
excess, they become toxic. the urine.

are stored in large quantities. Except for vitamin B12, it is not stored extensively.

Fat soluble vitamins:

Vitamin A:
❖ Chemical Name: Retinol
Main function:
❖ Body Growth - Importantly involved in cell division and cell differentiation.
❖ Essential for night vision or dim light sensing. Rhodopsin, a light-sensitive pigment in the rod and cone
cells of the retina, is produced from vitamin A.
❖ Skin, mucous membrane, teeth and bones, brain, vision etc. Essential for production and health.
❖ Useful in maintaining the health of the skin inside the head, respiratory tract, urinary tract, intestines.
❖ This vitamin controls the immune system of the body due to its function in the differentiation of
lymphocytes.
Vitamin D:
❖ Chemical Name: Calciferol
Main function:
❖ It is necessary for the strength of bones and teeth. This vitamin is very important for the growth of the
body, maintaining the proper amount of calcium and phosphorus in the body.
❖ It helps in the absorption of various dietary salts in the intestine. E.g. Iron, Calcium, Magnesium, Zinc
etc.
❖ It is necessary to maintain the balance of calcium in the skull of the brain.
Vitamin E:
❖ Chemical name - tocopherol
❖ Main Function - Acts as an antioxidant, repairs DNA and also regulates the function of the reproductive
organ.
Vitamin-K:
❖ Chemical Name : Phylloquinone
 6

Main Function:
❖ Assisting in the blood clotting process.
❖ Vitamin K also helps in the conversion of glucose into glycogen.
❖ Vitamin K is also involved in bone development.
Water soluble vitamins:
B number Name
Vitamin B1 thiamine
Vitamin B2 riboflavin
Vitamin B3 niacin (nicotinic acid), nicotinamide riboside
Vitamin B5 pantothenic acid
Vitamin B6 pyriodoxine, pyridoxal, pyrodoxamine
Vitamin B7 biotin
Vitamin B9 folate
Vitamin B12 various cobalamins; commonly cyanocobalamin or methylcobalamin in vitamin
supplements.
Vitamin B1:
❖ Chemical Name - Thiamine
Main function:
❖ Necessary for body growth.
❖ Acting as a vicar in the metabolism of carbohydrates. During this process, the vitamin helps to release
more energy from carbohydrates by proper absorption of pyruvic acid.
Vitamin B2:
❖ Chemical Name - Riboflavin
Main function:
❖ Body growth, essential for strong irises, essential for healthy skin, tongue and lips
Vitamin B3 (Niacin):
❖ Chemical Name: Nicotinamide
Main function:
❖ Body growth, metabolism of carbohydrates, control of cholesterol levels.
Vitamin B5:
❖ Chemical Name: Pantothenic Acid
Main function:
❖ Helping in the process of releasing energy through metabolism from carbohydrates, fats, proteins,
necessary for the production of coenzymes necessary for proper kidney function.
Vitamin B6:
❖ Chemical Name: Pyridoxine
 7

Main function:
❖ Essential for the metabolism of amino acids, the process of blood formation.
Vitamin B7:
❖ Chemical Name - Biotin
Main function:
❖ The metabolism of carbohydrates is essential for the protection of skin and hair.
Vitamin B9:
❖ Chemical Name: Folic Acid
Main function:
❖ Necessary for the formation of red blood cells
Vitamin B12:
❖ Chemical name: Cyanocobalamin, this vitamin contains cobalt.
Main function:
❖ Synthesis of nucleic acids necessary for the formation of red blood cells, necessary for the metabolism
of nitrogen.
Vitamin 'C':
❖ Chemical Name: Ascorbic Acid
❖ Vitamin C is volatile and the most transient of all.
Main function:
❖ Necessary for rapid blood clotting, Necessary for rapid healing of wounds, Necessary for rapid
absorption of iron from plant sources.
 8

Mineral Salts:
❖ Salts or compounds of certain inorganic elements are required for various functions in the human
body, growth of the body and maintenance of good health.
❖ There are about 24 minerals in the human body. They include calcium, phosphorus, iron, sodium,
potassium, magnesium, iodine, zinc, chlorine, fluorine and some other elements.
❖ Among the above minerals, the minerals required by the body in very small quantities are called trace
elements. The World Health Organization (WHO) expert committee on dietary trace elements has
identified 14 trace elements as essential for animal life. They mainly include iron, iodine, fluorine, zinc,
copper, cobalt, molybdenum etc.
1) Calcium:
➢ Sources – Green leafy vegetables, pulses, pulses, ragi, almonds, figs,
➢ Raisins, Sesame seeds etc., Milk, Fish, Prawns etc.
Functions:
i) A very important mineral for the development of bones and teeth, 90 percent of the total calcium is
present in bones, which gives the necessary hardness to bones.
ii) Controlling muscle contraction-dilation.
iii) Helps in heart, muscle and nerve function.
Phosphorus:
❖ Sources – green leafy vegetables, pulses, cashews, almonds, chickpeas, carrots, almonds etc., milk,
chicken, fish, eggs etc.
Function:
i) For development of bones and teeth
ii) An important in nucleic acid formation
iii) To form energy-rich ATP
3) Iron:
❖ Sources – Meat, liver, seafood, chicken, legumes, grains, chickpeas, lentils, dates, raisins, etc.
❖ An adult human body contains 3-4 grams of iron. 75 percent of that iron is in the blood. 90 percent of
iron in the body is recycled.
Functions:
❖ Formation of hemoglobin. Iron in hemoglobin in the blood or myoglobin in the muscles plays a role in
the transport of oxygen.
❖ Aiding in immune system function.
Iodine:
❖ Sources – Salt, seafood, dry fruits etc.
Functions:
❖ The thyroid gland needs iodine in the form of iodide to make hormones such as thyroxine and
triiodothyronine. Thyroxine hormone is essential for body growth, brain and nervous system growth,
control of carbohydrate metabolism, and rapid breakdown of fats. This shows the importance of
iodine.
 9

Fluorine:
❖ Fluorine is never found in the free state in nature.
❖ About 96 percent of the body's fluoride is found in bones and teeth.
❖ Fluorine is taken into the body through drinking water and foods such as seafood, cheese or tea. Public
water supplies are fluoridated if the amount of fluorine in the drinking water is low.
Sodium, Potassium, Magnesium:
❖ Sources - These substances are present in small amounts in almost all food items.
❖ Function - These substances are good electrolytes and play an important role in maintaining the
osmotic pressure of body fluids.

 1

MPSC

Daily Class Notes

Science and Technology

Lecture – 01
Achievements of Indians in science &
technology -1
 2

Achievements of Indians in science & technology -1

INDEX:
❖ Introduction of Science & technology
❖ Advancements in technology have been
the major cause for the development of a
country as well as human civilization.
India, recognized globally for its scientific
rigor and potential, has been contributing
to the fields of science and technology
since ancient times as evident from the
discovery of zero to the research in
particle physics.
❖ Continuing striving towards science and technology in ancient and medieval times, India has been able
to gain pace in scientific discoveries and innovations after independence. Indian scientists have won
the most prestigious Nobel prize in all three areas of Science.
❖ Today, India is making progress in more advanced technology such as tokamak, neutrino, gravitational
waves, scramjets, sending human missions into space, and emerging technologies.
Science and Technology in Medieval India
❖ Although at a slower pace, the medieval period also witnessed the growth of science and technology in
India.
Indian Mathematicians
❖ Narayana Pandit is a well-known figure for his contributions to Mathematics Ganit Kaumudi and
Bijaganita Tamsa.
❖ Gangadhar wrote three famous treaties that gave rules for trigonometric terms Lilavati Karam
Deepika, Suddhanta Deepika, and Lilavati Vyakhya.
❖ In the Mughal period, Faizi translated Bhaskara's Bijaganit
Biology:
❖ In the thirteenth century, Hamsadeva compiled Mrga-paksi-sastra, a work in the field of biology. This
provides a general, though not always scientific, account of some hunting animals and birds.
Chemistry
❖ Two notable treatises- Siddha Yoga by Vrinda (around 975 CE) and Chakradatta by Chakrapani Datta
(around 1050 CE) were written in this period.
❖ Mercury and Sulphur- were the materials on which extensive research was carried out in 200 CE-
1300 CE
❖ Nagarjuna, the author of Rasaratnakara, stands pre-eminent among the Indianrasavaadins during
medieval India.
❖ Rasarnava and Rasaratna Samuchchaya of Vagbhata are two of the many important texts after
Rasaratnakara.
❖ The work Ain-i-Akbari discusses the regulation of Akbar's Perfume Office.
 3

Astronomy
❖ Mehendra Suri who was a court astronomer of Firoz Shah Tughlak, developed "Yantraja" an
astronomical instrument.
❖ Maharaja Sawai Jai Singh-II set up the five astronomical observatories in Delhi, Ujjain, Varanasi,
Mathura, and Jaipur.
Medicine
❖ During the medieval period, the Unani Tibbi medical system flourished in India Ali-bin Rabban wrote
Firdausi-Hikmat in which he summarised the system of Greek medicine and Indian medical
knowledge.
❖ The Tibbi Aurangzeb is based on Ayurvedic sources.
Science and Technology in Modern India
❖ At the dawn of the twentieth century, great strides were made by Indian scientists. The innate ability
to perform creatively in science came to be backed by institutional setups and strong state support
after the country's independence in 1947.
India's Contribution to Physics
❖ Since the early 20th century, many physicists of India have contributed to Physics.
❖ Jagdish Chandra Bose:He pioneered the study of radio and microwave optics, and electro-physiology.
He was the first person to detect radio signals, thus demonstrating wireless communication for the
first time.
❖ He invented the crescograph, through which he measured plant response to various stimuli and
hypothesised that plants can feel pain, understand affection, etc.
❖ CV Raman : He is known for his work on the scattering effect of light. His finding is called Raman
Effect for which he received the Nobel Prize in Physics, in 1930.
❖ Subrahmanyan Chandrasekhar: He was an Indian-American astrophysicist awarded the 1983 Nobel
Prize for Physics for his theoretical studies of the structure and evolution of the stars.
❖ Satyendra Nath Bose: He was an Indian physicist specialising in quantum mechanics and provided a
new derivation of Planck's law. He is best known for providing the foundation of Bose-Einstein
statistics and developing the theory of Bose-Einstein condensates.
Contribution to particle physics
❖ International Neutrino Observatory (INO): The INO project broadly aims to create an outstanding
underground laboratory in India for non-accelerator-based high energy and nuclear physics research.
❖ CERN's : Indian scientists at CERN contributed to the construction of a large hadron collider and other
experiments such as ALICE and CMS experiment.
❖ Laser Interferometer Gravitational-Wave Observatory) (LIGO) India: It is a mega-science project
in Astronomy and the scientific goals of the project are in the area of fundamental physics.
India's Contribution to Chemistry
❖ Prafulla Chandra Ray: He was regarded as the 'Father of Chemical Science in India and contributed to
inorganic and organic nitrites and organic thiol compounds.
 4

❖ Sir Shanti Swaroop Bhatnagar: He played an immense role in the constitution of the Council of
Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR) and did considerable work in applied and industrial
chemistry.
❖ CNR Rao: He is well-known for his work in structural and solid-state chemistry. He has made
contributions in chemical spectroscopy, surface chemistry, molecular structure and high-temperature
superconductivity.
India's Contribution to Life Sciences
❖ Cell Biology: Work at the cellular level using modern molecular genetic tools started in India with the
initiation of Molecular Biology at the Tata Institute of Fundamental Research.
❖ Several model systems such as E. coli, fruit fly (Drosophila), and C. elegans, had been established, to
significantly enhance knowledge of complex biological problems. The most outstanding contributions
were the discovery of exotoxins and the atomic structural model of collagen.
❖ DNA Fingerprinting: DNA fingerprinting in India came into existence in 1988. Centre for Cellular and
Molecular Biology scientists developed the technique and made it available for use, making India the
third country to develop its own DNA fingerprinting probe
Famous personalities:
❖ Har Gobind Khorana: He was a Nobel Prize-winning Indian American biochemist who showed the
order of nucleotides in nucleic acids, which carry the genetic code of the cell and control the cell's
synthesis of proteins.
❖ G.N Ramachandran: He contributed to molecular biophysics, particularly in the field of protein
structure research. He created a three-dimensional picture of organic material which is known as the
Ramachandran plot His discovery of collagen's triple helical structure was important for the
understanding of peptide structure.
❖ Venkatraman Ramakrishnan: He is a Nobel Prize-winning biochemist who works on the atomic
structure of the ribosome as well as the structure of chromatin and histone. He demonstrated how
ribosomes react to various chemicals using a 3D technique.

 2

Achievements of Indians in science & technology -2

INDEX:
❖ Achievements of India in Space
Science and Technology in Modern India
Achievements of India in Space
❖ India's space journey started with the establishment
of the Indian National Committee for Space Research
(INCOSPAR) in 1962, later renamed the Indian Space
Research Organisation (ISRO) in 1969
Key highlights of India's space endeavours:
❖ First Satellite: Aryabhata was India's first satellite which was launched on April 19th, 1975 using
Russia's Kosmos-3M launch vehicle.
❖ Launch Vehicles: Satellite Launch Vehicle-3 was India's first experimental satellite launch vehicle,
launched in 1980.
❖ Its success paved the way for advanced launch vehicle projects including the Augmented Satellite
Launch Vehicle (ASLV) Polar Satellite Launch Vehicle (PSLV), Geosynchronous Satellite Launch Vehicle
(GSLV), and LVM 3.
Chandrayan Missions:
❖ Chandrayaan-1 was India's first moon mission, launched in 2008.
❖ Chandrayaan-2 was India's first attempt to soft-land on the Moon which was launched in 2019 by
GSLV MkIII-M1.
❖ With the successful launch of Chandrayaan-3 in 2023, India became the first country to successfully
land a spacecraft near the lunar south pole.
❖ Mars Orbiter Mission: MoM India's first interplanetary mission, was launched in 2013.
❖ After Roscosmos, NASA, and the European Space Agency, India became the fourth space agency in the
world to reach Mars orbit.
❖ It also made India the first country in the world
to reach Martian orbit in its maiden attempt.
104 Satellites in a single flight:

❖ PSLV-C37 successfully launched the 714 kg

Cartosat-2 Series Satellite along with 103 co-
passenger satellites in 2017.
 3

Aditya-L1 Mission:
❖ In September 2023 India launched the Aditya-L1
mission, the first space-based Indian mission to study
the Sun.
Gaganyaan:
❖ The Gaganyaan Mission is an ongoing project in India to
send a three-person crew to a 400 km Low Earth Orbit
(LEO).
Reusable Launch Vehicle Technology Demonstrator
(RLV-TD)
❖ It is one of ISRO's most technologically challenging
projects aimed at developing critical technologies for a
fully reusable launch vehicle to enable low-cost access
space.
Cryogenic Technology
❖ In 2003, the Indian space agency successfully tested its first cryogenic engine. India is now one of only
six countries to have developed their own cryogenic engines.
Scramjet Engines
❖ A scramjet engine is an improvement over the ramjet engine as it efficiently operates at hypersonic
speeds and allows supersonic combustion.
Achievements of India in Nuclear Science
❖ India made the formal beginning of its programme on nuclear energy by establishing the Atomic
Energy Commission in 1948 and the Atomic Energy Establishment in 1957, which was later renamed as
Bhabha Atomic Research Center (BARC),
Nuclear energy for civil application:
❖ Dr. Homi Bhabha formulated India's three-stage nuclear power programme in the 1950s, Apsara, the
first nuclear fission reactor, was developed in 1956. Subsequently, nuclear power stations and other
reactors have been developed in India.
❖ Currently, India has 23 operational fission reactors, totalling 6780 MWe in installed capacity. As for
fusion energy India has its own Tokamak programmes and also is a member of the ITER project.
❖ Nuclear energy for defence: India conducted an underground nuclear explosion at Pokhran in 1974,
code named "Smiling Buddha.
❖ Pokhran-II In 1998, five nuclear devices (including thermonuclear bombs) were successfully
detonated
Achievements of India in Defence:
❖ India is one of the strongest military forces in the world. Some of the major defence manufacturing
companies in India are Bharat Earth Movers Ltd. (BEML), Bharat Electronics Ltd. (BEL), and Hindustan
Aeronautics Ltd. (HAL).
❖ Missile System: India is one of the few countries in the world to have indigenously developed missile
systems including critical technologies like the re-entry tip for ballistic missiles.
❖ Integrated Guided Missile Development Programme (IGMDP), began on July 26,1983. The program
resulted in the development of a slew of missiles, including the strategic Agni Integrated Range Ballistic
Missile (IRBM), the tactical Prithvi, the Akash and Trishul surface-to-air missiles, and the Nag anti-tank
guided missile.
❖ BrahMos is a supersonic cruise missile system capable of being launched from land, sea, or air.
 4

❖ The first indigenous aircraft carrier Indian Naval Ship (INS)

Vikrant was commissioned in the Indian Navy in 2022.
❖ Project-75 (I): Project-75(I) is a follow-up project of Project
75 conceived in 1997. It is a military acquisition initiative
that aims to procure diesel-electric attack submarines with
fuel cells and an Air-Independent Propulsion System (AIP)
for the Indian Navy.
❖ India's Nuclear Triad: In 2019, after INS Arihant completed its first deterrence patrol, the government
announced the establishment of India's "survivable nuclear triad", the capability of launching nuclear
strikes from land, air, and sea platforms.
❖ This places India in the league of the few countries that can design, construct, and operate Strategic
Strike Nuclear Submarines (SSBN))
❖ Innovations for Defence Excellence (IDEX): The Indian government is focusing on innovative
solutions to empower the country's defence and security through the 'Innovations for Defence
Excellence (IDEX)' program.
❖ Indigenization in defence: The government has taken adequate steps to make the country self-reliant
by developing indigenous advanced technologies and complex systems.
❖ DRDO enhanced the technological capabilities of the Indian industry, transforming India into a hub of
advanced defence technologies and developing state-of-the-art defence equipment and systems.
❖ Hindustan Aeronautics Limited (HA): Indigenization with the primary objective of achieving (Make
in India and lowering dependence on foreign countries, especially for critical items is one of the key
thrust areas of HAL.
Emerging Technologies in India
❖ India is also excelling in cutting-edge technologies such as 5G, artificial intelligence, blockchain,
augmented and virtual reality machine learning and deep learning, robots, natural language processing,
and so on.
❖ The Emerging Technologies Division of Meity is in charge of encouraging and promoting the use of
cutting-edge technologies throughout the country.
❖ Supercomputers: India is fast emerging as a leader in high-power computing with the National
Supercomputing Mission (NSM) boosting it.
❖ PARAM Shivay, the first supercomputer assembled indigenously, followed by PARAM Shakti, PARAM
Brahma, PARAM Yukti, and PARAM Sanganak.
❖ Quantum Computing: Many programs are geared towards training students and researchers in
quantum computing, including the National Mission for Quantum Frontier and others such as the
National Mission on Quantum Technologies and Applications, and Quantum Computing Applications
Lab.
❖ Blockchain Technology: The National Blockchain Framework is a national-level infrastructure for
blockchain which includes blockchain-as-a-service, geographically distributed nodes, creating
awareness, and developing human resources, among other initiatives.
❖ Many Initiative on Critical and Emerging Technology: Launched in 2023, it is a framework agreed
upon by India and the U.S. for cooperation on critical and emerging technologies including artificial
intelligence, semiconductors, quantum computing and wireless telecommunication.

 2

Indigenization of Technology -1
INDEX:
❖ Indigenization of technology
Indigenization of technology:
❖ Indigenization of technology involves
developing and utilising local resources
and skills to design, manufacture, and
maintain technological solutions within a
country. Its significance lies in enhancing
self-reliance, reducing dependence on foreign technology, and fostering innovation that aligns with
local needs and cultural heritage.
About Indigenization of Technology:
❖ Technologies employed by a country's native inhabitants constitute an important part of its cultural
heritage.
❖ The capability to design, develop, and manufacture equipment within the country, using our own skills
and resources, constitutes indigenization.
❖ The capability to maintain and repair these, as well as equipment sourced from abroad, makes us self-
reliant. Not dependence on foreign suppliers for anything makes us self-sufficient.
❖ The term "indigenization of technology" goes beyond just manufacturing the item based on drawings
and materials supplied by a foreign manufacturer.
❖ Here, the local manufacturer is expected to understand the technology underlying the product or part
to change, modify, improve, or redesign the item as and when he likes.
Indigenous Knowledge and Innovations:
❖ Indigenous knowledge is the knowledge of indigenous and local communities that has been developed
from experience gained over centuries and adapted to the local culture and environment.
❖ Indigenous knowledge is the basis for many remote, rural, and marginalised communities in society
and is an essential component in the educational development of members within these communities.
❖ This knowledge is likely disappearing from many communities due to many reasons, such as
colonisation, modern society's lack of understanding, etc.
Importance and Prospects of Indigenization of Technology:
❖ The desirability of indigenization can be scrutinized not only from the price perspective but also from
the availability of low-cost repair and maintenance over many years of operation of equipment and
technologies.
❖ From the viewpoint of defence and military applications, the value of indigenisation is multiplied
manifold in terms of the strategic reliability of ready and direct access to a local manufacturer and his
support base.
❖ Furthermore, an indigenous manufacturer has the added advantage of periodically increasing its
product using upgraded technology that could be developed in-house.
❖ Policies and programmes evolved in various phases can be studied and illustrated with examples.
❖ The 'Make in India' program focuses on increasing India's manufacturing capacity. It also pushes for
much greater domestic private sector participation and is open to attracting FDI in defence'.
❖ So clearly, military hardware indigenisation has been adopted as a strategic imperative, and the
government seems to be proceeding on a twin track of pushing domestic R&D while simultaneously
augmenting India's manufacturing base for defence equipment.
 3

❖ The Indian Air Force released its indigenisation roadmap until 2025, highlighting the future
technologies and new weapon system capabilities that it plans to induct.
❖ India has developed the BrahMos missile in collaboration with Russia. It is a medium-range ramjet
supersonic cruise missile that can be launched from submarines, ships, aircraft, or land. It is the fastest
cruise missile in the world.
❖ India's first indigenous Aircraft carrier, INS Vikrant, is under sea trials. Like INS Vikramaditya, Vikrant
would also employ the Short Take-Off But Arrested Recovery (STOBAR) mechanism with a ski-jump
and arrestor cables to launch and recover aircraft.
❖ With the successful test firing of the
indigenously developed nuclear-capable
Long-Range Ballistic Missile Agni-5, India
moved a step closer to joining the
exclusive club of countries with
Intercontinental Ballistic Missiles (ICBMS)
with a range of over 5,000-5,500 km.
❖ The success of ISRO's indigenously developed Mars Orbiter Mission has surprised everyone because it
was achieved at a tenth of the cost of similar projects abroad. The fact that India is the only country to
have succeeded in its maiden attempt at Mars makes this even more credible.
National Innovation Foundation (NIF)
❖ NIF was established in March 2000 inspired by the Honey Bee Network philosophy, to strengthen
grassroots technological innovations and traditional knowledge in India.
❖ Its mission is to create a creative and knowledge-based society by enhancing the recognition and
support for grassroots innovators.
❖ NIF, helps grassroots innovators and traditional knowledge holders receive due recognition and
rewards, facilitating the diffusion of their innovations through various channels.
❖ NIF has compiled a database of over 225,000 technological ideas and practices from more than 585
districts across India, showcasing the breadth of grassroots creativity.
❖ The foundation has recognized 816 grassroots innovators through its National Biennial Grassroots
Innovation Award Functions and the Dr. A.P.J Abdul Kalam Ignite Children Awards.
❖ NIF has established a Fab Lab in collaboration with MIT for product development and has enhanced
laboratory facilities at SRISTI for validating herbal technologies. The G2G (grassroots to global) model
promoted by NIF aims to transform perceptions of grassroots creativity and innovation on a global
scale, demonstrating India's capability in solving problems sustainably using local resources

 2

Indigenization of Technology -2
Index
❖ Indigenization of Technology 2
Technology Information, Forecasting and Assessment Council (TIFAC):
❖ As per the recommendation of the Technology Policy Implementation Committee (TPIC) in 1985,
TIFAC was formed as a registered Society in February 1988 under the Department of Science and
Technology as an autonomous body. It was mandated to assess state-of-the-art technology and set
directions for future technological development in important socio-economic sectors in India. As a
unique knowledge network institution in India, TIFAC activities encompass many technology areas and
fill a critical gap in India's overall S&T system. The organization has carried out technology foresight
exercises, facilitated and supported technology development, prepared technology-linked business
opportunity reports, and implemented mission-mode programmes.
India Technology Vision 2020:
❖ Proposed by former President A.P.J. Kalam in 1998, Technology Vision 2020 aims to transform India
from a less-developed to a developed society within 20 years through technological advancement.
❖ The vision emphasizes economic and social development across key sectors, using technology as a
pivotal tool. A major focus is on food sustainability and security, particularly improving yields in paddy
and wheat, through a 'Systems Approach,' leading to farmers adopting effective practices in Bihar and
Uttar Pradesh.
❖ The vision highlights the importance of literacy and education as foundational to societal development.
Initiatives like Mission REACH aim to establish 'Centers of Relevance and Excellence (CORE)' through
partnerships with industry and institutions.
❖ Addressing communicable diseases is crucial; improved diagnostics and treatment options are
essential for reducing illness prevalence.
❖ The vision promotes the development of an information society and knowledge Catalyst economy,
emphasizing the critical role of ICT and telecommunications as a catalyst for social development.
❖ Nine educational institutions have been networked under the CORE initiative to enhance manpower
quality in societal and industrial relevance areas.
Technology Vision, 2035
❖ Developed by TIFAC, Technology Vision 2035 outlines a roadmap for addressing India's challenges and
enhancing its technological capabilities by 2035.
❖ The document aims to ensure security, prosperity, and identity for every Indian and reflects aspirations
in multiple languages.
❖ Twelve key sectors, including education, healthcare, agriculture, water, energy, and ICT are identified
for focused development, and roadmaps are provided for each. The vision addresses major challenges
such as nutritional security, water quality, holistic education, and decentralized energy solutions.
❖ The convergence of nanotechnology, biology, IT, and cognitive science raises ethical dilemmas that
need careful consideration.
❖ TV 2035 is rooted in the collective aspirations of the Indian people. It aims to empower democracy and
improve the quality of life through technology.
Classification of Technology: Technologies are categorized into six classifications from an Indian
perspective:
❖ Technology Leadership: Niche technologies where India has competencies (e.g., nuclear energy).
Solar Energy
❖ Technology Independence: Strategic technologies are to be developed locally (e.g., in defense).
 3

❖ Technology Innovation: Integrating and applying breakthroughs across fields (e.g., renewable energy
from solar cells).
❖ Technology Adoption: Modifying imported technologies to local needs (e.g., rainwater harvesting).
❖ Technology Constraints: Problematic technologies with negative impacts (e.g., GM crops).
Call to Action:
The document emphasizes the need for:
❖ Enhanced technical education and research.
❖ Increased government financial support for R&D.
❖ Greater participation from the private sector.
❖ Strong connections between academia, industry, and research.
❖ Creation of a robust research ecosystem.
Conclusion
In conclusion, the indigenization of technology in India is not merely about manufacturing but signifies a
broader vision of empowerment and sustainability. By harnessing indigenous knowledge and fostering
local innovations, India aims to reduce dependence on foreign technologies, enhance self-reliance, and
strengthen its defense capabilities. (The ongoing initiatives and strategic frameworks, such as Technology
Vision 2020 and 2035, reflect the nation's commitment to addressing pressing challenges while promoting
economic growth. As India progresses, the collaboration between grassroots innovators, educational
institutions, and government bodies will be vital in realizing the potential of a self-sufficient and
technologically advanced society. Ultimately, this journey of indigenization holds the promise of not just
technological advancement but also the preservation of cultural heritage and the betterment of lives across
the nation.

 2

Awareness in the fields of IT, Computers, Robotics

Index
❖ Awareness in the fields of IT, Computers, Robotics
Information Technology (IT)
❖ Information technology (IT) is the use of computers and related systems to store, retrieve, transmit,
and manipulate data, or information. IT is a broad field that encompasses a range of technologies and
practices, including computer hardware and software, networking, data storage and management, and
cybersecurity.
❖ It is used in a variety of settings, including businesses, government agencies, healthcare organizations,
and educational institutions, to support a wide range of activities, such as data analysis,
communication, automation, and decision-making.
❖ The field of IT is constantly evolving, with new technologies and practices emerging regularly.
Need For Awareness in the field of IT:
❖ To keep up with the latest technologies and trends (The field of IT is constantly evolving, with new
technologies and practices emerging regularly. By staying aware of these developments, individuals
and organizations can ensure that they are using the most current and effective tools and techniques to
support their operations and achieve their goals.
❖ To improve efficiency and productivity: By being aware of the latest IT tools and techniques,
individuals and organizations can improve their efficiency and productivity by (automating tasks,
streamlining processes, and making better use of data and information.
❖ To protect against cyber threats, cybersecurity is an increasingly important issue in the field of IT, as
hackers and cybercriminals seek to gain access to sensitive data and systems. By staying aware of the
latest cybersecurity threats and best practices, individuals and organizations can protect themselves
and their data from these threats.
❖ To facilitate communication and collaboration, IT tools and technologies can facilitate communication
and collaboration among team members and stakeholders, regardless of location. By being aware of
these tools and how to use them effectively, individuals and organizations can improve their ability to
work together and achieve their goals.
Computers
❖ A computer is a device that is capable of processing data, storing and retrieving information, and
performing a variety of tasks based on a set of instructions, or a program. Computers can be classified
into several categories based on their size, capabilities, and intended use.
Types of Computers:
1. Personal computers: Personal computers, or PCs, are computers that are designed for use by a single
person and are typically used for tasks such as word processing, web browsing, and playing games.
2. Laptops: Laptops are portable computers that are designed for use on the go. They are typically
smaller and lighter than desktop computers and can be powered by a battery.
3. Servers: Servers are computers that are designed to handle the processing, storage, and distribution of
data and information for a network of other computers or devices.
4. Mainframes: Mainframe computers are large and powerful computers that are typically used by large
organizations for tasks such as managing data, running large-scale simulations, and processing
transactions.
5. Supercomputers: Supercomputers are the most powerful computers available, and are used for tasks
that require extremely high levels of processing power, such as complex scientific simulations and data
analysis.
 3

Recent Developments:
1. Artificial intelligence (AI) and machine learning: AI and machine learning are technologies that
enable computers to learn from data and make decisions or predictions based on that learning. These
technologies are being used in a wide range of applications, including language translation, image and
speech recognition, and autonomous systems.
2. Quantum computing: Quantum computing is a type of computing that uses principles of quantum
mechanics to perform calculations that are beyond the capabilities of classical computers. Quantum
computers are still in the early stages of development, but they have the potential to solve problems
that are currently too complex for classical computers to tackle.
3. Cloud computing is a model of computing in which users access and use shared computing resources
over the internet, rather than using their personal computers or servers. Cloud computing enables
users to access a wide range of computing resources on demand and is being used in a variety of
applications, including data storage, analytics, and software development.
4. Robotics: Robotics is the branch of engineering and computer science that deals with the design,
construction, operation, and application of robots. Robots are machines that are capable of carrying out
a variety of tasks autonomously or semi-autonomously, often by following a set of programmed
instructions. Robotics has a wide range of applications, including manufacturing, construction,
transportation, healthcare, and military.
Key Technologies In The Field Of Robotics:
Sensors:
❖ Sensors are devices that are used to detect and measure various physical quantities, such as position,
temperature, and pressure. Sensors are an important component of robots, as they allow the robots to
gather information about their environment and make decisions based on that information.
Actuators:
❖ Actuators are devices that are used to move or control the movement of other devices or systems. In
robotics, actuators are used to control the movement of the robot's joints or limbs.
Control systems:
❖ Control systems are used to control the behavior of a system or device. In robotics, control systems are
used to coordinate the actions of the robot's sensors and actuators in order to achieve the desired
result.
Artificial intelligence (AI):
❖ AI is a branch of computer science that involves the development of algorithms and systems that are
capable of learning and making decisions based on data. AI is an important component of many robots,
as it allows the robots to adapt to their environment and perform tasks that are too complex for a
simple set of instructions.
Machine learning:
❖ Machine learning is a subfield of AI that involves the development of algorithms and systems that can
learn from data and improve their performance over time. Machine learning is often used in robotics to
enable the robot to learn from its experiences and improve its performance on tasks.
Recent Developments
❖ Autonomous vehicles: Autonomous vehicles, or self-driving cars, are vehicles that are equipped with
sensors, cameras, and other technologies that allow them to navigate and operate without the need for
a human driver. Autonomous vehicles are being developed by several companies and organizations,
and are expected to revolutionize transportation by increasing safety and efficiency.
 4

❖ Service robots are robots that are designed to perform tasks for humans, such as assisting with
household chores, providing companionship, or delivering goods. Service robots are being developed
for a variety of applications and are expected to become more prevalent in the coming years.
❖ Medical robots are robots that are used in the healthcare industry to assist with a variety of tasks,
such as surgery, rehabilitation, and medication delivery. Medical robots are being developed to
improve the efficiency and accuracy of healthcare procedures and to reduce the burden on healthcare
workers.
❖ Industrial robots: Industrial robots are robots that are used in manufacturing and other industrial
settings to perform tasks such as assembly, welding, and painting. Industrial robots are becoming
increasingly advanced and are being used in a growing number of industries.
❖ Military robots: Military robots are robots that are used in military operations to perform tasks such
as surveillance, bomb disposal, and reconnaissance. Military robots are becoming increasingly
sophisticated and are being used by a growing number of countries.
Robotics in India
❖ The robotics industry in India is projected to grow at a compound annual growth rate (CAGR) of over
20% between 2020 and 2025, according to a report by [Link].
❖ With a global market share of around 15%, India is an emerging prospective market for the industrial
robotics sector. A wide range of robotics activities can be possible with appropriate stimulation and
investment in the fundamental underlying technologies. (The discovery of first-wave innovations that
will drive early markets is critical to this.)
❖ As per the study of the International Federation of Robotics (IFR), India is on the top 15 list of the
highest number of recorded robot installations in 2020 with 3200 robots deployed but it is way far
from the competitors like China (~1,70,000) and South Korea (~31000).

 2

Development in Biotechnology -1
Index
❖ Biotechnology
❖ Biotechnology in India
Biotechnology:
❖ Biotechnology is the application of living organisms or their parts to make technological advances and
utilize those technologies in various fields.
❖ The modern era of biotechnology started with the discovery of the DNA structure as well as the
development of genetic engineering techniques and the polymerase chain reaction. (PCR)
❖ Biotechnology has many applications, especially in medicine and agriculture including therapeutics,
diagnostics and genetically modified crops, etc.
❖ In India, biotechnology is entering a new era of growth as it is one of the key enablers for driving the
bio-economy of the country, which has grown to more than $137 billion in 2022 from $35.5 billion in
2014.
Methods in Biotechnology:
The outstanding advances in biotechnology have been underpinned by the development and application of
a range of biotechnological methods.
1. Genetic Engineering: Genetic engineering is the process of altering an organism's DNA using
laboratory-based technologies. Recombinant DNA Technology and the Polymerase chain reaction are
common methods of gene cloning.
2. Recombinant DNA Technology: The steps involved in the RDT are as follows:
➢ Identification and isolation of genes of interest from a host organism: Restriction endonuclease cuts
the target sequence of these genes.
➢ Insertion of the gene of interest into a vector: Again Restriction endonuclease is
➢ used to cut the specific sequence in the vector (plasmids) that matches with the sequence of the
gene of interest.
3. Gene cloning: The recombinant DNA (plasmid plus foreign gene) is then transferred to a suitable host
which is kept to grow on a nutrient medium. The host (bacteria) then expresses the gene, by producing
proteins.
4. PCR: Unlike RDT, which is a cloning within a living cell, PCR replicates DNA in vitro (outside the cell). It
amplifies DNA into millions to billions of copies in no [Link] involves using short DNA fragments
(artificial) called primers, to select a segment of the genome to be amplified. Then, Taq polymerase
enzyme is used to amplify that segment in multiple [Link] is used for the diagnosis of infectious
diseases.
5. RNA Interference (RNAi): RNAi is a natural defence mechanism of plants and other eukaryotic cells in
which small pieces of RNA shut down protein translation by binding with the messenger RNAs that
code for those proteins. RNAi is specifically designed to silence or deactivate genes. Leveraging RNAi
technology to silence genes has become useful for investigating gene functions, knocking down genes in
diseases, and even developing pest-resistant plants.
6. Tissue culture: Tissue culture is a biological research method that involves the growth of tissues or
cells (plants or animals) in an artificial medium separate from the parent organism. In Plant Tissue
Culture, fragments of plant tissues are transferred to an artificial environment where they grow into a
full plant, due to the property of totipotency in plants.
 3

➢ Plant Tissue culture has provided a way to propagate and genetically improve commercially
valuable plants. It has been used to study characteristics of the growth, metabolism, reproduction,
physiology, and nutritional necessities of plants under controlled circumstances.
➢ Tissue culture has permitted significant biological discoveries, including the identification of
infections, enzyme deficiencies, and chromosomal anomalies as well as the classification of cancers
and the development and testing of medications and vaccines.
7. Bioinformatics: Bioinformatics is a subfield of biology concerned with the acquisition, storage,
analysis, and transmission of biological data. This interdisciplinary science harnesses mathematics,
computer science, physics and biology to develop software tools and methods to understand large and
complex biological data. High-throughput data-generating experiments, including genomic sequence
determinations and measurements of gene expression patterns, are used in Bioinformatics The
potential applications of these biological data are in drug discovery and development
Applications of Biotechnology:
Biotechnology is applied in various fields at small as well as industrial scales for the betterment of humans.
Some of these applications are:
A. Medicinal Biotechnology (Red Biotechnology): Biotechnology is applied in health care for diagnosis
as well as treatment of diseases.
B. Gene therapy: It is a method that employs genetics to treat, prevent, or cure an illness. It works by
replacing a defective or missing gene in a patient's cells with a healthier version.
C. CAR T cell therapy: CAR T cell therapy is a kind of cancer immunotherapy treatment in which immune
cells called T cells are genetically modified in a lab so they can more effectively identify and eliminate
cancer cells.
D. Genome sequencing: It refers to sequencing the entire genome of an organism. Genomic sequencing is
used for the diagnosis of diseases as well as identifying therapeutic targets of the diseases. For
example, sequencing of the COVID-19 virus was extremely useful for the development of its vaccines.
E. Therapeutic proteins: Therapeutic proteins are medicines that are genetically engineered versions of
naturally occurring human proteins. These proteins are extensively used in the treatment of cancer,
HIV, and other diseases. Examples: Insulin (Humulin), Monoclonal antibodies etc. AIDS.
F. Industrial biotechnology (White biotechnology): Biotechnological processing makes use of enzymes
and microorganisms to create products that are useful in a variety of industries, to produce chemicals,
materials and fuels. The food and beverage industry uses S. cerevisiae (yeast) Microbial enzymes in
washing detergents, food processing, cosmetics etc.
G. Energy: In the energy industry, biofuels sourced from plant materials such as corn stalks and grass are
developed as renewable fuel alternatives to reduce the carbon footprints of fossil fuel production. For
example: The two most common types of biofuels in use today are bioethanol and biodiesel.
H. Agricultural Biotechnology (Green biotechnology): Biotechnology gives (farmers tools to make
production more cost-effective and manageable. For example, genetically modified (GM) crops like BT
Cotton have increased the productivity of crops.
I. Environmental biotechnology: It uses biological processes to address environmental issues,
including pollution control and renewable energy [Link] include genetic engineering,
bioremediation, biopesticides, biosensors, and biofuel development, which aim to protect and restore
the natural environment.
J. Animal biotechnology: Biotechnology has helped to create many beneficial genetically modified
(animals. The first transgenic animal was the Dolly sheep.
 4

Biotechnology in India:
The Indian biotechnology sector is one of the country's fastest-growing sectors and it is expected to play an
important role in shaping the country's rapidly developing economy.
1. Bioeconomy: It is the economic activity driven by research and innovation in biotechnology and life
sciences, and enabled by technological advances in engineering as well as in information sciences.
➢ Potential India's Bio-Economy is on its way to achieving the USD 150 bn target by 2025 and Lover
300 billion by [Link] is one of the top 12 biotechnology destinations in the world, and the third
largest in Asia Pacific.
➢ Biotechnology is the technology of tomorrow and can leverage the wealth of India's bioresources,
its unique biodiversity, its 7,500 km-long coastline, and vast agricultural residues.
➢ Biotechnology is a trending career option among youth, due to increased attention to tools like
Genome editing, Synthetic technology/Microbial bioresources, enzyme and metabolic engineering,
etc.
2. Bio Startups: Because of the growing enabling ecosystem, the number of biotech startups in the
country has increased from 50 to over 6,756 in the last ten years.
➢ The government aims to increase the number of biotech startups to 10,000+ by 2025.
➢ Subsectors of Biotechnology in India According to the revised India Bio Economy Report (2023,
India's bioeconomy sector stands at $137 billion, contributing 4% to the national GDP and
employing over 2 million people.
Institutional Facilities for Biotechnology in India:
1. National Biotechnology Board (NBTB): In 1982, a National Biotechnology Board (NBTB) was
constituted by the Government to strengthen indigenous capabilities in IMP this newly emerging
discipline. Department of Biotechnology (DBT) In 1986, DBT was set up which acts as a nodal agency
supporting research and its applications in the Life Sciences and promotes & accelerates the pace of
development and large-scale use of biotechnology in the country.
DBT also supports Research and Development innovations and manufacturing in advanced Biofuels as
well as 'Waste to Energy' technologies
2. National Centre for Microbial Resource (NCMR): NCMR was established to conserve India's vast
microbial diversity and explore its biotechnological potential for industrial and health applications.
3. Indian Biological Data Centre: The IBDO is India's first National repository for life Science data,
established at the Regional Centre of Biotechnology (RCB), an autonomous institute of [Link]
adheres to the spirit of data sharing based on the FAIR (Findable, Accessible, Interoperable, and
Reusable) principles.
Government Initiatives for Biotechnology in India:
The Indian Government's increased focus on the country's biotechnology industry over the past decade)
Some of the initiatives taken by the Government to further promote the sector are as follows:
1. National Biopharma Mission: It is a collaborative mission between industry and academia to
accelerate biopharmaceutical development in the country.
2. Innovate in India (i3) programme: The government launched the Innovate in India (i3) programme
as part of this Mission to create an enabling ecosystem to foster entrepreneurship and indigenous
manufacturing in the sector. The mission will be implemented by the Biotechnology Industry Research
Assistance Council (BIRAC)
 5

3. Biotech KISAN DBT launched a Biotech Krishi Innovation Science Application Network (Biotech
KISAN) in 2017. Its goal is to bring science laboratories and farmers together to develop and apply
innovative solutions and technologies at the farm level.
4. Atal Jai Anusandhan Biotech Mission: It was implemented by DBT and the purpose of this mission is
to address the challenges of maternal and child health, antimicrobial resistance vaccines for infectious
disease, food and nutrition, and clean technologies.
5. One Health Consortium: In 2021 DBT established a One Health consortium to survey important
bacterial, viral, and parasitic infections of zoonotic and transboundary pathogens in the country.
6. Biotechnology Industry Research Assistance Council (BIRAC): It was established by DBT and is
aimed at strengthening and empowering emerging biotechnology enterprises to undertake strategic
research and innovation.
7. Biotech Parks: The DBT establishes biotechnology parks and incubators across the country to help
translate research into products and services by providing the necessary infrastructure [Link]
biotechnology parks offer facilities to scientists, and SMEs for technology incubation, technology
demonstration, and pilot plant studies to accelerate the commercial development of biotechnology.
8. Startup Landscape: For the first time, the biotech sector in India registered more than 1,000 new
start-ups in a single calendar year in FY22 BIRAC funding has helped more than 1,000 startups.
Challenges associated with Biotechnology:
❖ Despite the boom in the biotech industry, there are some grave challenges faced by this domain.
❖ Ownership and equitable access The ownership of biomaterials is fundamental to many new
technologies. However, the patent system, which protects ownership rights in new biotechnologies, can
also prevent many people from benefiting, particularly in developing countries.
❖ Ethical concerns: Biotechnology can produce unanticipated consequences that cause harm or
dehumanise people. For example, complementary DNA (cDNA) is a genetically designed entity that can
be patented. Obtaining such DNA and altered DNA sequences that can be sold for profit raises
numerous ethical concerns about human life.
❖ Field of uncertainty: Emerging applications of biotechnology such as new genomic techniques may
give rise to new uncertainties and uncertain risks. Even in the early days of recombinant DNA
technology, it was acknowledged that there were inherent hazards in comprehending biological
mechanisms, because increased understanding may be utilised to inflict harm.
❖ Security threats: Recent breakthroughs in synthetic biology, a technology that may be used in
laboratories to artificially produce organisms, have raised concerns about the possibility of biological
weapons development.
❖ Impact on Environment: Concerns about potential negative environmental and ecosystem function
results of agricultural biotechnology include pesticide use modifications, effects on non-target species,
development of pest and virus-resistant crops and impact on wild species as well as pollinators.

 2

Development in Biotechnology -2
Topics to be Covered:
1. Development in Space Technology
2. Space technology
3. Orbits, Rockets and propulsion system
4. Space Mission
5. Application
Space Technology:
❖ Space Technology refers to the application of engineering principles to the design, development,
manufacturing, and operation of space travel and exploration technologies and systems.
❖ Space Technology offers new means to address global challenges and encompasses satellites, space
stations, ground stations, monitoring and tracking centers, downstream analytics AI, software, etc.
❖ It plays a vital role in the modern world by enabling telecommunications, navigation systems, weather
forecasting, climate monitoring, and national security.
❖ India has emerged as a major space power, with the Indian Space Research Organization (ISRO)
successfully developing reliable, low-cost indigenous space technology including satellite launch
vehicles, communication and observation satellites.
About Space Technology:
❖ Space Technology has evolved beyond curious explorations to solving real-life problems on Earth. The
key components of space technology include spacecraft systems, launch vehicles/rockets, ground
control infrastructure, and supporting technologies like robotics, propulsion, instrumentation, etc.
About Satellite:
❖ Satellites are objects that orbit a bigger celestial body than itself. They might be natural or man-made.
➢ Types of man-made satellites: Communication satellites - For radio, television, telephone,
internet
➢ Navigation satellites: To provide positioning, navigation and timing services.
About Space Technology:
❖ Earth observation satellites: For weather monitoring, land/vegetation/resource mapping, etc.
❖ Space observatories/astronomy satellites: Hubble telescope, Astrosat
❖ Military/surveillance satellites (Spy satellite)
❖ Space stations - For human spaceflight activities
❖ Launch Vehicles
➢ Launch vehicles are essential components of space technology, designed to transport spacecraft
and payloads into space.
➢ They use rocket engines to escape gravity and transport spacecraft into orbit, playing a vital role in
space exploration through deploying satellites for communications, earth observation, and
expanding scientific knowledge.
Launch Vehicles:
❖ India has several launch vehicles, including the Satellite Launch Vehicle (SLV), Augmented (ASLV),
Polar Satellite Launch Vehicle (PSLV), Geosynchronous Satellite Launch Vehicle (GSLV). LVM3, (GSLV
Mk III), Human Rated Launch Vehicle (HRLV), Small Satellite Launch Vehicle (SSLV), and Reusable
Launch Vehicle - Technology Demonstrator (RLV-TD)
 3

Propulsion Technology
Ramjet and Scramjet:
❖ Ramjet and Scramjet are a class of air-breathing jet engines that efficiently achieve high speeds using
atmospheric oxygen to combust fuel instead of carrying heavy onboard oxidizers.
❖ Ramjets: They operate from speeds of Mach 2 to 5, can't produce static thrust, and use subsonic
combustion.
❖ Scramjets: They operate from hypersonic speeds of Mach 5 to 15, also can't produce static thrust, and
use/supersonic combustion.
Cryogenic Technology
❖ Cryogenic technology involves storing, transporting, and using liquefied gases at extremely low
temperatures, often less than -160 °C.
❖ Applications: To construct a rocket engine that is used to carry heavier payloads. India has developed
its large cryogenic engines and stages (like C25, CE20) through national efforts spanning decades.
Emerging Technology:
❖ The space sector is leveraging emerging technologies such as 5G, sophisticated satellite systems, 3D
printing, big data, and quantum computing to improve scale operations in space. Other than these there
are a few more emerging technologies such as:
❖ Small Satellites: In recent times, small satellites have created new opportunities for the space sector.
Small satellites reap benefits such as lower development and launch costs, faster deployment and
operation in vast constellations.
Solar Electric Propulsion (SEP):
❖ Using advanced SEP technologies is an essential part of future missions into deep space with larger
payloads it can reduce the mass of a satellite, which could offer significant cost savings. It enables the
efficient transport of heavy payloads from low Earth orbit (LEO) to higher orbits.
Cryogenic Propellant Storage and Transfer
❖ It will allow a new generation of spacecraft to operate deeper and longer in space because the
spacecraft will be able to refuel along the way. Cryogenic propellants offer high-energy propulsion
possibilities for future, long-term human exploration missions beyond LEO.
❖ Laser Communications: Laser communication between space assets can provide 10 to 100 times higher
data rates than radio, and enable communication across tens of millions of kilometers.
Application of Space Technology:
❖ Space technology and satellites have become integral to modern-day living, enabling innovative
applications and revolutionary capabilities across domains.
❖ Communication Applications: Satellites are used extensively for communications like television, radio,
internet, telephone, and weather data transmission. Communications satellites play a vital role in
linking remote areas on Earth.
❖ Navigation Applications: Navigation systems like GPS, GLONASS Galileo, and NaVIC provide location
and timing information globally and regionally through satellite signals.
❖ Earth observation: Earth imaging satellites are used for weather forecasting, climate monitoring, land
use mapping, disaster management, etc. They provide geospatial data about Earth's features like land,
oceans, and atmosphere.
 4

❖ Space science: Hubble Space telescopes provide stunning images and data about distant stars, galaxies,
and cosmic phenomena. Spacecraft explore planets and moons. The International Space Station is used
for microgravity experiments.
❖ National security: Spy satellites and associated systems are used for intelligence gathering and
reconnaissance. Satellite early warning systems can detect missile launches.
❖ Commercial purposes: Satellites provide direct-to-home television, business communications, and
support industries like agriculture, mining, and offshore. The space sector is also seeing private
companies focus on space mining and space tourism.
❖ Technology advancement: Space tech innovations in robotics, computing, materials, etc. lead to spinoff
benefits on Earth in fields like health, transportation, public safety, etc.
Key Global Space Missions:
❖ Global space missions by nations involve collaborative efforts to explore space, conduct scientific
research, and advance technology.
❖ Countries like the USA, Russia, China, and ESA contribute to significant discoveries and innovations.
Space Exploration Space Agencies and Launch Mission
Moon Mission ❖ NASA: Apollo Program, Artemis Mission
❖ ROSCOSMOS: Luna series, Lunokhod program
❖ ESA: SMART-1
❖ CNSA: Chang'e program
❖ ISRO: Chandrayaan 1, 2 & 3
❖ JAXA: Hiten, SELENE
Mars Mission ❖ NASA: Viking Program, Pathfinder, Spirit Opportunity, Curiosity, and
Perseverance
❖ ROSCOSMOS: Mars program, Phobos program
❖ ESA: Mars Express, ExoMars
❖ CNSA: Tianwen-1
❖ ISRO: Mangalyaan
❖ UAESA: Hope Mars Mission
Sun Mission ❖ NASA: Pioneer, Skylab, Solar Maximum Mission, Parker Solar Probe
❖ ROSCOSMOS: Intergelio-Zond Project
❖ ESA: SOHO, Ulysses
❖ CNSA: DAMPE
❖ ISRO: Aditya-L1
❖ JAXA: Hinode, Solar-B
Other Interstellar ❖ NASA: Mariner program, Pioneer program, Voyager 1 and 2, New Horizons,
Missions Juno Mission, OSIRIS-REX, Dragonfly
❖ ROSCOSMOS: Venera program, Vega program
❖ ESA: Rosetta Mission, BepiColombo, JUICE
❖ JAXA: Sakigake and Suisei, Hayabusa 1&2
❖ ISRO: Shukrayan
 5

International Space ❖ International Space Station was joint effort of five space agencies NASA,
Station Roscosmos, ESA, JAXA and CSA.
❖ Launched in 1998
❖ Orbit: Placed about 400 km above in Low Earth Orbit
❖ It orbits Earth about every 90 minutes
Hubble Space ❖ Hubble Space Telescope is a space telescope that was launched into low Earth
Telescope orbit in 1990 through a cooperative effort between NASA and ESA
❖ Altitude: Approx 547 kilometres
❖ Famous for taking extremely high-resolution images of stars and galaxies, black
holes, and other celestial objects.
India & Space:
❖ India's space program, established in the 1960s, has achieved major milestones like lunar and Mars
orbiter missions, demonstrating advanced launch vehicles and satellite technology with a focus on
societal applications.
❖ ISRO has launched numerous satellites and conducted planetary exploration missions using
indigenously developed rockets.
❖ Major missions: NavIC, Gaganyaan mission, Chandrayaan missions, Mangalyaan, Aditya L-1, NISAR,
LUPEX, Shurayaan 1, LUPEX, Mangalyaan 2, and Chandrayaan 4.
❖ Future missions: NISAR mission, LUPEX, Shurayaan 1, Mangalyaan 2, Chandrayaan 4.
Role of the Private Sector:
❖ Indian Space Policy 2023: It aims to boost India's space capabilities, enable commercial space presence,
use space to drive technology development, pursue international collaboration, and create an
ecosystem for implementing space applications.
❖ Indian National Space Promotion and Authorization Centre (IN-SPACE): It serves as a single window
clearance and authorization agency for space launches, establishing launch pads, buying and selling
satellites, and disseminating high- resolution data among other things.
❖ Indian Space Association (ISPA): It is a premier industry association representing Indian space and
satellite manufacturing companies, advocating policy reforms, fostering collaboration, and supporting
private sector engagement in the space sector.
Role of the Private Sector:
❖ 100% FDI permitted: The Indian government allows up to 100 percent foreign direct investment (FDI)
under the automatic route for manufacturing components, systems, and subsystems for satellites,
ground segments, and user segments.

 3

Paper II-(200 marks)

1. Comprehension
2. Interpersonal skills includang communication skills.
3. Logical reasoning and analytical ability
4. Decision making and problem-solving
5. General mental ability
6. Basic numeracy (numbers and their relations, orders of magnitude, etc.) (Class X level). Data
interpectation Charts, graplo, tables, data sufficiency etc.-Class Xlevel)
7. Marathi and English Language Comprehension skills (Class X/XII level)

Note 1: Questions relating to Marathi and English Language Compechension skill of Class X/XII level (last
tuan in the Syllabas of Paper I will be tested through passages from Marathi and English lang without
providing cross translation theroof in the question papeт
Note 2: The question will be of multiple shooce, objective type
Note 3: It is mandatory for the candidate to appear in both the Papers of State Services (Prehm)
Examination for the purpose of evaluation. Therefore a candidate will not be considered for evaluation
in one he she does not appear in both the popers of State Services Preliminary Examination.
राज्यसेर्वा मुख्य परीक्षा/STATE SERVICES MAIN EXAMINATION
-: SCHEME OF EXAMINATION:-
1. Written Examination 1750 Marks (Number of Question Papers- 9)
2. Interview and Personality Test 275 Marks
Total Marks 2025 Marka

Nature of
Paper No. and Qualifying
Subject Marks Standard Medium Period Question
Subject Code Mandatory
Paper
Paper Code-
Marathi 300 Matriculation Munahi 3 bonas (Qualifying
1001) Conventional
with 25%
Paper 2 (Code- Descriptive
English 300 Matriculation English 3 hours Marks
1002)

Papers to be counted for Merit

Paper 3 Marath /
Exxay 250 Gadade 3 hours
(Code 1003) English
Paper 4 Marath / Conventional
General Studies-1 250 Gradate 3 hours Mandatury
(Code-1004) English Descriptive
Paper 5 Marath /
General Studies-2 २५० Gradate 3 hours
Code-1005) English
 4

Paper 6 Marath /
General Studies-3 २५० Gradate 3 hours
(Code 1006) English
Paper 7 Marath /
General Studies-4 २५० Gradate 3 hours
(Code-1007 English
Opoonal Subject Marath /
Paper 8 २५० Gradate 3 hours
Paper Na.-01 English
Opoonal Subject Marath /
Paper 9 २५० Gradate 3 hours
Paper Na.-02 English

Note:
1. Candidates will have the option to answer the question papers in Marathi or English for Paper 3 107
2. For the Optional papers the subjects for which the medium has been indicated as Marathi and English
can be answered in either Marathi or English. The subjects for which medium has been indicated as
English answered in English language only.
3. Candidate should note that they have to choose the medium of answering the papers at the time of
subesitting the online application for mains examination.
4. Non compliance of the above rule will result in their answer books not being evaluated for being in an
unauthorized medium.
5. The question papers will be set in Marathi and English languages (except language papers, Marathi
literature and subject for which medium has been indicated as English)
Paper-1 (300 Marks)
QUALIFYING PAPER OF MARATHI LANGUAGE
The aim of the paper is to test the candidates ability to read and anderstand serious discursive prose, and
express ideas clearly and correctly in Manthi language
The pattern of questions would be broadly as follows
(i) Comprehension of given passages
(ii) Precis Writing
(iii) Usage and Vocalsdary.
(iv) Sheet Essays
(v) Translation five English to Marathi and vice-versa
This Paper will be of qualifying nature. The marks obtained in this papers will not be sumed for ranking
Paper-2 (300 Marks)
QUALIFYING PAPER OF ENGLISH LANGUAGE
The sun of the paper is to tot the candidates ability to read and understand serious discursive prose, and to
express ideas clearly and correctly in English language
The pattern of questions would be benadly as follows:
(i) Comprehension of given passages
(ii) Precis Writing
(iii) Usage and Vocabulary
(iv) Short Eways
This Paper will be of qualifying mature. The marks obtained in this papers will not be courted for ranking
 5

Paper-3 (250 Marks)

ESSAY
In Essay Paper, candidates may be required to write csayx on multiple topses. They will be expected to
keep closely to the subject of the essay to arrange their idens in an orderly fashion and to write concisely.
Paper-4 (250 Marks)
General Studies:-1
Indian Heritage and Culture, History and Geography of the World and Society with some weightage
to Maharashtra
❖ Indian culture will cover the salient aspects of Art Forms, Literature and Architecture from ancient to
modern times.
❖ Bhakti movement and its philosophy with special reference to saints' movement in Maharashtra.
❖ Modern Indian history from about the middle of the eighteenth century until the present- significant
events, personalities, issues.
❖ The Freedom Struggle its various stages and important contributors /contributions from different
parts of the country.
❖ Post-independence consolidation and reorganization within the country.
❖ History of the world will include events from the 18th century such as industrial revolution, world
wars, redrawal of national boundaries, colonization, decolonization, political philosophies like
communism, capitalism, socialism etc. their forms and effect on the society.
❖ Salient features of Indian Society, Diversity of India
❖ Role of women and women's organization, population and associated issues, poverty and
developmental issues, urbanization, their problems and their remedies
❖ Effects of globalization on Indian society
❖ Social empowerment, communalism, regionalism, secularism
❖ Salient features of the world's physical geography.
❖ Distribution of key natural resources across the world (including South Asia and the Indian
subcontinent factors responsible for the location of primary, secondary, and tertiary sector industries
in various parts world (including India) of the
❖ Important Geophysical phenomena such as earthquakes, Tsunami, Volcanic activity, cyclone etc.,
geographical features and their location-changes in critical geographical features (including water
bodies and ice-caps) and in flora and fauna and the effects of such changes.
Paper-5 (250 Marks)
General Studies:- 2
Governance, Constitution, Polity, Social Justice and International relations with some weightage to
Maharashtra
❖ Indian Constitution- historical underpinnings, evolution, features, amendments, significant provisions
and basic structure.
❖ Functions and responsibilities of the Union and the States, issues and challenges pertaining to the
federal structure, devolution of powers and finances up to local levels and challenges therein.
❖ Separation of powers between various organs; dispute redressal mechanisms and institutions.
 6

❖ Comparison of the Indian constitutional scheme with that of other countries

❖ Parliament and State Legislatures structure, functioning, the conduct of business, powers & privileges
and issues arising out of these.
❖ Structure, organization and functioning of the Executive and the Judiciary- Ministries and
Departments of the Government; pressure groups and formal/informal associations and their role in
the Polity.
❖ Local self government.
❖ Salient features of the Representation of People's Act.
❖ Appointment to various Constitutional posts, powers, functions and responsibilities of various
Constitutional Bodies.
❖ Statutory, regulatory and various quasi-judicial bodies.
❖ Government policies and interventions for development in various sectors and issues arising out of
their design and implementation.
❖ Development processes and the development industry the role of NGOs, SHGs, various groups and
associations, donors, charities, institutional and other stakeholders.
❖ Welfare schemes for vulnerable sections of the population by the Centre and States and the
performance of these schemes; mechanisms, laws, institutions and Bodies constituted for the
protection and betterment of these vulnerable sections.
❖ Issues relating to the development and management of Social Sector/Services relating to Health,
Education, Human Resources.
❖ Issues relating to poverty and hunger.
❖ Important aspects of governance, transparency and accountability, e-governance applications, models,
successes, limitations, and potential; citizens charters, transparency & accountability and institutional
and other measures.
❖ Role of civil services in a democracy.
❖ India and its neighbourhood-relations
❖ Bilateral, regional and global groupings and agreements involving India and or affecting lodia's
interests.
❖ Effect of policies and politics of developed and developing countries on India's interests, Indian
Diaspora
❖ Important festernational instrations, agencies and fors- their structure, mandate
Paper-6 (250 Marks)
General Studies:-3
Technology, Economic Development, Biodiversity, Environment, Security and Disaster Management
with some weightage to Maharashtra
❖ Indian Economy and issues relating to planning, mobilization of resources, growth, development and
employment.
❖ Inclusive growth and issues arising from it.
❖ Government Budgeting.
❖ Major crops- cropping patterns in various parts of the country, different types of irrigation and
irrigation systems storage, transport and marketing of agricultural produce and issues and related
constraints; e- technology in the aid of farmers.
 7

❖ Issues related to direct and indirect farm subsidies and minimum support prices; Public Distribution
System- objectives, functioning, limitations, revamping; issues of buffer stocks and food security,
Technology missions; economics of animal-rearing
❖ Food processing and related industries in India- scope and significance, location, upstream and
downstream requirements, supply chain management.
❖ Land reforms in India.
❖ Effects of liberalization on the economy, changes in industrial policy and their effects on industrial
growth.
❖ Infrastructure: Energy, Ports, Roads, Airports, Railways etc.
❖ Investment models.
❖ Science and Technology- developments and their applications and effects in everyday life.
❖ Achievements of Indians in science & technology; indigenization of technology and developing new
technology.
❖ Awareness in the fields of IT, Space, Computers, robotics, nano-technology, bio-technology and issues
relating to intellectual property rights.
❖ Conservation, environmental pollution and degradation, environmental impact assessment.
❖ Disaster and disaster management, Disaster Risk Resilience. Resilient Society
❖ Linkages between development and spread of extremism.
❖ Role of external state and non-state actors in creating challenges to internal security.
❖ Challenges to internal security through communication networks, the role of media and social
networking sites in internal security challenges, basics of cyber security, money-laundering and its
prevention.
❖ Security challenges and their management in border areas; linkages of organized crime with
terrorism.
❖ Various Security forces and agencies and their mandate.
Paper-7 (250 Marks)
General Studies:- 4
Ethics, Integrity, and Aptitude
This paper will include questions to test the candidates' attitude and approach to issues relating to
integrity, probity in public life, his problem-solving approach and decision making to various issues and
conflicts faced by him in dealing with society. Questions may utilise the case study approach to determine
these aspects. The following broad areas will be covered:
Syllabus
❖ Ethics and Human Interface: Essence, determinants and consequences of Ethics in human actions;
dimensions of ethics; ethics in private and public relationships. Human Values-lessons from the lives
and teachings of great leaders, reformers and administrators; role of family, society and educational
institutions in inculcating values.
❖ Attitude: content, structure, function; its influence and relation with thought and behaviour; moral and
political attitudes; social influence and persuasion.
❖ Aptitude and foundational values for Civil Service, integrity, impartiality and non-partisanship,
objectivity,
 8

❖ Aptitude and foundational values for Civil Service, integrity, impartiality and non-partisanship,
objectivity, dedication to public service, empathy, tolerance and compassion towards the weaker
sections.
❖ Emotional intelligence-concepts, and their utilities and application in administration and governance.
❖ Contributions of moral thinkers and philosophers from India and the world.
❖ Public/Civil service values and Ethics in Public administration: Status and problems; ethical concerns
and dilemmas in government and private institutions; laws, rules, regulations and conscience as
sources of ethical guidance; accountability and ethical governance; strengthening of ethical and moral
values in governance; ethical issues in international relations and funding; corporate governance.
❖ Probity in Governance: Concept of public service; Philosophical basis of governance and probity;
Information sharing and transparency in government, Right to Information, Codes of Ethics, Codes of
Conduct, Citizen's Charters, Work culture, Quality of service delivery, Utilization of public funds,
challenges of corruption.
❖ Case Studies on the above issues.
PAPER-8 (250 Marks) & PAPER-9 (250 Marks)
Optional Subject Papers I & II
Candidate may choose any optional subject from amongst the List of Optional Subjects
List of Optional Subjects
1. Agriculture
2. Animal Husbandry and Veterinary Science
3. Anthropology
4. Botany
5. Chemistry
6. Civil Engineering
7. Commerce and Accountancy
8. Economics
9. Electrical Engineering
10. Geography
11. Geology
12. History
13. Law
14. Management
15. Marathi Literature
16. Mathematics
17. Mechanical Engineering
18. Medical Science
19. Philosophy
20. Physics
21. Political Science and International Relations
22. Psychology
23. Public Administration
24. Sociology
25. Statistics
26. Zoology
 9

MPSC General Science questions asked in various exams:

राज्यसेर्वा पूर्वव 2021 2022 2023
जीिशास्त्र (Biology) 10 प्रश्न 8 प्रश्न 8 प्रश्न
भौकतकशास्त्र (Physics) 7 प्रश्न 7 प्रश्न 7 प्रश्न
रसायनशास्त्र (Chemistry) 3 प्रश्न 5 प्रश्न 5 प्रश्न

सांयुक्त गट ब पूर्वव 2021 2022 2023

जीिशास्त्र (Biology) 8 प्रश्न 9 प्रश्न 8 प्रश्न
भौकतकशास्त्र (Physics) 3 प्रश्न 3 प्रश्न 4 प्रश्न
रसायनशास्त्र (Chemistry) 4 प्रश्न 3 प्रश्न 3 प्रश्न

General Science Subject In-Depth Review:

❖ There are 3 subjects in General Science,
1. Biology
2. Chemistry
3. Physics
Biology:
❖ It has 3 parts,
1. Zoology
2. Botany
3. Hygiene
Syllabus:
❖ Cell types, properties, function
❖ Classification of plants
❖ Tissues of plants and animals
❖ Classification of animals
❖ Classification of living organisms - methods
❖ Dietary function of nutrients
❖ Photosynthesis, Chemosynthesis
❖ Reproductive nervous and hormonal organization
❖ Digestion Institute and Asana Institute
❖ Genetics and Evolution
❖ Circulatory and Excretory Organs
❖ Diseases and microorganisms
Chemistry:
❖ Substance - type, properties
❖ Atomic Structure, Atomic Theory
❖ Classification of elements
❖ Acids, Acids and Salts
❖ Metals and non-metals
❖ Hydrocarbons- Classification
❖ chemical bond
❖ Atomic mass - molecular mass
 10

❖ Chemical reactions
❖ important compounds
❖ Everyday Chemistry
❖ radioactivity
PHYSICS:
❖ Quantities and methods of measurement
❖ Properties of light
❖ Mirrors and magnifying glasses
❖ Heat - properties
❖ Sound - properties
❖ Motion and types of motion
❖ Human Eye - Functions and Defects
❖ Current - Properties
❖ EFFECTS OF ELECTRICITY
❖ Force and types of force
❖ Work, Energy and Power
❖ pressure and density
Science and Tech Syllabus for Mains
Introduction India's Policy in the Field of the Science & Technology, The Science &
Technology Policy Resolution in 1958, Science & Technology Policy 2013
Space Satellite Communication in India, INSAT Satellite Applications, Remote
Sensing Applications, Cryogenic Rockets
IT, Telecom & Electronics IT Industry in India, Applications of Information Technology, Display
Technologies
Defense Missile System and its Classification, India's Missile System, India's Ballistic
Missile Defense System
Nano-Science & Nano- Nanoscience Nanotechnology and Nanomaterials, Applications of
Technology Nanotechnology, Health & Environmental Impacts of Nanotechnology
Robotics Robotics & Artificial Intelligence) Applications of Robotics, Robotics, and
Issues of Unemployment
Nuclear Energy Nuclear-Power Policy of India, Non-energy Applications of Nuclear Energy,
Impact of Radiation, Issue of Radioactive Waste
Biotechnology Application of Biotechnology, Biotechnology Projects, Issue of Bio-Piracy
Bioinformatics
Renewable Energy Ocean Thermal Energy Conversion (OTEC), Concept of Green Building Tidal,
Wave, Geothermal Energy, Fuel Cells
Achievements of Indians Scientists of Ancient India, Science, and Scientists of Medieval India,
in Science & technology Scientists of Modern Indian History
