Unit 2

Natural Resources: Renewable and Non-renewable Resources

Land Resources
 It refers to a delineable area of the earth’s terrestrial surface, encompassing all
attributes of the biosphere immediately.
 Land resources encompass the physical, biotic, environmental, infrastructural, and
socio-economic components of a natural land unit, including surface and near
surface fresh water resources important for management.
Land Use Change
Land use change is a process by which human activities transform the natural landscape.
Land use has changed as a result of urbanization and population growth.
Agricultural land might be used as an urban land.
Forest land may be cleared for agricultural purposes.

Types of land use in India

Forest area
According to National Forest policy 1952, the reporting area of the forest must be 33.3%
of the total land.
Land not available for cultivation
The land used for human settlements, transport routes, canals, quarries, the mountains,
deserts, marshes etc.
Cultivable waste Land
It is the land which is uncultivated for more than 5 years.
Fallow Land
The land which is not utilized for cultivation for more than 3 years is considered as
fallow land.
Net Area Sown
India has a net sown area of 46.2% of the total reporting land in India.
Negative impacts of land Use Change
Residential areas located area near industrial areas are affected by air pollution due to
effluents of energy and industrial effluents.
Intensive livestock breeding units are a source of offensive odours to nearby dwellers.

Land Degradation
It is a process in which the value of the biophysical environment is affected by a
combination of human induced processes acting upon the land. It will change the characteristic
and quality of soil which adversely affect its fertility.
Causes
Deforestation Agricultural practice Overgrazing
Industralisation Urbanization
Effects of Degradation
 Land is affected by either wind or water erosion. Water erosion is the most common form
of degradation in the area, affecting 25% of agricultural land. Wind erosion affects 40%
of the agricultural land in the dry zone.
 The destruction of the forest is mainly a result of clearance for agriculture.
 It is also altering hydrological conditions where vegetation cover is removed.

Control measures for land degradation

Strip Farming- cultivated crops are sown in alternative strips to prevent water movement.
Crop Rotation- it is the agricultural practice in which different crops are sown in same area
following a rotation system which helps in replenishment of the soil.
Ridge and Furrow Formation- soil erosion is prevented by forming ridge and furrows during
irrigation which lessens the run off.
Construction of Dam- this reduces the velocity of run off so that soil support vegetation.
Contour Farming- it is the farming practice across the hill and is useful in collecting and
diverting the run off to avoid erosion.

Soil Erosion
Soil erosion is the natural process in which the top soil of a field is carried away by physical
sources such as wind and water.
Causes
Various factors for soil erosion are:
 Wind: When strong winds blow, the topsoil along with the organic matter is carried
away by the wind. This happens more often when the land is not covered with grass or
plant.
 Water: When it rains in the hilly areas, the soil gets washed away towards the plains. The
running water deposits the mineral rich soil in the riverbed and this deposition of soil can
change the course of the river bed.
 Overgrazing: When cattle are allowed to graze on the same field repeatedly, all the
available grass, including roots are eaten by them. This makes the topsoil vulnerable to
wind and flowing water leading to soil erosion.
 Deforestation: Humans have taken land from the forest to cultivate in order to feed the
ever- increasing population and to build houses, industries etc. Cutting down of trees on a
large scale for this purpose is deforestation. When large areas of the forests are cleared,
the topsoil gets eroded by wind and flowing water.

Desertification
Desertification is the degradation process by which a fertile land changes itself into a
desert by losing its flora and fauna.
This can be caused by drought, deforestation, climate change, human activities or improper
agricultural causes.
Causes
 Overgrazing
  Deforestation
 Urbanization and other types of land development
 Climate change
 Stripping the land resources
 Natural disasters
Effects of Desertification
 If an area becomes a desert, then its almost impossible to grow substantial crops there.
 Without the fields which produce food for the people who are living in those local areas
will deal with hunger problems.
 The water quality of the area will also become very poor.
 Without food and water, it will lead to poverty.
The preventive measures for desertification are:
 Land and Water Management.
 Protection of vegetation Cover.
 Alternate Farming and Industrial Techniques.
 Establish economic opportunities outside dry lands.

Forest Resources

Deforestation
Deforestation can be defined as the large-scale removal of trees from forests (or other
lands) for the facilitation of human activities. It is a serious environmental concern since it can
result in the loss of biodiversity, damage to natural habitats, disturbances in the water cycle, and
soil erosion.
Causes
 To meet the demands of a rapidly growing population forests are converted for
agricultural lands, new living settlements, and infrastructure-building of roads.
 Logging or cutting of trees for paper production, firewood, building materials and
furniture-making.
 The increase of mining for gold and other valuable minerals in tropical forests is
furthering damage due to the rising demand and high mineral prices
 Destruction of forests due to hurricanes, floods, and other natural calamities.
 Invasion of the forest ecosystem by parasites that destroy trees.
 Forest fires are sparked by lightning and other natural phenomena.
Effects
 Climate imbalance and Climate change.
 Increase in global warming.
 Increase in greenhouse gas emissions.
 Erosion and floods.
 Wildlife Extinction.
 Habitat loss.
 Food insecurity in the future.
 Loss of biodiversity.
Mining
The extraction of minerals from nature often creates imbalances, which adversely affect the
environment. The key environmental impacts of mining are on wildlife and fishery habitats, the
water balance, local climates & the pattern of rainfall, sedimentation, the depletion of forests and
the disruption of the ecology.
Impacts on environment
 Surface mines may produce dust from blasting procedures and release methane which is a
greenhouse gas. Insufficient safeguards in operations have the potential to pollute the air
with heavy metals.
 The mining sectors will use large quantities of water. The mining process throws
sulphide- containing minerals into the air which oxidize and react with water to form
sulphuric acid which in turn will have the impact on ground water.
 The movement of rocks due to mining activities will impact the land severely.
Impacts on Forest
 Mining can lead to the destruction of habitats in surrounding area. The process begins
with deforestation. It has several effects. Birds, animals and creatures that depend on
trees and plant for food and shelter lose their homes or starve to death.
 Mining’s direct impacts on forests include land-use change at mine sites, and downstream
pollution and environmental damage.
Impacts on Biodiversity
 Destruction of the habitat is the main component of biodiversity losses, but direct
poisoning caused by mine-extracted material, and indirect poisoning through food and
water, can also affect animals, vegetation and microorganisms.
 Endemic species are especially sensitive, since they require very specific environmental
conditions. Destruction or slight modification of their habitat put them at the risk
of extinction.
 Mining activities have fragmented amphibian habitats and affected amphibian diversity
and distribution in Kudremukh area.
 Soil texture and water content can be greatly modified in disturbed sites, leading to plant
community changes in the area.
 Grass diversity and total coverage is less affected by high contaminant concentration.
 Plants also tend to accumulate heavy metals in their aerial organs, possibly leading to
human intake through fruits and vegetables.
 Cigarettes made from tobacco growing on contaminated sites might also possibly have
adverse effects on human population, as tobacco tends to accumulate cadmium and zinc
in its leaves.
 Animals can be poisoned directly by mine products and residuals. Bioaccumulation in the
plants or the smaller organisms they eat can also lead to poisoning: horses, goats and
sheep are exposed in certain areas to potentially toxic concentration of copper and lead in
grass.
Dam Building Impacts

 Big dams are often regarded as a symbol of national development.

 Big dams and river valley projects have multipurpose uses and have been referred to as
“temple of modern India.”
 However, these dams are responsible for the destruction of vast areas of forest.
 The dams’ effect has included much more than forest loss and the major environmental
changes have impacted on local people, at both the dam site and in the entire river basin.
 The best agricultural soils are flooded and cause major changes in the environment,
where the rivers’ flora and fauna begin to disappear with strong impacts on people
dependent on those resources.
 It also implies several health hazards includes AIDS, syphilis, tuberculosis, measles and
others by the thousands of workers who are brought to build the dams.
 When dams are built, thousands of people are displaced.
 Whole villages are uprooted and people are forced to go and build new homes, start new
lives elsewhere.
 Many more have lost access to clean water, food sources and other natural resources in
the dammed area.

Water Resources
Overexploitation of both surface and groundwater can lead to severe consequences, including
water scarcity, decreased water quality, and damage to ecosystems. Overuse of groundwater can
lower the water table, make wells dry up, and increase water extraction costs. Overutilization of
surface water can cause issues like saltwater intrusion into freshwater sources and increased
flooding due to reduced water retention.
Groundwater Overexploitation:
 Lowering of the water table:
Excessive pumping can lower the groundwater table, making it difficult and expensive to access
groundwater.
 Increased pumping costs:
As the water table drops, water must be pumped from deeper wells, increasing energy
consumption and costs.
 Reduced surface water supplies:
Groundwater and surface water are interconnected. Over-extraction of groundwater can deplete
streams, rivers, and lakes.
 Saltwater intrusion:
In coastal areas, overuse of freshwater aquifers can allow saltwater to intrude, contaminating the
water and making it unsuitable for drinking or irrigation.
 Ground subsidence:
Overpumping can cause the ground to sink, leading to infrastructure damage and other issues.
Surface Water Overexploitation:
 Water scarcity:
Overuse of surface water resources can lead to a shortage of water available for human,
industrial, and agricultural use.
 Deterioration of water quality:
Pollution from industrial and agricultural runoff, as well as from overgrazing and deforestation,
can degrade surface water quality.
 Increased flooding:
Reduced water retention in wetlands and other natural areas can increase the risk of flooding
during heavy rainfall events.
 Salinization:
Overuse of freshwater reservoirs near the coast can allow saltwater to intrude, contaminating the
water.
 Ecosystem damage:
Changes in water flow and quality can harm aquatic ecosystems and disrupt natural habitats.
Consequences of Overexploitation:
 Economic impacts:
Increased water costs, damage to infrastructure, and reduced agricultural productivity can all
have significant economic consequences.
 Social impacts:
Water scarcity can lead to conflicts over water access and can disproportionately affect
vulnerable populations.
 Environmental impacts:
Overexploitation can lead to the degradation of ecosystems, reduced biodiversity, and increased
risks of natural disasters.

Floods
Floods, an overflow of water onto normally dry land, are a significant natural hazard impacting
water resources and human infrastructure. They can replenish groundwater, but also contaminate
water sources and disrupt water supply systems. Flood management is crucial, especially with
increasing flood frequency due to climate change and unsustainable land use practices.
Here's a more detailed look:
Causes of Floods:
 Natural Factors:
 Heavy rainfall: When rainfall exceeds the capacity of drainage systems, flooding
can occur.
 River overflow: Rivers can overflow their banks during heavy rainfall or due to
dams or levees failing.
 Rapid snowmelt: Rapid snowmelt in mountain regions can lead to increased river
flow and flooding.
 Coastal flooding: Storm surges from hurricanes or cyclones can inundate coastal
areas.
  Human Activities:
 Deforestation: Removal of forests reduces water absorption capacity, increasing
runoff and flood risk.
 Inadequate drainage systems: Poorly designed or maintained drainage systems
can exacerbate flooding.
 Land use changes: Construction in floodplains or alteration of natural waterways
increases flood vulnerability.
Impacts of Flooding:
 Water Resource Impact:
 Groundwater recharge: Floods can replenish underground aquifers, which are
essential for clean freshwater.
 Water contamination: Floodwaters can carry pollutants like chemicals, bacteria,
and waste into water wells and drinking systems.
 Disruption of water supply: Damaged infrastructure from floods can interrupt
water supply services.
 Social and Economic Impacts:
 Damage to infrastructure: Floods can damage roads, bridges, buildings, and other
infrastructure.
 Displacement and loss of life: Floods can displace communities and cause
fatalities.
 Economic losses: Floods can cause significant economic damage to agriculture,
businesses, and property.
Flood Management:
 Natural infrastructure:
Preserving natural areas like wetlands and floodplains can help manage floodwaters.
 Infrastructure development:
Building and maintaining effective drainage systems, dams, and levees can help control
floodwaters.
 Community resilience:
Educating communities about flood risks and promoting flood preparedness measures can help
reduce vulnerability.
 Integrated flood management:
A holistic approach that considers all aspects of flood risk, including water resource
management, land use planning, and disaster preparedness, is crucial.

Droughts
 A drought is a period of unusually dry weather caused by low rainfall and high
temperatures, resulting in a water shortage.
 It's a natural phenomenon, but can be exacerbated by human activities and climate
change.
 Droughts can have serious consequences for people, animals, and the environment.
  Droughts can reduce the water availability and water quality necessary for productive
farms, ranches, and grazing lands, resulting in significant negative direct and indirect
economic impacts to the agricultural sector.
Causes of Drought:
 Lack of Rainfall:
The primary cause of drought is insufficient rainfall, leading to a shortage of water resources.
 High Temperatures:
High temperatures increase evaporation rates, further reducing water availability.
 Overuse of Water Resources:
Over-extraction of groundwater and surface water can deplete water supplies, making areas more
vulnerable to drought.
 Climate Change:
Climate change can lead to more frequent and severe droughts through changes in precipitation
patterns and temperature.
Impacts of Drought:
 Water Scarcity:
Droughts lead to water shortages, impacting drinking water supplies, irrigation for agriculture,
and industrial processes.
 Agricultural Impacts:
Droughts can cause crop failures, livestock losses, and reduced food production, leading to
economic and social instability.
 Environmental Impacts:
Droughts can damage ecosystems, reduce biodiversity, and lead to wildfires.
 Human Health Impacts:
Droughts can lead to waterborne diseases, malnutrition, and displacement.
 Economic Impacts:
Droughts can disrupt industries, increase costs for water management, and damage
infrastructure.
Managing Droughts:
 Water Resource Management:
Implementing sustainable water management practices, such as efficient irrigation techniques,
water conservation measures, and rainwater harvesting, can help mitigate the impacts of
drought.
 Drought Monitoring and Early Warning Systems:
Developing and implementing effective drought monitoring and early warning systems can help
communities prepare for and respond to drought events.
 Drought Contingency Plans:
Developing and implementing drought contingency plans that prioritize water allocation for
critical uses, such as drinking water and essential agriculture, can help minimize the impacts of
drought.
 Building Resilience:
Investing in infrastructure that can withstand drought conditions, such as water storage reservoirs
and drought-resistant crops, can help build resilience to drought.
  Addressing Climate Change:
Reducing greenhouse gas emissions and mitigating climate change can help reduce the frequency
and severity of droughts in the long term

Conflicts over Water (International and Inter- State)

Water disputes can arise both internationally (between countries) and inter-state (between states
within a country) over shared water resources. International disputes often involve large rivers
like the Nile, Euphrates-Tigris, or Brahmaputra, where upstream countries' actions can impact
downstream nations. Inter-state disputes in India, for example, involve rivers like the Krishna,
Cauvery, and Satluj Yamuna, with states vying for water allocation and use.

International Water Conflicts:

 Nile River:
Disputes exist between Egypt, Sudan, and Ethiopia over the Nile River, particularly concerning
Ethiopia's Grand Ethiopian Renaissance Dam, which could impact downstream water
availability.
 Euphrates-Tigris:
Turkey, Syria, and Iraq face water disputes over the Euphrates and Tigris rivers, with dam
projects and water management practices causing tension.
 Brahmaputra River:
India and China, along with Bangladesh, have concerns about China's dam projects on the
Brahmaputra in Tibet, as these could affect water flow downstream.

Inter-state Water Disputes in India:

 Krishna Water Dispute:
Involves Karnataka, Telangana, Andhra Pradesh, and Maharashtra, with disagreements over
water allocation from the Krishna River.
 Cauvery Water Dispute:
A long-standing conflict between Karnataka and Tamil Nadu over the Cauvery River, with the
Supreme Court intervening to resolve water sharing issues.
 Satluj Yamuna Link (SYL) Canal:
A dispute between Punjab and Haryana over the SYL canal, with disagreements over water
allocation from the Ravi and Beas rivers.
 Mahanadi Water Dispute:
A dispute between Odisha and Chhattisgarh over the Mahanadi River.
 Mahadayi Water Dispute:
Involves Goa, Karnataka, and Maharashtra over the Mahadayi (or Mandovi) River.

Key Factors Contributing to Water Conflicts:

 Water Scarcity:
Competition for limited water resources, especially in arid and semi-arid regions, fuels conflict.

 Unequal Distribution:
Disparities in water access and allocation, either between states or within a region, can lead to
resentment and conflict.
 Dam Projects and Water Management:
The construction of dams and changes in water management practices can disrupt natural water
flows and cause disputes.
 Political Factors:
Political tensions, disagreements over boundaries, and lack of trust between parties can
exacerbate water conflicts.
 Economic Factors:
Water is crucial for agriculture, industry, and hydropower, and competition for these uses can
intensify disputes.
 Lack of Cooperation:
Failure to establish effective water management frameworks, treaties, and dispute resolution
mechanisms can hinder peaceful resolution of conflicts.

Biodiversity and Conservation

Levels of Biological Diversity
Biological diversity, or biodiversity, is typically examined at three levels: genetic
diversity (variation within species), species diversity (variety of species), and ecosystem
diversity (variety of ecosystems).
1. Genetic Diversity:
 Refers to the variation in genes and chromosomes within a species.
 This variation allows for adaptation to changing environments and is crucial for
the survival of species.
 Examples include different coat colors in a dog breed or resistance to a disease in
a plant species.
2. Species Diversity:
 Focuses on the variety of different species within a given area or ecosystem.
 It considers both the number of species and their relative abundance.
 Examples include the different types of birds in a forest or the variety of fish in a
coral reef.
3. Ecosystem Diversity:
  Encompasses the variety of ecosystems, including different habitats, communities,
and their interactions.
 Examples include forests, grasslands, deserts, and coral reefs.
 It also considers the functional roles of different species within an ecosystem.
Why are these levels important?
 Genetic diversity: is the foundation for adaptation and evolution.
 Species diversity: ensures the resilience and stability of ecosystems.
 Ecosystem diversity: provides a wide range of ecosystem services, such as clean
water, pollination, and climate regulation.
Biogeographical Zones of India
 India is a megadiverse country. With only 2.4 per cent of the total land area of the
world, the known biological diversity of India contributes 8 per cent to the known global
biological diversity. In terms of Biogeography, India has been divided into 10 biogeographic
zones as shown in the below table:
 India has been divided into ten recognizable biogeographic zones as follows:
[Link] Himalayan Region
2. Himalayan Zone
3. Indian Desert Zone
4. Semi-Arid Region
5. Western Ghats
6. Deccan Plateau
7. Gangetic Plain
8. Coastal Region
9. North-East Region
10. Andaman and Nicobar Islands
Trans Himalayan Region
 It constitutes 5.6 per cent of the total geographical area, includes the high altitude,
cold and arid mountain areas of Ladakh, Jammu & Kashmir, North Sikkim, Lahaul and Spiti
areas of Himachal Pradesh.
 The vegetation consists of sparse alpine steppe vegetation. The biggest population
of wild sheep & goat in the world are found here.
Himalayan Zone
 It covers about 6.4% of the total geographical areas in India.
 It includes some of the highest peaks of the world.
 It provides diverse habitat for endangered faunal species of Ibex, Markhar, Tahr
etc.
 The other rare & endangered species includes Hangul & Musk deer.
The Indian Desert
 It covers about 6.6% of the total geopraphical area.
 It includes Thar & the Kutch deserts.
 The fauna includes wolf, Caracal, Desert cat & birds such as Houbara Bustard &
the Great Indian Bustard.
Semi- Arid Region
 It covers about 16.6% of the total geographical area.
 It is a transition zone between the desert and the dense forests of Western Ghats.
 The only population of Indian Lion is present in this region (Gir, Gujarat).
 Other fauna includes Caracal, Jackal & wolf which are some of the endangered
species.
Western Ghats
 It is a major biodiversity zone of India and covers about 4.0% of the total
geographical area.
 It is one of the major tropical evergreen forest regions in India and represents one
of the two biodiversity ‘hot spots.’
 Western Ghats are home to viable populations of most of the vertebrate species
found in peninsular India.
 Species endemic to this region include Nilgiri Langur, Malabar Civet, Nilgiri
Tahr and Malabar Grey Hornbill.
 The Travancore Tortoise and Cane turtle are two endangered taxa restricted to a
small area in central Western Ghats.
The Deccan Plateau
 It covers about 42% of the total geographic
 This includes regions from the state of Madhya Pradesh, Orissa & Maharashtra.
  Species found in this region are Chital, Sambar, Nilgai which are abundant in this
zone.

The Gangetic Plain

 It covers about 10.8% of the total geographical area in India.
 It is a flat alluvial region lying to the North & South of the Ganga river & its
major tributaries.
 The fauna includes rhino, Swamp Deer, Hog- Deer etc.
The Coastal Belts
 These constitute about 2.5% of the total geographical area.
 This belt includes sandy beaches, mangroves, mud flats, coral reefs and marine
angiosperm pastures.
The North East Region
 It covers about 5.2% of the total geographical area.
 It represents the transition zone between the Indian, Indo- Malayan and Indo-
Chinese biogeographical regions.
 It is a major biodiversity hotspot.
Islands
 They constitute about 0.3% of the total geographical area.
 They include Andaman & Nicobar Island. The islands house an array of flora &
fauna which are not found elsewhere.
Biodiversity Patterns
Biodiversity patterns refer to the spatial distribution and variation of biological diversity,
encompassing the composition, abundance, and richness of species across different ecosystems
and landscapes, both locally and globally. Understanding these patterns is crucial for
conservation efforts, helping identify areas of high biodiversity value and those requiring
protection or restoration.
Types of Biodiversity Patterns:
Latitudinal Gradient:
A well-established pattern where biodiversity tends to be higher closer to the equator and
decreases towards the poles. The tropics, with their stable climate and long growing seasons,
provide more favorable conditions for species to evolve and diversify.
Habitat Heterogeneity:
Areas with diverse habitats and environmental conditions tend to support a greater variety of
species.
Island Biogeography:
Islands, with their limited size and isolation, often exhibit unique biodiversity patterns, with
species richness often related to island size and distance from the mainland.
Temporal Patterns:
Biodiversity can change over time due to natural events (like climate change or volcanic
eruptions) or human activities (like deforestation or pollution).
Global Patterns:
Organisms from different parts of the world may share similar characteristics due to evolutionary
history or environmental pressure.
Global Biodiversity Hot Spots
 The term ‘biodiversity hotspot’ was first coined by Norman Myers (1988)
 A Biodiversity Hotspot is a region with a significant reservoir of plants, animals, and
other life that is under threat from humans. These areas are with very high levels of
species richness and high degree of endemism.
 To qualify as a biodiversity hotspot, a region must have two strict criteria:
 It must contain at least 1,500 species of vascular plants as endemics.
 It must have lost at least 70% of its primary vegetation.
 The hotspots provide crucial ecosystem services for human life, such as provision of
clean water, pollination, and climate regulation.
 Conservation in the hotspots promotes sustainable management of essential natural
resources and supports economic growth.
 Around the world, 36 areas are qualified as hotspots. Their intact habitats represent just
2.5% of earth’s land surface, but they support more than half of the world’s plant species
as endemics.
 It includes nearly 43% of birds, mammals, reptile, and amphibian species as endemics.
 The top seven hotspots in the world are:
 The Caribbean Island
 The Atlantic Forest in Brazil
 Southeast Asia
 The Philippines
 The Horn of Africa
  Madagascar
 The California Coast
 The North American Coastal Plain was designated as the Earth's 36th hotspot in February
2016.
 The Andes Mountains Tropical Hotspot is the world’s most diverse hotspot. About one-
sixth of all plant species in the world live in this region.
 The New Zealand Archipelago is another hotspot. More than 90 percent of the insects and
80 percent of the vascular plants in New Zealand are endemic to the region.
 The Himalayan region contains the tallest mountains in the world, as well as incredible
animals found only there, including the giant panda, the wild water buffalo, and the
black-necked crane—the only alpine crane in the world.
 Deforestation and climate change have made the Himalaya a biodiversity hotspot.
 From Indonesia to Madagascar, Brazil to southeast Asia, a majority of Conservation
International’s global field offices are in or near biodiversity hotspots to protect these
places for the benefit of people around the world.

Importance of Hotspots

 Biodiversity is the foundation of all life on Earth. There would be no air to breathe, no
food to eat, and no water to drink if there were no species. There would be no such thing
as human society.
 Hotspots are critical to human survival because they are the places on Earth where the
most biodiversity is under threat.
 The map of hotspots overlaps extremely well with the map of natural places that benefit
people the most.
 Hotspots are home to some of the world's richest and most important ecosystems, as well
as many vulnerable populations who rely on nature for survival.
 It is not only covering 2.5 percent of the Earth's land surface, hotspot forests, wetlands,
and other ecosystems but also provide 35 percent of the "ecosystem services" on which
vulnerable human populations rely.

India as a Mega Biodiversity Nation

A mega-biodiverse nation is a country that harbors a high level of biodiversity, including a

significant percentage of endemic species (species found nowhere else in the world). India is
recognized as a mega-biodiverse nation, holding a significant portion of the world's species
diversity.

India's Biodiversity:

 India is home to 7-8% of the world's recorded species, despite having only 2.4%
of the world's land area.

 It boasts over 45,000 plant species and 91,000 animal species.

  India has 4 of the 34 globally identified biodiversity hotspots: the Himalayas, the
Western Ghats, the Indo-Burma region, and Sundaland (including the Nicobar
Islands).

Biodiversity Hotspots in India:

 Himalayas: A region of high mountain biodiversity, including a wide range of

ecosystems and species.

 Western Ghats: A mountain range on the western coast of India, known for its
rich biodiversity, including endemic species of flora and fauna.

 Indo-Burma: A region that spans parts of India, Myanmar, and other countries,
characterized by high levels of biodiversity and endemism.

 Sundaland: An area encompassing the Nicobar Islands, known for its unique
ecosystems and species.

 Threats to Biodiversity:

 Habitat loss and fragmentation are major threats to India's biodiversity.

 Climate change also poses a significant challenge.

Endangered and Endemic Species of India

India boasts a rich biodiversity, but many species face extinction due to habitat loss, poaching,
and other threats. Some notable endangered and endemic species include the Nilgiri Tahr, Lion-
tailed macaque, and the Great Indian Bustard.

Endangered Species

 Asiatic Lion: Found only in Gir Forest in Gujarat, this subspecies is critically
endangered due to habitat loss and poaching.
 Bengal Tiger: While the most numerous tiger subspecies, it's still endangered due to
habitat loss and poaching.
 Indian Elephant: Habitat loss and fragmentation due to human encroachment are major
threats to this iconic species.
 Great Indian Bustard: This critically endangered bird is found in the grasslands of the
Indian subcontinent.
 Pygmy Hog: The world's smallest and rarest wild pig, it's critically endangered due to
habitat loss and hunting.
  Snow Leopard: Found in the Himalayas, this species is threatened by habitat loss and
poaching.

 Himalayan Ibex: This mountain goat is found in the high altitude regions of the
Himalayas and is threatened by hunting and habitat loss.

Endemic Species:
 Lion-tailed Macaque: A primate endemic to the Western Ghats, it's endangered due to
habitat loss.
 Nilgiri Tahr: This wild mountain goat is endemic to the hills of the Western Ghats.
 Malabar Civet: A critically endangered mammal endemic to the Western Ghats.
 Kashmiri Red Stag (Hangul): Found in Kashmir, this species is critically endangered
due to habitat loss and hunting.
 Sangai (Brow-antlered Deer): An endemic and endangered subspecies of deer found
only in Manipur.
 Indian Purple Frog: An amphibian endemic to the Western Ghats, it's endangered due
to habitat loss.
 Forest Owlet: A highly endangered owl species endemic to forests of central India.

Threats to Biodiversity
The main threats to biodiversity include habitat loss and degradation, climate change, pollution,
overexploitation, and invasive species, all of which are often exacerbated by human activities
and population growth.
Habitat Loss and Fragmentation:
This is arguably the most significant threat, as it directly reduces the space available for species
to live and thrive. The breaking up of large, continuous habitats into smaller, isolated patches can
limit species movement, reduce genetic diversity, and increase vulnerability to extinction.
Poaching of Wildlife:
Poaching, the illegal hunting and killing of wildlife, poses a significant threat to biodiversity by
decreasing populations of targeted species, disrupting ecosystems, and potentially leading to
their extinction. It drives the illegal wildlife trade, a lucrative form of organized crime that often
targets species for their body parts used in traditional medicine or for personal gain.

Overexploitation:
The unsustainable harvesting of natural resources, including wildlife, can lead to population
declines and even extinction.
 Poaching and Wildlife Trade: The illegal hunting and trade of wildlife for their
parts or products can drive species to the brink of extinction.
 Unsustainable Fishing: Overfishing can deplete fish populations and disrupt
marine ecosystems.
Biological Invasion
The introduction of non-native species can outcompete native species, disrupt ecosystems, and
even lead to extinctions.
 Accidental Introductions: Species can be transported to new areas through trade,
tourism, or other means, where they can become invasive.
  Hybridization: Invasive species can hybridize with native species, leading to a
loss of genetic diversity.

Other Threats:
 Population Growth: Increased human population puts more pressure on natural
resources and habitats.
 Disease: Emerging and re-emerging diseases can decimate wildlife populations.
 Agriculture: Intensive agriculture can lead to habitat loss, pollution, and
overexploitation of resources.

Human Wildlife conflicts (case studies)

Human-wildlife conflict occurs when the needs and behavior of wildlife negatively impact
human interests, and vice versa. This can manifest in various ways, including livestock
predation, crop raiding, property damage, and even human injury or death. Case studies from
India, particularly in states like Kerala, Uttarakhand, Himachal Pradesh, and Karnataka, highlight
the severity and complexity of these conflicts.

Case Studies:
 Kerala:
Kerala, known for its high elephant population, faces significant human-elephant
conflict. Elephants raid crops, destroy property, and occasionally attack humans. The state has
implemented some measures to mitigate the conflict, but it remains a major concern.
 Manas National Park, Assam:
This area experiences a variety of human-wildlife conflicts, including livestock predation, crop
raiding, and even human and wildlife deaths. The close proximity of villages to the park
exacerbates the problem.

 Garhwal and Kumaon, Uttarakhand:

In this region, human-leopard conflict is particularly severe, leading to frequent human injuries
and deaths. The region's unique geography and the increasing encroachment of humans into
leopard habitats contribute to the problem.
 Uttarakhand:
Uttarakhand has seen a significant increase in man-animal conflict, including leopard attacks, in
recent years. The state has been on high alert due to a surge in incidents.
 Karnataka:
Karnataka is another state grappling with intense man-animal conflict, with numerous human
deaths and injuries reported annually. The state's forest department has documented the issue.

Key Factors Contributing to Conflict:

 Habitat Loss and Fragmentation:
As human populations grow and agricultural land expands, wildlife habitats are reduced and
fragmented, leading to increased conflict as animals seek food and shelter closer to human
settlements.
 Urbanization:
The expansion of urban areas into wildlife corridors further exacerbates the problem, as wildlife
encounters with humans become more frequent.
 Climate Change:
Climate change can impact wildlife behavior and distribution, leading to increased conflict as
animals adapt to changing conditions.
 Economic Factors:
Livelihood losses due to livestock predation or crop raiding can fuel resentment towards wildlife
and contribute to retaliatory actions.
 Lack of Awareness and Education:
A lack of understanding about wildlife behavior and potential conflict areas can lead to human
injuries and unnecessary retaliations.

Conservation of Biodiversity
Conservation of biodiversity is protection, uplift and scientific management of
biodiversity so as to maintain it at its optimum level and derive sustainable benefits for the
present and future generation.
The conservation of biological diversity has become a global concern. There are two
types of conservation strategies: In situ and Ex situ conservation.
In situ Conservation
Conserving the plant and animal species in their natural habitats is known as in situ
conservation. This includes the establishment of National parks, Sanctuaries, Biosphere Reserve.
National Parks
 They are areas maintained by government and reserved for betterment of wildlife.
 Cultivation, grazing, forestry, and habitat manipulation are not allowed
 There are 106 existing national parks in India. The first national park of India was Jim
Corbett National Park,
Sanctuaries
 They are tracts of land with or without lake where wild animals/fauna can take refuge
without being hunted.
 Other activities like collection of forest products, harvesting of timber, private ownership
of land etc. are allowed.
 India has 567 existing wildlife sanctuaries.
Biosphere Reserve
  They are multipurpose protected areas which are meant for preserving genetic diversity
and unique biological communities by protecting wild populations, traditional life style of
tribals and domesticated plant/ animal resources.
 There are now 18 biosphere reserve in India. The Nilgiris Biosphere Reserve is the first
Biosphere Reserve in India.
Ex Situ Conservation
 It is conservation of selected rare plant/ animals in places outside their natural homes
with a special setting where they can be protected and given special care. Ex: Zoological
parks, Botanical Garden, Wildlife Safari Parks.
 In recent years, ex situ conservation has advanced beyond keeping threatened species in
enclosures.
 Now gametes of threatened species can be preserved in viable and fertile conditions for
long periods using cryopreservation techniques (preservation at -196◦C)
 Eggs can be fertilized in vitro and plants can be propagated using tissue culture methods.
 Seeds of different strains of commercially important plants can be kept for long periods
in seed banks.