C H A P T E R 6

Starting

6.1 Requirements of the starting system

6.1.1 Engine starting requirements
An internal combustion engine requires the following criteria in order to start
and continue running:
•  ombustible mixture.
C
• Compression stroke.
• A form of ignition.
•• The minimum starting speed (about 100 rpm).

In order to produce the first three of these, the minimum starting speed must
be achieved. This is where the electric starter comes in. The ability to reach
this minimum speed is dependent on a number of factors:
• R  ated voltage of the starting system.
• Lowest possible temperature at which it must still be possible to start the
engine. This is known as the starting limit temperature.
• Engine cranking resistance. In other words, the torque required to crank the
engine at its starting limit temperature (including the initial stalled torque).
• Battery characteristics.
• Voltage drop between the battery and the starter.
• Starter-to-ring gear ratio.
• Characteristics of the starter.
•• Minimum cranking speed of the engine at the starting limit temperature.
Key fact
The starter is an isolated component within the vehicle electrical system, as
As temperature decreases,
Figure 6.2 shows. The battery in particular is of prime importance. starter torque decreases and
Another particularly important consideration in relation to engine starting the torque required to crank the
requirements is the starting limit temperature. Figure 6.3 shows how, as engine to its minimum speed
increases.
temperature decreases, starter torque also decreases and the torque required
to crank the engine to its minimum speed increases.
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Figure 6.1 Honda starter motor

Figure 6.2 Starting system as part of the complete electrical system

Figure 6.3 Starter torque and engine cranking torque

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Typical starting limit temperatures are –18°C to –25°C for passenger cars and
–15°C to –20°C for trucks and buses. Figures from starter manufacturers are
normally quoted at both –20°C and +20°C.

6.1.2 Starting system design

The starting system of any vehicle must meet a number of criteria in excess of
the eight listed above.
• L ong service life and maintenance free.
• Continuous readiness to operate.
• Robust, such as to withstand starting forces, vibration, corrosion and
temperature cycles.
• Lowest possible size and weight.
Figure 6.4 shows the starting system general layout. It is important to
determine the minimum cranking speed for the particular engine. This varies
considerably with the design and type of engine. Some typical values are given
in Table 6.1 for a temperature of 20°C.
The rated voltage of the system for passenger cars is, almost without exception,
12 V. Trucks and buses are generally 24 V as this allows the use of half the
current that would be required with a 12 V system to produce the same power.
It will also considerably reduce the voltage drop in the wiring, as the length of
wires used on commercial vehicles is often greater than passenger cars.
The rated output of a starter motor can be determined on a test bench. A battery
of maximum capacity for the starter, which has a 20% drop in capacity at 20°C,
is connected to the starter by a cable with a resistance of 1 mΩ. These criteria

Figure 6.4 Starter system general layout

Table 6.1 Typical minimum cranking speeds

Engine Minimum cranking speed (rpm)

Reciprocating spark ignition 60–90
Rotary spark ignition 150–180
Diesel with glow plugs 60–140
Diesel without glow plugs 100–200
248 Starting

will ensure the starter is able to operate even under the most adverse conditions.
The actual output of the starter can now be measured under typical operating
conditions. The rated power of the motor corresponds to the power drawn from the
battery less copper losses (due to the resistance of the circuit), iron losses (due to
eddy currents being induced in the iron parts of the motor) and friction losses.
Figure 6.5 shows an equivalent circuit for a starter and battery. This indicates
how the starter output is very much determined by line resistance and battery
internal resistance. The lower the total circuit resistance is, then the higher the
output from the starter.

Figure 6.5 Equivalent circuit for starter system

There are two other considerations when designing a starting system. The
location of the starter on the engine is usually pre-determined, but the position
of the battery must be considered. Other constraints may determine this, but
if the battery is closer to the starter the cables will be shorter. A longer run will
mean cables with a greater cross-section are needed to ensure a low resistance.
Depending on the intended use of the vehicle, special sealing arrangements on
the starter may be necessary to prevent the ingress of contaminants. Starters are
available designed with this in mind. This may be appropriate for off-road vehicles.

6.1.3 Choosing a starter motor

As a guide, the starter motor must meet all the criteria previously discussed.
Referring back to Figure 6.3 (the data showing engine cranking torque compared
with minimum cranking speed) will determine the torque required from the starter.
Manufacturers of starter motors provide data in the form of characteristic
Key fact curves. These are discussed in more detail in the next section. The data will
Manufacturers of starter motors show the torque, speed, power and current consumption of the starter at
provide data in the form of –20°C and +20°C. The power rating of the motor is quoted as the maximum
characteristic curves.
output at 20°C using the recommended battery.
As a very general guide the stalled (locked) starter torque required per litre of
engine capacity at the starting limit temperature is as shown in Table 6.2.
A greater torque is required for engines with a lower number of cylinders due
to the greater piston displacement per cylinder. This will determine the peak
torque values. The other main factor is compression ratio.
To illustrate the link between torque and power, we can assume that, under
the worst conditions (20°C), a four-cylinder 2-litre engine requires 480 Nm to
overcome static friction and 160 Nm to maintain the minimum cranking speed
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Table 6.2 Torque required for various engine sizes

Engine cylinders Torque per litre

2 12.5 Nm
4 8.0 Nm
6 6.5 Nm
8 6.0 Nm
12 5.5 Nm

Figure 6.6 Power output of the starter compared with engine size

of 100 rev/ min. With a starter pinion-to-ring gear ratio of 10 : 1, the motor
must therefore, be able to produce a maximum stalled torque of 48 Nm and a Key fact
driving torque of 16 Nm. This is working on the assumption that stalled torque Starter motor stalled torque is
is generally three to four times the cranking torque. generally three to four times
the cranking torque.
A greater torque is required for engines with a lower number of cylinders due
to the greater piston displacement per cylinder. This will determine the peak
torque values. The other main factor is compression ratio.
To illustrate the link between torque and power if we assume that under the worst
o
conditions (–20 C) a four-cylinder 2-litre engine requires 240 Nm to overcome static
friction and 80 Nm to maintain the minimum cranking speed of 100 rpm. With a
starter pinion to ring gear ratio of 10:1 the motor must therefore, be able to produce
a maximum stalled torque of 24 Nm and a driving torque of 8 Nm. This is working on
the assumption that stalled torque is generally three to four times cranking torque.
Torque is converted to power as follows:
P = Tw
where: P = power, T = torque, ω = angular velocity,
2 n
ω=
60
where: n = rpm.
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In this example the power developed at 1000 rpm with a torque of 8 Nm (at the
starter), is about 840 W. Referring back to Figure 6.6 the ideal choice would
appear to be the starter marked (c).
The maximum permissible recommended battery would be 55 Ah and 255 A
cold start performance.

6.2 Starter motors and circuits

6.2.1 Starting system circuits
In comparison with most other circuits on the modern vehicle, the starter circuit
is very simple. The problem to be overcome, however, is that of volt drop in the
main supply wires. The starter is usually operated by a spring-loaded key switch,
and the same switch also controls the ignition and accessories. The supply from
Key fact the key switch, via a relay in many cases, causes the starter solenoid to operate,
The volt drop in the main and this in turn, by a set of contacts, controls the heavy current. In some cases
starter supply wires must be an extra terminal on the starter solenoid provides an output when cranking,
kept to a minimum.
which is usually used to bypass a dropping resistor on the ignition or fuel pump
circuits. The basic circuit for the starting system is shown in Figure 6.7.
The problem of volt drop in the main supply circuit is due to the high current
required by the starter, particularly under adverse starting conditions such as
very low temperatures.
Key fact A typical cranking current for a light vehicle engine is of the order of 100 to 150 A,
A typical cranking current for but this may peak in excess of 500 A to provide the initial stalled torque. It is
a light vehicle engine is of the generally accepted that a maximum volt drop of only 0.5 V should be allowed
order of 100 to 150 A, but this between the battery and the starter when operating. An Ohm’s law calculation
may peak in excess of 500 A to indicates that the maximum allowed circuit resistance is 2.5 m when using a 12 V
provide the initial stalled torque.
supply. This is a worst case situation and lower resistance values are used in
most applications. The choice of suitable conductors is therefore very important.

6.2.2 Example circuits

The circuit shown in Figure 6.8 is from a Ford vehicle fitted with manual or
automatic transmission. The inhibitor circuits will only allow the starter to
operate when the automatic transmission is in ‘park’ or ‘neutral’. Similarly for the
manual version, the starter will only operate if the clutch pedal is depressed.

Figure 6.7 Basic starting circuit

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Figure 6.8 Starter circuit as used by Ford (Source: Ford Motor Company)
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The starter relay coil is supplied with the positive connection by the key switch.
The earth path is connected through the appropriate inhibitor switch. To
prevent starter operation when the engine is running the power control module
(EEC V) controls the final earth path of the relay.
A resistor fitted across the relay coil reduces back EMF. The starter in current
use is a standard pre-engaged, permanent magnet motor.
Starter motor circuits may have additional automatic switching to prevent the
engine being started in particular situations. Automatic transmission systems
incorporate an inhibitor switch on the gear selector, which allows engine
starting in the park and neutral positions only. This prevents the engine being
started with the transmission in gear, which could result in the vehicle pulling
away unexpectedly. The inhibitor switch must be carefully checked and
adjusted so that there is no risk of incorrect operation.
In the diagram shown as Figure 6.9, the powertrain control module (PCM)
allows the engine to start, only when the passive anti-theft system (PATS)
Key fact reads a key which transmits a valid code. On a key-free vehicle, the passive
On a key-free system the key- key is recognized by the key-free module and if the key is valid the permission
free module switches on the to start is issued directly. On vehicles with a manual transmission it is
control voltage for the starter necessary to depress the clutch pedal; on those with automatic transmission
relay.
the brake pedal must be pressed. On a key-free system the key-free module
switches on the control voltage for the starter relay.

Figure 6.9 Keyless starting system 1-Keylesss vehicle module, 2-Start/stop button,
3-Electronic steering lock, 4-Powertrain control module, 5-Crank sensor, 6-Keyless
vehicle antenna, 7-Vehicles with manual transmission: Clutch pedal position switch
/ vehicles with automatic transmission: Stoplamp switch, 8-The TR sensor, 9-Starter
relay, 10-Starter motor, 11-Battery (Source: Ford Motor Company)
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The PCM switches the ground in the control circuit of the starter relay, which
then connects power through to the starter solenoid. As soon as the speed
of the engine has reached 750 rpm or the maximum permitted start time of
30 seconds has been exceeded, the PCM switches off the starter relay and
therefore the starter motor. This protects the starter. If the engine does not turn
or turns only slowly, the starting process is aborted by the PCM.

6.2.3 Starter circuit testing

The process of checking a 12 V starting system operation is as follows (tests
3 to 8 are all carried out while trying to crank the engine).
1. Battery (at least 70%).
2. Hand and eye checks.
3. Battery volts (minimum 10 V).
4. Solenoid lead (same as battery).
5. Starter voltage (no more than 0.5 V less than battery).
6. Insulated line volt drop (maximum 0.25 V).
7. Solenoid contacts volt drop (almost 0 V).
8. Earth line volt drop (maximum 0.25 V).

The idea of these tests is to see if the circuit is supplying all the available voltage
to the starter. If it is, then the starter is at fault, if not then the circuit is at fault.
If the starter is found to be defective then a replacement unit is the normal
recommendation. Figure 6.10 explains the procedure used by Bosch to ensure

Figure 6.10 Quality starter overhaul procedure

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Table 6.3 Common starting system symptoms and faults

Symptom Possible fault

Engine does not Battery connection loose or corroded
rotate when trying to Battery discharged or faulty
start Broken loose or disconnected wiring in the starter
circuit
Defective starter switch or automatic gearbox
inhibitor switch
Starter pinion or flywheel ring gear loose
Earth strap broken. Loose or corroded
Starter noisy Starter pinion or flywheel ring gear loose
Starter mounting bolts loose
Starter worn (bearings etc.)
Discharged battery (starter may jump in and out)
Starter turns engine Discharged battery (slow rotation)
slowly Battery terminals loose or corroded
Earth strap or starter supply loose or disconnected
High resistance in supply or earth circuit
Internal starter fault

quality exchange units. Repairs are possible but only if the general state of the
motor is good.
Table 6.3 lists some common symptoms of a charging system malfunction
together with suggestions for the possible fault.

6.2.4 Principle of operation

The simple definition of any motor is a machine to convert electrical energy into
Definition mechanical energy. The starter motor is no exception. When current flows through
Motor: A machine to convert a conductor placed in a magnetic field, a force is created acting on the conductor
electrical energy into relative to the field. The magnitude of this force is proportional to the field strength,
mechanical energy.
the length of the conductor in the field and the current flowing in the conductor.
In any DC motor, the single conductor is of no practical use and so the
conductor is shaped into a loop or many loops to form the armature. A many-
segment commutator allows contact via brushes to the supply current.
The force on the conductor is created due to the interaction of the main
magnetic field and the field created around the conductor. In a light vehicle
starter motor, the main field was traditionally created by heavy duty series
windings wound around soft iron pole shoes. Due to improvements in
magnet technology, permanent magnet fields allowing a smaller and lighter
construction are replacing wire-wound fields. The strength of the magnetic field
created around the conductors in the armature is determined by the value of
the current flowing. The principle of a DC motor is shown in Figure 6.11.
Most starter designs use a four-pole four-brush system. Using four field poles
concentrates the magnetic field in four areas as shown in Figure 6.12. The
magnetism is created in one of three ways, permanent magnets, series field
Key fact windings or series-parallel field windings.
Most starter designs use a Figure 6.13 shows the circuits of the two methods where field windings are
four-pole four-brush system.
used. The series–parallel fields can be constructed with a lower resistance
thereby increasing the current and hence torque of the motor. Four brushes
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Figure 6.11 Interaction of two magnetic fields results in rotation when a commutator is
used to reserve the supply each half turn

are used to carry the heavy current. The brushes are made of a mixture of
copper and carbon, as is the case for most motor or generator brushes. Starter
brushes have a higher copper content to minimize electrical losses. Figure Key fact
6.14 shows some typical field coils with brushes attached. The field windings Starter brushes are a mixture
on the right are known as wave wound. of copper and carbon, as is the
case for most motor or
The armature consists of a segmented copper commutator and heavy duty generator brushes – but with
copper windings. The windings on a motor armature can, broadly speaking, more copper to lower the
be wound in two ways. These are known as lap winding and wave winding. resistance.
Figure 6.15 shows the difference between these two methods. Starter motors
tend to use wave winding as this technique gives the most appropriate torque
and speed characteristic for a four-pole system.
A starter must also have some method of engaging with, and release from, the
vehicle’s flywheel ring gear. In the case of light vehicle starters, this is achieved
either by an inertia-type engagement or a pre-engagement method. These are
both discussed further in subsequent sections.

Figure 6.12 Four-pole magnetic field

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Figure 6.13 Starter internal circuits

Figure 6.14 Typical field coils and brushes

Figure 6.15 Typical lap and wave wound armature circuits

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Figure 6.17 Shunt wound motor

(parallel wound)
Figure 6.16 Speed and torque characteristics of DC motors

6.2.5 DC motor characteristics

It is possible to design a motor with characteristics that are most suitable for
a particular task. For a comparison between the main types of DC motor, the
speed–torque characteristics are shown in Figure 6.16. The four main types
of motor are referred to as shunt wound, series wound, compound wound and
permanent magnet excitation.
In shunt wound motors, the field winding is connected in parallel with the
armature as shown in Figure 6.17. Due to the constant excitation of the fields,
the speed of this motor remains constant, virtually independent of torque. Figure 6.18 Series wound DC motor
Series wound motors have the field and armature connected in series. Because
of this method of connection, the armature current passes through the fields
making it necessary for the field windings to consist usually of only a few turns
of heavy wire. When this motor starts under load the high initial current, due to
low resistance and no back EMF, generates a very strong magnetic field and Key fact
therefore high initial torque. This characteristic makes the series wound motor Series wound motors have the
ideal as a starter motor. Figure 6.18 shows the circuit of a series wound motor. field and armature connected
in series.
The compound wound motor, as shown in Figure 6.19, is a combination of
shunt and series wound motors. Depending on how the field windings are
connected, the characteristics can vary. The usual variation is where the
shunt winding is connected, which is either across the armature or across the
armature and series winding. Large starter motors are often compound wound
and can be operated in two stages. The first stage involves the shunt winding
being connected in series with the armature. This unusual connection allows
for low meshing torque due to the resistance of the shunt winding. When the
pinion of the starter is fully in mesh with the ring gear, a set of contacts causes
the main supply to be passed through the series winding and armature giving
full torque. The shunt winding will now be connected in parallel and will act in
such a way as to limit the maximum speed of the motor.
Permanent magnet motors are smaller and simpler compared with the other
three discussed. Field excitation, as the name suggests, is by permanent Figure 6.19 Compound wound motor
magnet. This excitation will remain constant under all operating conditions.
Figure 6.20 shows the accepted representation for this type of motor.
The characteristics of this type of motor are broadly similar to the shunt wound
motors. However, when one of these types is used as a starter motor, the
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Figure 6.20 Permanent magnet motor

Figure 6.21 Starter motor characteristic curves

drop in battery voltage tends to cause the motor to behave in a similar way to
a series wound machine. In some cases though, the higher speed and lower
torque characteristic are enhanced by using an intermediate transmission
gearbox inside the starter motor.
Information on particular starters is provided in the form of characteristic
Key fact curves. Figure 6.21 shows the details for a typical light vehicle starter motor.
Note that the maximum power of This graph shows how the speed of the motor varies with load. Owing to the very
a starter motor is developed at high speeds developed under no load conditions, it is possible to damage this
midrange speed but maximum type of motor. Running off load due to the high centrifugal forces on the armature
torque is at zero speed.
may cause the windings to be destroyed. Note that the maximum power of this
motor is developed at midrange speed but maximum torque is at zero speed.

6.3 Types of starter motor

6.3.1 Inertia starters
In all standard motor vehicle applications it is necessary to connect the starter
to the engine ring gear only during the starting phase. If the connection
remained permanent, the excessive speed at which the starter would be driven
by the engine would destroy the motor almost immediately.
The inertia type of starter motor (Figure 6.22) has been the technique used
for over 80 years, but is now becoming redundant. It is a four-pole, four-brush
machine and was used on small to medium-sized petrol engined vehicles. It is
capable of producing 9.6 Nm with a current draw of 350 A. The motor shown
uses a face-type commutator and axially aligned brush gear. The fields are
wave wound and are earthed to the starter yoke.
The starter engages with the flywheel ring gear by means of a small pinion.
The toothed pinion and a sleeve splined on to the armature shaft are threaded
such that when the starter is operated, via a remote relay, the armature will
Figure 6.22 Inertia type starter cause the sleeve to rotate inside the pinion. The pinion remains still due to
 Starting 259

its inertia and, because of the screwed sleeve rotating inside it, the pinion is
moved to mesh with the ring gear.
When the engine fires and runs under its own power, the pinion is driven faster
than the armature shaft. This causes the pinion to be screwed back along the
sleeve and out of engagement with the flywheel. The main spring acts as a
buffer when the pinion first takes up the driving torque and also acts as a buffer
when the engine throws the pinion back out of mesh.
One of the main problems with this type of starter was the aggressive nature
of the engagement. This tended to cause the pinion and ring gear to wear
prematurely. In some applications the pinion tended to fall out of mesh when
cranking due to the engine almost, but not quite, running. The pinion was also
prone to seizure often due to contamination by dust from the clutch. This was
often compounded by application of oil to the pinion mechanism, which tended
to attract even more dust and thus prevent engagement.
The pre-engaged starter motor has largely overcome these problems.

6.3.2 Pre-engaged starters

Pre-engaged starters are fitted to the majority of vehicles in use today. A cutaway
pre-engaged starter is shown as Figure 6.23. This type of starter provides a
positive engagement with the ring gear, as full power is not applied until the
pinion is fully in mesh. They prevent premature ejection as the pinion is held into
mesh by the action of a solenoid. A one-way clutch is incorporated into the pinion
to prevent the starter motor being driven by the engine. One example of a pre-
engaged starter similar to many in common use is shown in Figure 6.24.
Figure 6.25 shows the circuit associated with operating this type of pre-engaged
starter. The basic operation of the pre-engaged starter is as follows. When
the key switch is operated, a supply is made to terminal 50 on the solenoid.
This causes two windings to be energized, the hold-on winding and the pull-in
winding. Note that the pull-in winding is of very low resistance and hence a high
current flows. This winding is connected in series with the motor circuit and the
current flowing will allow the motor to rotate slowly to facilitate engagement. At
the same time, the magnetism created in the solenoid attracts the plunger and,
via an operating lever, pushes the pinion into mesh with the flywheel ring gear.

Figure 6.23 Pre-engaged starter

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Figure 6.24 Bosch starter

Figure 6.25 Starter circuit

When the pinion is fully in mesh the plunger, at the end of its travel, causes
a heavy-duty set of copper contacts to close. These contacts now supply full
battery power to the main circuit of the starter motor. When the main contacts
are closed, the pull-in winding is effectively switched off due to equal voltage
supply on both ends. The hold-on winding holds the plunger in position as long
as the solenoid is supplied from the key switch.
When the engine starts and the key is released, the main supply is removed
and the plunger and pinion return to their rest positions under spring tension. A
lost motion spring located on the plunger ensures that the main contacts open
before the pinion is retracted from mesh.
During engagement, if the teeth of the pinion hit the teeth of the flywheel
Key fact
(tooth to tooth abutment), the main contacts are allowed to close due to the
The purpose of the free- engagement spring being compressed. This allows the motor to rotate under
wheeling device is to prevent
the starter being driven at an power and the pinion will slip into mesh.
excessively high speed if the Figure 6.26 shows a sectioned view of a one-way clutch assembly. The torque
pinion is held in mesh after the developed by the starter is passed through the clutch to the ring gear. The
engine has started.
purpose of this free-wheeling device is to prevent the starter being driven at an
excessively high speed if the pinion is held in mesh after the engine has started.

Figure 6.26 One-way roller clutch drive pinion

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The clutch consists of a driving and driven member with several rollers between
the two. The rollers are spring loaded and either wedge-lock the two members
together by being compressed against the springs, or free-wheel in the opposite
direction.
Many variations of the pre-engaged starter are in common use, but all work on
similar lines to the above description. The wound field type of motor has now
largely been replaced by the permanent magnet version.

6.3.3 Permanent magnet starters

Permanent magnet starters began to appear on production vehicles in the late
1980s. The two main advantages of these motors, compared with conventional
types, are less weight and smaller size. This makes the permanent magnet
starter a popular choice by vehicle manufacturers as, due to the lower lines
of today’s cars, less space is now available for engine electrical systems. The
reduction in weight provides a contribution towards reducing fuel consumption.
The principle of operation is similar in most respects to the conventional pre-
engaged starter motor. The main difference being the replacement of field windings
and pole shoes with high quality permanent magnets. The reduction in weight is in
the region of 15% and the diameter of the yoke can be reduced by a similar factor.
Permanent magnets provide constant excitation and it would be reasonable to
expect the speed and torque characteristic to be constant.
However, due to the fall in battery voltage under load and the low resistance
of the armature windings, the characteristic is comparable to series wound
motors. In some cases, flux concentrating pieces or interpoles are used
between the main magnets. Due to the warping effect of the magnetic field, this
tends to make the characteristic curve very similar to that of the series motor.
Development by some manufacturers has also taken place in the construction
of the brushes. A copper and graphite mix is used but the brushes are made
in two parts allowing a higher copper content in the power zone and a higher
graphite content in the commutation zone. This results in increased service
life and a reduction in voltage drop, giving improved starter power. Figure 6.28
shows a modern permanent magnet (PM) starter.
For applications with a higher power requirement, permanent magnet motors
with intermediate transmission have been developed. These allow the

Figure 6.27 Cutaway view of a permanent magnet starter

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Figure 6.28 Permanent magnet starter (Source: Bosch Media)

armature to rotate at a higher and more efficient speed whilst still providing the
torque, due to the gear reduction. Permanent magnet starters with intermediate
Key fact transmission are available with power outputs of about 1.7 kW and are
For applications with a higher suitable for spark ignition engines up to about 3 litres, or compression ignition
power requirement, permanent engines up to about 1.6 litres. This form of permanent magnet motor can give
magnet motors with a weight saving of up to 40%. The principle of operation is again similar to the
intermediate transmission have
been developed. conventional pre-engaged starter. The intermediate transmission, as shown in
Figures 6.29 and 6.30, is of the epicyclic type.
The sun gear is on the armature shaft and the planet carrier drives the pinion.
The ring gear or annulus remains stationary and also acts as an intermediate
bearing. This arrangement of gears gives a reduction ratio of about 5 : 1. This
can be calculated by the formula:
Ratio = AS/S
where: A = number of teeth on the annulus, S = number of teeth on the sun gear.
The annulus gear in some types is constructed from a high grade polyamide
compound with mineral additives to improve strength and wear resistance. The
sun and planet gears are conventional steel. This combination of materials
gives a quieter and more efficient operation.

Figure 6.29 Starter motor intermediate

transmission

Figure 6.30 Pre-engaged starter internal components

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6.3.4 Integrated starters

A device called a ‘dynastart’ was used on a number of vehicles from the 1930s
through to the 1960s. This device was a combination of the starter and a
dynamo. The device, directly mounted on the crankshaft, was a compromise
and hence not very efficient.
The method is now known as an Integrated Starter Alternator Damper (ISAD).
It consists of an electric motor, which functions as a control element between
the engine and the transmission, and can also be used to start the engine and
deliver electrical power to the batteries and the rest of the vehicle systems. The
electric motor replaces the mass of the flywheel.
The motor transfers the drive from the engine and is also able to act as a
damper/vibration absorber unit. The damping effect is achieved by a rotation
capacitor. A change in relative speed between the rotor and the engine due to
the vibration, causes one pole of the capacitor to be charged. The effect of this
is to take the energy from the vibration.
Using ISAD to start the engine is virtually noiseless, and cranking speeds
of 700 rpm are possible. Even at –25°C it is still possible to crank at about
400 rpm. A good feature of this is that a stop/start function is possible as an
economy and emissions improvement technique. Because of the high speed
cranking, the engine will fire up in about 0.1–0.5 seconds.
The motor can also be used to aid with acceleration of the vehicle. This
feature could be used to allow a smaller engine to be used or to enhance the
performance of a standard engine. It is effectively a light hybrid.
When used in alternator mode, the ISAD can produce up to 2 kW at idle speed.
It can supply power at different voltages as both AC and DC. Through the
application of intelligent control electronics, the ISAD can be up to 80% efficient. Figure 6.31 Integrated starter alternator
damper (Source: Bosch Media)

6.3.5 Electronic starter control

The electronic starter incorporates a static relay on a circuit board integrated
into the solenoid switch. This will prevent cranking when the engine is running.
Starter control can be supported by an ECU and ‘smart’ features can be added
to improve comfort, safety and service life.
• S tarter torque can be evaluated in real time to tell the precise instant of
engine start. The starter can be simultaneously shut off to reduce wear and
noise generated by the free-wheel phase.
• Thermal protection of the starter components allows optimization of the
components to save weight and to give short circuit protection.
• Electrical protection also reduces damage from misuse or system failure.
• Modulating the solenoid current allows redesign of the mechanical parts
allowing a softer operation and weight reduction.

6.3.6 Starter installation

Starters are generally mounted in a horizontal position next to the engine
crankcase with the drive pinion in a position for meshing with the flywheel or
drive plate ring gear.
The starter can be secured in two ways: either by flange or cradle mounting.
Flange mounting is the most popular technique used on small and medium-
sized vehicles and, in some cases, it will incorporate a further support bracket
264 Starting

Figure 6.32 Flange mounting is used for most light vehicle starter motors

at the rear of the starter to reduce the effect of vibration. Larger vehicle starters
are often cradle mounted but again also use the flange mounting method,
usually fixed with at least three large bolts. In both cases the starters must
have some kind of pilot, often a ring machined on the drive end bracket, to
ensure correct positioning with respect to the ring gear. This will ensure correct
gear backlash and a suitable out of mesh clearance. Figure 6.32 shows the
flange mountings method used for most light vehicle starter motors.
Clearly the main load on the vehicle battery is the starter and this is reflected in
the size of supply cable required. Any cable carrying a current will experience
power loss known as I2R loss. In order to reduce this power loss, the current
or the resistance must be reduced. In the case of the starter the high current
Key fact is the only way of delivering the high torque. This is the reason for using heavy
Any cable carrying a current conductors to the starter to ensure low resistance, thus reducing the volt drop
will experience power loss and power loss. The maximum allowed volt drop is 0.5 V on a 12 V system and
known as I2R loss.
1 V on a 24 V system. The short circuit (initial) current for a typical car starter is
500 A and for very heavy applications can be 3000 A.
Control of the starter system is normally by a spring-loaded key switch. This
switch will control the current to the starter solenoid, in many cases via a relay.
On vehicles with automatic transmission, an inhibitor switch to prevent the
engine being started in gear will also interrupt this circuit.
Diesel engined vehicles may have a connection between the starter circuit and
a circuit to control the glow plugs. This may also incorporate a timer relay. On
some vehicles the glow plugs are activated by a switch position just before the
start position.

6.3.7 Belt-driven starter-generator

Gates, well known as manufacturers of drive belts, created a starter-generator
concept that is belt driven. It is an electromechanical system made up of a
high efficiency induction motor, long-life belt-drive system and sophisticated
electronic controls. The belt-driven starter-generator replaces the current
alternator and has a similar space requirement.
One of the key components of this system, in addition to the starter-generator
is a hydraulic tensioner. This must be able to prevent significant movement
during starting but also control system dynamics during acceleration and
 Starting 265

Figure 6.33 Belt-driven starter-generator concept (Source: Gates)

deceleration of the engine. The starter-generator is driven by a multi-vee belt,

which has been specially designed for the extra load.
The main features and potential benefits of this system are as follows:
• G enerating capability of 6 kW at 42 V and a brushless design for 10-year life.
• Regenerative braking and electric torque assist.
• Power for increased feature content and silent cranking at a lower system
cost than in-line starter-alternator systems.
• Allows implementation of fuel-saving strategies and emission reduction through
hybrid electric strategies, increased cranking speed and start–stop systems.
The starter-generator concept is not new but until recently it could not meet
the requirements of modern vehicles. These requirements relate to the starting
torque and the power generation capabilities. The biggest advantage of the
system under development is that it can be fitted to existing engine designs
with only limited modifications. It may, therefore, become a ‘stepping stone
technology’ that allows manufacturers to offer new features without the
expense of development and extensive redesigning.

6.3.8 Summary
The overall principle of starting a vehicle engine with an electric motor has
Key fact
changed little in over 80 years. Of course, the motors have become far more The modern starter is used
reliable and longer lasting. It is interesting to note that, assuming average mileage, about 2000 times a year in city
traffic.
the modern starter is used about 2000 times a year in city traffic! This level of
reliability has been achieved by many years of research and development.

6.4 Advanced starting system technology

6.4.1 Speed, torque and power
To understand the forces acting on a starter motor let us first consider a single
conducting wire in a magnetic field. The force on a single conductor in a
magnetic field can be calculated by the formula:
F = BIl
266 Starting

where: F = force in N, l = length of conductor in the field in m, B = magnetic

field strength in Wb/m2, I = current flowing in the conductor in amps.
Fleming’s left hand rule will serve to give the direction of the force (the
conductor is at 908 to the field).
This formula may be further developed to calculate stalled torque of a motor
with a number of armature windings as follows:
T = BIlrZ
where: T = torque in Nm, r = armature radius in m, Z = number of active
armature conductors.
This will only produce a result for stalled or lock torque because when a motor
is running a back emf is produced in the armature windings. This opposes the
applied voltage and hence reduces the current flowing in the armature winding.
In the case of a series wound starter motor this will also reduce the field
strength B. Armature current in a motor is given by the equation:

where: I = armature current in amps, V = applied voltage in volts, R = resistance

of the armature in ohms, e = total back emf in volts.
From the above is should be noted that, at the instant of applying a voltage to
the terminals of a motor the armature current will be at a maximum since the
back emf is zero. As soon as the speed increases so will back emf and hence
armature current will decrease. This is why a starter motor produces ‘maximum
torque at zero rpm’.
For any DC machine the back emf is given by:

where: e = back emf in volts, p = number of pairs of poles, φ = flux per pole in
Webers, n = speed in revs/second, Z = number of armature conductors, c = 2.p
for lap wound and 2 for a wave wound machine.
The formula can be re-written for calculating motor speed:

If the constants are removed from this formula it shows clearly the relationship
between field flux, speed and back emf.

To consider the magnetic flux (φ) it is necessary to differentiate between

permanent magnet starters and those using excitation via windings. Permanent
magnetism remains reasonably constant. The construction and design of the
magnet determine its strength. Flux density can be calculated as follows:

(Units: T (tesla) or Wb/m2)

where: A = area of the pole perpendicular to the flux.
 Starting 267

Pole shoes with windings are more complicated as the flux density depends
on the material of the pole shoe as well as the coil and the current flowing. The
magneto-motive force (MMF) of a coil is determined as follows:

MMF = NI Ampere turns

where: N = the number of turns on the coil, I = the current flowing in the coil.
Magnetic field strength H, requires the active length of the coil to be included:

where: l = active length of the coil, H = magnetic field strength.

In order to convert this to flux density B, the permeability of the pole shoe must
be included:

where: µ0 = permeability of free space (4 x 10–7 Henry/metre), µr = relative

permeability of the core to free space.
To calculate power consumed is a simple task using the formula:
P = Tω
where: P = power in watts, T = torque in Nm, ω = angular velocity in rad/s.
Here is a simple example of the use of this formula. An engine requires a
minimum cranking speed of 100 rpm and the required torque to achieve this
is 9.6 Nm.
At a 10:1 ring gear to pinion ratio this will require a 1000 rpm starter speed (n).
To convert this to rad/s:

This works out to 105 rad/s

P = Tω
9.6 x 105 = 1000 W or 1 kW

6.4.2 Efficiency
The efficiency of most starter motors is in the order of 60%.
Efficiency = Power out / Power in (3 100%)
So, to calculate the required input power: 1 kW/60% = 1.67 kW
The main losses, which cause this, are iron losses, copper losses and
mechanical losses.
Iron losses are due to hysteresis loss caused by changes in magnetic flux, and
also due to induced eddy currents in the iron parts of the motor. Copper losses
are caused by the resistance of the windings; sometimes called I2R losses.
Mechanical losses include friction and windage (air) losses.
Using the previous example of a 1 kW starter it can be seen that at an
efficiency of 60% this motor will require a supply of about 1.7 kW.
From a nominal 12 V supply and allowing for battery volt drop, a current in the
order of 170 A will be required to achieve the necessary power.
268 Starting

6.5 Updates
6.5.1 Electronic starter motor control and
stop-start system
An electronically controlled starting system differs from a normal system in that
the driver is not in direct control. The driver sends a ‘start’ request to an ECU,
which then in turn can carry out several different checks. For example:
• Is the driver authorized to start the engine?
• Is the engine stationary?
• Is battery state of charge adequate at the current temperature?
• Is the clutch disengaged or is the automatic transmission in neutral?
The checks only take a fraction of a second after which the ECU initiates the
start. Once a set engine speed has been reached the starter is switched off.
This always ensures the shortest possible start time and reduces starter wear.
A similar process can be used for start-stop operation.
Stop-start systems were mostly used on cars with manual transmission
but it is now possible to achieve the same feature to work with automatic
transmission. The benefit of this system is 5% or more reduction in CO2 and
fuel consumption in urban traffic. Almost all European automakers are now
integrating stop-start technology into compact cars, premium sedans, light
trucks and even in powerful sports cars. Interest in this fuel-saving technology
is also on the rise in the US and China.
To ensure reliable operation a high degree of control of other systems is
necessary. For example, electrical energy management that incorporates
battery charge detection. Measures such as a DC–DC converter may also be
needed to stabilize the supply to other electrical systems during the voltage
drop caused by the starter. Engine systems must also be optimized to ensure a
fast start and finally the starter and ring gear components must be enhanced to
not wear out prematurely.

Figure 6.34 Automatic starting circuit: 1. Start signal from driver, 2. Relay, 3. Other
input signals. 4. Park/neutral or clutch signal, 5. Starter, 6. ECU (Terminal 15 is ignition
live and 30 is battery live)
 Starting 269

Stop-start systems, which largely use existing components such as the starter
motor and engine control unit, can be quickly and cost-effectively adapted to
different engines and vehicles. Therefore, this starter motor based method has Key fact
now become very popular. Efficient generators that charge the battery as fast Stop-start systems can be
as possible are an ideal addition to their systems, since they allow the function quickly and cost-effectively
to be used more often. adapted to different engines
and vehicles.
In vehicles fitted with automatic transmission, the stop-start function is very easy to
use. The driver presses the brake pedal, and as soon as the car has stopped, the
engine stops automatically. It starts again when the brake pedal is released. This is
very convenient for the driver, who uses the accelerator and brake as normal.
The system works completely in the background, and evaluates a wide array
of sensor information before being activated. For instance, a battery sensor
determines the battery’s level of charge and the engine will only be switched
off if a quick restart is guaranteed. Another example is the vehicle’s cabin
temperature. If the cabin temperature is too cold or too hot, the engine will
continue to run until the occupants’ desired temperature is reached. Finally,
there is a DC–DC converter for stabilizing the voltage of the electrical system
during starts to ensure that the radio, navigation system, or hands-free
telephone operate without any interference or interruption.
To further reduce consumption, and CO2 emissions, engineers are continually
working to extend engine shutdown times. This will apply initially to the time
when the vehicle is coasting to a stop and then it will also apply to periods Key fact
while driving, when the driver is not accelerating. The effectiveness of all safety
and comfort functions will be guaranteed, even during these longer periods Enhanced stop-start systems
could save up to 10% of fuel.
with the engine switched off. The enhanced stop-start systems could save up
to an additional 10% of fuel.
There are several enhancements to the starting system that are designed to
improve driver experience and enhance component life but the main benefit is
a reduction in consumption and CO2 emissions.

Figure 6.35 Stop-start systems can reduce fuel consumption and therefore CO2
emissions by up to 5 percent. (Source: Bosch Media)
270 Starting

6.5.2 Jump start without a battery

A jump start without a battery is a device that as the names suggests is
‘batteryless’. Instead it contains super-capacitors. These components have
a higher energy flow density but not a high-power storage capacity. For this
reason, it is possible to charge the capacitors with a relatively small power
source. Inside the unit, a DC-DC converter acts like a transformer to step up
the voltage to charge the capacitors with sufficient energy for a single start
operation.
This is where the capacitors win over a battery due to their power delivery
capability. Another interesting development is that using this power transform
capability, the capacitors can be charged from the dead battery itself, if it
has some voltage and power capacity. This seems difficult to comprehend
but remember that the normal failure mode of a chemical battery involves its
ability to deliver high power for starting. It is less often the case that the battery
cannot deliver any power, even a small amount over a longer period, can be
utilized for charging the capacitors for a start assistance situation.

Figure 6.36 Batteryless jump start pack (Source: Jack Sealey, [Link])

The tools and equipment company Sealey have an exclusive licence to sell the
device from the manufacturer. The device is sold as a ‘batteryless’ jump start
Key fact pack. It is small and light when compared to a battery based device. It needs
The ‘batteryless’ jump starter no maintenance and charges from the dead battery, or from another vehicle,
capacitors can be charged or even via USB! It can also be used with the vehicle battery open circuit, for
from the dead battery. situations where the battery is completely dead.
In service, it works well, the package is aimed at passenger car users and
can supply about 300 A, which is more than enough power to start most cars.
The device also includes a diesel glow plug support mode to allow pre-
heating time.
 Starting 271

Figure 6.37 Sealey batteryless unit charging from the ‘dead’ battery ([Link].
[Link])