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Subject: Internal Combustion Engines (ICE)

Pages: ~20 Pages of Core Content (Outline & Detailed Notes)
Author: Engineering Academia
Date: October 26, 2023

Table of Contents
Page 1-2: INTRODUCTION & CLASSIFICATION
1.1 Definition and Basic Principle
1.2 Historical Development
1.3 Broad Classification
1.3.1 Based on Fuel: SI (Petrol) vs CI (Diesel) Engines
1.3.2 Based on Ignition: Spark vs Compression Ignition
1.3.3 Based on Cycle: Otto, Diesel, Dual Cycle
1.3.4 Based of Stroke per Cycle: 2-Stroke vs 4-Stroke
1.3.5 Based on Cylinder Arrangement: In-line, V, Radial, Opposed
1.3.6 Based on Application: Automotive, Marine, Stationary, Aircraft
1.4 Comparison of IC vs EC (External Combustion) Engines
1.5 Major Components (Overview)
Page 3-5: THERMODYNAMIC CYCLES & AIR-STANDARD ANALYSIS
2.1 Introduction to Air-Standard Assumptions
2.2 Otto Cycle (Constant Volume Heat Addition)
- P-V & T-S Diagrams
- Derivation of Efficiency: η = 1 - (1/r^(γ-1))
- Effect of Compression Ratio (r)
2.3 Diesel Cycle (Constant Pressure Heat Addition)
- P-V & T-S Diagrams
- Derivation of Efficiency: η = 1 - (1/r^(γ-1)) * [(ρ^γ -1)/(γ(ρ-1))]
- Cut-off Ratio (ρ)
2.4 Dual Cycle (Limited Pressure Cycle)
- P-V & T-S Diagrams
- Efficiency Derivation
2.5 Comparison of Cycles for Same Compression Ratio & Heat Input
2.6 Fuel-Air Cycle & Actual Cycle Deviations
Page 6-8: ENGINE CONSTRUCTION & MAJOR COMPONENTS
3.1 Cylinder Block & Crankcase
- Materials (Cast Iron, Aluminum Alloy)
- Design Considerations
3.2 Cylinder Head & Gasket
3.3 Piston, Piston Rings, and Piston Pin (Gudgeon Pin)
- Functions, Materials, Types (Headland, Keystone rings)
3.4 Connecting Rod
3.5 Crankshaft & Flywheel
- Balancing, Torsional Vibration
3.6 Valves & Valve Mechanism
- Poppet Valve Geometry, Materials (Nimonic, Inconel)
- Camshaft, Pushrods, Rocker Arms, Valve Springs, Tappets
3.7 Camshaft Drive (Timing Belt/Chain/Gears)
Page 9-10: VALVE TIMING & PORT TIMING DIAGRAMS
4.1 Need for Valve Lead, Lag, and Overlap
4.2 Detailed Valve Timing Diagram for 4-Stroke SI & CI Engines
- Inlet Valve Opens (IVO) before TDC
- Inlet Valve Closes (IVC) after BDC
- Exhaust Valve Opens (EVO) before BDC
- Exhaust Valve Closes (EVC) after TDC
4.3 Valve Overlap and its Effects
4.4 Port Timing Diagram for 2-Stroke Engines
- Scavenging Process
- Advantages & Disadvantages vs 4-Stroke
Page 11-12: FUEL SUPPLY SYSTEMS
5.1 SI Engine Systems
- Carburetion: Principle, Simple Carburetor Parts, Drawbacks
- Fuel Injection: Multi-Point (MPFI), Direct Injection (GDI)
- Components: Fuel Pump, Filter, Injector, ECU
5.2 CI Engine Systems
- Fuel Injection Pump (Inline, Distributor types)
- Injector & Nozzle Types (Pintle, Multi-hole, Pintaux)
- Jerk Pump System
5.3 Common Rail Direct Injection (CRDI) System
Page 13-14: IGNITION SYSTEMS
6.1 Requirements of Ignition System
6.2 Battery Ignition System (Coil Ignition)
- Circuit Diagram, Working, Advantages/Limitations
6.3 Magneto Ignition System
- Working, Comparison with Battery System
6.4 Electronic Ignition System
- Contact Breaker vs Contactless (Hall Effect, Optical)
6.5 Spark Plug
- Heat Range, Construction, Selection
Page 15-16: COMBUSTION IN SI AND CI ENGINES
7.1 Combustion in SI Engines
- Stages: Ignition Lag, Flame Propagation, After Burning
- Flame Speed & Factors Affecting it
- Abnormal Combustion: Detonation & Pre-Ignition
* Causes, Effects, Control (Octane Number, Additives, Design)
7.2 Combustion in CI Engines
- Stages: Ignition Delay, Uncontrolled Combustion, Controlled Combustion
- Diesel Knock: Causes, Effects, Control (Cetane Number, Injection Timing)
7.3 Comparison of SI & CI Engine Combustion
Page 17: COOLING & LUBRICATION SYSTEMS
8.1 Need for Cooling
8.2 Air Cooling vs. Water/Liquid Cooling
- Thermosyphon vs. Pump Circulation Systems
- Components: Radiator, Thermostat, Water Pump, Fan
8.3 Lubrication System Functions
8.4 Types: Mist, Wet Sump, Dry Sump Systems
8.5 Lubricating Oil Properties (Viscosity Index, SAE Rating) & Additives
Page 18: SUPERCHARGING & TURBOCHARGING
9.1 Purpose of Forced Induction
9.2 Supercharging: Engine-driven compressor
- Types: Roots, Centrifugal, Screw
9.3 Turbocharging: Exhaust gas-driven turbine
- Wastegate, Intercooler/Aftercooler
9.4 Advantages: Increased Power, Altitude Compensation
9.5 Limitations: Detonation, Thermal Loading
Page 19: ENGINE PERFORMANCE & TESTING
10.1 Performance Parameters
- Indicated Power (IP), Brake Power (BP), Friction Power (FP)
- Mechanical Efficiency, Thermal Efficiencies (Brake, Indicated)
- Specific Fuel Consumption (BSFC, ISFC)
- Volumetric Efficiency & its importance
10.2 Engine Testing Methods
- Dynamometers: Hydraulic, Electric, Eddy Current
- Morse Test for Multi-cylinder Engines
- Willan’s Line Method
10.3 Heat Balance Sheet
- Energy Distribution: BP, Cooling, Exhaust, Unaccounted
Page 20: EMISSIONS & CONTROL, ALTERNATIVES & FUTURE TRENDS
11.1 Major Pollutants from ICE
- SI: CO, HC, NOx
- CI: PM (Soot), NOx, Smoke
11.2 Emission Control Techniques
- Engine Modifications: EGR, Lean Burn, Injection Timing
- After-treatment: Catalytic Converter (3-way), DPF, SCR
11.3 Introduction to Alternative Fuels
- CNG, LPG, Hydrogen, Biofuels (Biodiesel, Ethanol)
11.4 Future Trends
- Hybridization, HCCI, Stratified Charge, Downsizing
- Transition to Electrification

Key Formulae (Scattered Throughout Notes):

Compression Ratio: r = V_max / V_min

Otto Efficiency: η_otto = 1 - (1/r^(γ-1))

Diesel Efficiency: η_diesel = 1 - (1/r^(γ-1)) * [(ρ^γ -1)/(γ(ρ-1))]

Mean Effective Pressure: mep = (Work per cycle) / (Displacement Volume)

Brake Power: BP = (2πNT)/60,000 kW (for N in rpm, T in Nm)

Indicated Power: IP = (P_m * L * A * n * k)/60,000 kW

Volumetric Efficiency: η_v = (Actual Mass of Air Induced) / (Theoretical Mass)

Diagrams to Include (Hand-Drawn or Printed):

P-V & T-S for Otto, Diesel, Dual Cycles

Valve Timing & Port Timing Diagrams

Carburetor & Fuel Injector Schematics

Battery & Magneto Ignition Circuits

Combustion Pressure-Crank Angle Diagrams

Cooling & Lubrication System Layouts

Supercharger/Turbocharger Arrangement

Heat Balance Chart

Suggested Reference Books:

Internal Combustion Engines by V. Ganesan

A Course in Internal Combustion Engines by M.L. Mathur & R.P. Sharma

Internal Combustion Engine Fundamentals by John B. Heywood

Engineering Fundamentals of the IC Engine by Willard W. Pulkrabek

How to Expand to ~20 Pages:

Write detailed explanations under each sub-heading.

Include solved numerical problems on efficiency, power, and heat balance.

Add labeled diagrams on every page where applicable.

Include comparison tables (e.g., SI vs CI, 2-Stroke vs 4-Stroke, Super vs Turbocharging).

Add notes on recent advancements (e.g., Variable Valve Timing, Cylinder Deactivation).

Include a page for important definitions and a glossary.

Add a page listing previous year’s important exam questions.

Closing Note: These notes cover the fundamental principles, construction, operation, and
performance of internal combustion engines as typically taught in undergraduate mechanical
engineering courses. Mastery of these concepts forms the basis for advanced study in automotive
engineering, engine design, and emission control technologies.
JUST GIVE ME THE NOTES\
LECTURE NOTES ON INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGINES
1. INTRODUCTION
Definition: An Internal Combustion Engine (ICE) is a heat engine that converts chemical energy in fuel
into mechanical work via combustion of the fuel-air mixture inside the engine cylinder.
Basic Principle: Fuel + Air → Combustion (High Pressure & Temp Gases) → Force on Piston → Linear
Motion → Crankshaft → Rotary Motion.
Historical Background:
1860: Étienne Lenoir – First commercial gas engine.

1876: Nikolaus Otto – First successful 4-stroke SI engine (Otto cycle).

1892: Rudolf Diesel – Patented compression ignition engine.

IC Engine vs. External Combustion Engine (EC):

Feature IC Engine EC Engine (Steam)

Combustion Inside cylinder Outside (in boiler)

Working Fluid Fuel-Air products Steam (separate)

Size/Weight Compact, lighter Bulky, heavier

Start-up Quick Slow

Efficiency Higher Lower

Examples Car, bike Steam turbine, Stirling

2. CLASSIFICATION OF IC ENGINES
2.1 Based on Fuel:

Spark Ignition (SI) Engines: Use volatile liquid fuel (Petrol/Gasoline) or gas. Homogeneous mixture
prepared externally (carburetor/injector).

Compression Ignition (CI) Engines: Use less volatile fuel (Diesel). Air compressed first, fuel injected at
high pressure at end of compression. Heterogeneous mixture.

2.2 Based on Thermodynamic Cycle:

Otto Cycle: Constant volume heat addition (approx. SI engines).

Diesel Cycle: Constant pressure heat addition (approx. CI engines).

Dual or Mixed Cycle: Combination (modern CI & high-output SI).

2.3 Based on Stroke per Cycle:

Four-Stroke Engine: 1 power stroke in 2 revolutions (4 strokes: Suction, Compression, Power,

Exhaust).

Two-Stroke Engine: 1 power stroke in 1 revolution. Uses ports instead of valves. More power/weight
but less efficient, more polluting.

2.4 Based on Cylinder Arrangement:

In-Line (single/multiple row)

V-type (cylinders in two planes)

Radial (cylinders around crankshaft)

Opposed Cylinder / Boxer (horizontal opposition)

2.5 Based on Ignition Method:

Spark Ignition (SI)

Compression Ignition (CI)

Hot Bulb Ignition (historical)

2.6 Based on Cooling System:

Air-Cooled (fins on cylinder)

Water/Liquid-Cooled (jacket around cylinder)

2.7 Based on Application:

Automotive (cars, trucks, bikes)

Marine (ships, boats)

Stationary (power gensets, pumps)

Aviation (piston-engine aircraft)

3. MAJOR COMPONENTS & CONSTRUCTION

3.1 Cylinder Block: "Body" of engine. Contains cylinders, coolant passages. Material: Cast iron,
Aluminum alloy (with liners).
3.2 Cylinder Head: Mounted on block, forms combustion chamber. Houses valves, spark plug/injector.
Material: Cast iron/Al alloy.
3.3 Piston: Reciprocates inside cylinder, transmits force. Material: Al alloy for light weight, good
conductivity.

Piston Rings: Seal between piston and cylinder.

Compression Rings (top): Prevent gas leakage.

Oil Rings (bottom): Control oil film, prevent entry into chamber.

3.4 Connecting Rod: Converts reciprocating piston motion to rotary motion of crankshaft. Small end
(piston pin), big end (crankpin).
3.5 Crankshaft: Converts linear motion to rotary motion. Has counterweights for balancing. Main
journals, crankpins.
3.6 Flywheel: Mounted on crankshaft, stores energy during power stroke, delivers during other
strokes. Smooths operation.
3.7 Valves & Valve Mechanism:

Inlet Valve: Allows fresh charge in. Larger in size than exhaust valve.

Exhaust Valve: Allows burnt gases out. Subject to higher temperatures.

Valve Materials: Must withstand high temp and corrosion. Exhaust valves use special alloys (Nimonic,
Inconel).

Valve Mechanism: Camshaft, Tappet/Cam Follower, Push Rod, Rocker Arm, Valve Spring.

3.8 Camshaft: Controls valve opening/closing. Driven by crankshaft via timing gear/belt/chain at 1:2
speed ratio (for 4-stroke).
3.9 Crankcase: Houses crankshaft, oil sump.
3.10 Manifolds:

Inlet Manifold: Distributes air-fuel mixture (SI) or air (CI) to cylinders.

Exhaust Manifold: Collects burnt gases from cylinders.

4. VALVE & PORT TIMING DIAGRAMS

Why Timing is Critical: Valves do not open/close exactly at TDC/BDC. To improve volumetric efficiency
(breathing).
4.1 Valve Timing for 4-Stroke Engine:
(A) Inlet Valve Timing:

Inlet Valve Opens (IVO): Before TDC (end of exhaust stroke). Ensures valve is fully open at start of
suction stroke.

Inlet Valve Closes (IVC): After BDC (start of compression stroke). Uses inertia of incoming charge for
better cylinder filling (Ram effect). Typically 10°-30° after BDC.

(B) Exhaust Valve Timing:

Exhaust Valve Opens (EVO): Before BDC (end of power stroke). Allows high-pressure gases to start
escaping, reducing work needed on exhaust stroke.

Exhaust Valve Closes (EVC): After TDC (start of suction stroke). Allows inertia of outgoing gases to
scavenge cylinder better.
(C) Valve Overlap: Period when both valves are open (around TDC). Used for scavenging – fresh
charge helps push out remaining exhaust. Overlap is small in SI engines (to prevent fuel loss) and
larger in naturally aspirated CI engines.
4.2 Port Timing for 2-Stroke Engine:
Uses ports (holes in cylinder wall) opened/closed by piston motion.

Inlet Port: Opens just after TDC, closes just after BDC (connected to crankcase compression).

Transfer Port: Opens just before BDC, closes just after BDC (transfers charge from crankcase to
cylinder).

Exhaust Port: Opens before BDC, closes after BDC. Much more overlap than 4-stroke.

5. THERMODYNAMIC CYCLES (AIR-STANDARD)

Assumptions (Air-Standard):

Working fluid is air, an ideal gas.

All processes are internally reversible.

Combustion replaced by external heat addition.

Exhaust replaced by heat rejection.

Specific heats constant.

5.1 Otto Cycle (Constant Volume Cycle): Model for SI engines.

Processes:
1-2: Isentropic Compression (r = V1/V2 = Compression Ratio)
2-3: Constant Volume Heat Addition (Q_in)
3-4: Isentropic Expansion
4-1: Constant Volume Heat Rejection (Q_out)
Thermal Efficiency:
η_otto = 1 - (1 / r^(γ-1))
where γ = Cp/Cv (≈1.4 for air)
Efficiency depends only on compression ratio. Higher r → higher η. Practically limited by fuel knock.
5.2 Diesel Cycle (Constant Pressure Cycle): Model for CI engines.
Processes:
1-2: Isentropic Compression (r = V1/V2)
2-3: Constant Pressure Heat Addition (Q_in). Defines Cut-off Ratio (ρ = V3/V2)
3-4: Isentropic Expansion
4-1: Constant Volume Heat Rejection
Thermal Efficiency:
η_diesel = 1 - (1 / r^(γ-1)) * [ (ρ^γ - 1) / (γ(ρ - 1)) ]
For same r, η_diesel < η_otto. But CI engines use much higher r (16-22 vs 8-12), so actual efficiency is
higher.
5.3 Dual Cycle (Mixed/Sabathe Cycle): Model for modern high-speed CI & SI engines.
Heat added partly at constant volume, partly at constant pressure.
Efficiency formula is a combination of Otto & Diesel.
More realistic representation of actual combustion.
6. FUEL SUPPLY SYSTEMS