Quantitative Reasoning - I

Ms. Rabeea Samad

 CHAPTER – 3

● Basics of Geometry (Lines, Angles,

Circles, Polygons)
● Sets, and their operations
● Relations
● Functions and their Graphs
BASICS OF GEOMETRY
(LINES, ANGLES,
CIRCLES, POLYGONS)
Geometry
 What is Geometry?

The word “Geometry is derived from the Greek words “Ge”

and “Metrein”.

The Greek word “Ge” means “Earth” and the word

“Metrein” means, “to measure”.

Therefore, the word geometry means the measurement of

Earth.
Point
 Point:

• The basic geometry figure is a point. All other geometric

figures are made up of a collection of points.

• Point is such a geometrical term which is accepted without

defining it.

• A point is only an idea in our mind, it is not a physical

object and we regard it as having a position but not size or
shape.
Line Segment
 Line Segment:

• A line segment is the shortest path between two points, it

has a fixed length.

• A line segment thus has a dimensions which is its length.

• Thus, a straight line segment is formed when we use a ruler

to join two points, say A and B.
A B
• We call line segment AB or BA.

• A and B are called the end points.

Line
 Line:

• If a line segment extended beyond its end points

indefinitely, we get a line.

• This endless line is called a straight line or simply a line.

Line AB is represented by 𝐴𝐵

Thus is represented in the following diagram.

A B
Ray
 Ray:

• A ray is simply a line segment with one end ended infinitely.

• A ray is denoted by the name of a line segment with an

arrowhead at one end indicating the direction in which it is
extended.

The rays, 𝐴𝐵, 𝑝𝑞 and 𝑟𝑠 are shown in the following

q
diagram. A B
s

p r
Plane
 Plane:

• Plane is also undefined terms, like point in geometry.

• A plane may be thought of a flat surface which extends

indefinitely in all of its directions.

Example:

• The floor of a classroom is an example of horizontal plane

and its wall of classroom is an example of vertical plane.
Non−Collinear Rays
 Non-Collinear Rays:

Non-collinear rays are rays that do not lie on the same line.

Example:

A C
E
D B
In above diagram, 𝐴𝐵 and 𝐶𝐷 are non-collinear rays.
Intersecting Lines
 Intersecting Lines:

• In the following diagram, two lines AB and CD on the same

plane having a common point O.

• We say the two lines intersecting at O.

• Point O is called the point of intersection.

A C

O B
D
Parallel Lines
 Parallel Lines:

• If two lines lying on the same plane never meet, touch or

intersect at any point, then these are called parallel lines.

• Parallel lines are always the same distance apart.

Some examples of parallel lines are shown below:

Demonstration of Properties of Parallel Lines
 Two lines which are parallel to the same given line are
parallel to each other

Let two lines ℓ and n are parallel to the third line m as

shown in figure 1.

There is no intersection point of ℓ with m and n with m.

All the points of line n are also equidistant from the line m.

Therefore, we cannot find a point common between ℓ and n

ℓ
m
which implies that ℓ is parallel to n. n
Figure 1
Demonstration of Properties of Parallel Lines
 Two lines which are parallel to the same given line are
parallel to each other

In figure 2, the pairs of parallel line segments are 𝐴𝐵∥𝐶𝐷,

𝐴𝐵∥𝐸𝐹, 𝐸𝐹∥𝐺𝐻 etc. Similarly, 𝐶𝐷∥𝐸𝐹 or 𝐴𝐵∥𝐺𝐻.
E F
B
A

H
G
D C

Figure 2
Demonstration of Properties of Parallel Lines
 If three parallel lines are intersected by two transversals* in
such a way that the two intercepts on one transversal are
equal to each other, the two intercepts on the second
transversal are also equal.
ℓ m
p A D

q B E
*In geometry, a transversal
r C F is a line that passes through
two lines in the same plane
at two distinct points.
Figure 3
Demonstration of Properties of Parallel Lines
 In the figure the two transversals ℓ and m intersect three
parallel lines p, q and r at the points A, B, C, D, E and F.

The intercepts formed by transversal ℓ are 𝐴𝐵 and 𝐵𝐶 and

intercepts by transversal m are 𝐷𝐸and 𝐸𝐹.

According to the above property of parallel lines if

ℓ m
m𝐴𝐵 = m𝐵𝐶 then m𝐷𝐸 = m𝐸𝐹. p A D

q B E

r C F

Figure 3
Demonstration of Properties of Parallel Lines
 A line through the midpoint of the side
of a triangle parallel to another side
C
bisects the third side (an application of
above property). B D

In figure 4, point B is the midpoint of

𝐴𝐶 and 𝐵𝐷 ∥ 𝐴𝐸, therefore, from the A E

above property D is also the midpoint Figure 4

of 𝐶𝐸, i.e., m𝐴𝐵 = m𝐵𝐶 and 𝐷𝐸 ∥ 𝐴𝐸

m𝐶𝐷 = m𝐷𝐸
Angles
 Properties of Angles
• Two different rays with a common starting point
form an angle which is denoted by the symbol ∠.

• The unit of measuring an angle is degree (°).

• Angles are classified by their degree measures, e.g.

right angle, acute angle, obtuse angle, etc.
Adjacent, Complementary and Supplementary Angles
 Adjacent Angles

The word adjacent means “next or neighbouring” and by

the adjacent angles we mean angles next to each other.

Two angles are said to be adjacent if:

C
(i) They have the same vertex.
B
(ii) they have one common arm.

(iii) other arms of two angles extend O A

Figure
on opposite sides of the common arm.
Adjacent, Complementary and Supplementary Angles
 Adjacent Angles
For example, in the above figure, it can be seen that the two
angles ∠AOC and ∠BOC are adjacent because they have the
same vertex “O” and one common arm 𝑂𝐶.
Other arms 𝑂𝐴 and 𝑂𝐵 on the opposite sides of the common
arm 𝑂𝐶.
Adjacent, Complementary and Supplementary Angles
 Complementary Angles
Two angles are called complementary angles when their
sum of degree measure is equal to 90°.
For example, in the figure,
𝑚∠𝐵𝐴𝐷 = 60°
𝑚∠𝑆𝐴𝐷 = 30° S D
𝑚∠𝐵𝐴𝐷 + 𝑚∠𝑆𝐴𝐷
= 60° + 30° 30 °

= 90° 60 °
Thus 𝑚∠𝐵𝐴𝐷 and 𝑚∠𝑆𝐴𝐷 are complementary A B
Figure
angles.
Adjacent, Complementary and Supplementary Angles
 Supplementary Angles
Two angles are called supplementary angles when their
sum of degree measure is equal to 180°.
For example, in the figure,
𝑚∠𝐵𝐴𝐷 = 60°
𝑚∠𝑆𝐴𝐷 = 120° D
𝑚∠𝐵𝐴𝐷 + 𝑚∠𝑆𝐴𝐷
= 60° + 120°
= 180° 120 °
S 60 °
The sum of the two angles is 180°. A B
Figure
Hence, these are supplementary angles.
Vertically Opposite Angles
 Vertically Opposite Angles
A pair of angles is said to be vertically opposite, if the angles
are formed from two intersecting lines and the angles are
nonadjacent.
Such angles are always equal in measurement as shown in
the figure.
Here it can be seen that two lines
D B
𝐴𝐵 and 𝐶𝐷 intersect each other
O
at point “O” and form four
angles i.e. ∠AOC, ∠BOC, ∠BOD A Figure C

and ∠AOD.
Here the angles ∠AOD and ∠BOC are called vertically
opposite angles. Similarly the angles ∠AOC and ∠BOD are
also vertically opposite to each other.
We can prove that vertically opposite angles are equal in
measure as given below. In the figure, we can also see that:
m∠AOD + m∠AOC = 180° (supplementary angles)
m∠AOC + m∠BOC = 180° (supplementary angles)
m∠AOD + m∠AOC = m∠AOC + m∠BOC
m∠AOD = m∠BOC
Similarly, we can also prove that:
m∠AOC = m∠BOD
Finding Unknown Angles involving Adjacent, Complementary,
Supplementary and Vertically Opposite Angles

 Example: Look at the following diagram and name all the

pairs of:

(a) Adjacent angles

(b) Vertically Opposite Angles v

w u
x z
y
Figure
Finding Unknown Angles involving Adjacent, Complementary,
Supplementary and Vertically Opposite Angles

 Solution:

(a) Adjacent angles

(i) ∠ u and ∠ v (ii) ∠ v and ∠ w (iii) ∠ w and ∠ x
(iv) ∠ x and ∠ y (v) ∠ y and ∠ z (vi) ∠ z and ∠ u
(b) Vertically Opposite Angles
(i) ∠ u and ∠ x (ii) ∠ w and ∠ z (iii) ∠ v and ∠ y
All these are pairs of vertically opposite angles.
Finding Unknown Angles involving Adjacent, Complementary,
Supplementary and Vertically Opposite Angles

 Example: Write the measurement of missing angles.

Finding Unknown Angles involving Adjacent, Complementary,
Supplementary and Vertically Opposite Angles

 Solution: (i)
We have m∠AOC = 35°.
B
Since, ∠AOC and ∠BOC are
complementary angles. So, C

m∠AOC + m∠BOC = 90° 35°

O A
35° + m∠BOC = 90°
m∠BOC = 90° − 35°
= 55°
Thus, m∠BOC = 55°
Finding Unknown Angles involving Adjacent, Complementary,
Supplementary and Vertically Opposite Angles
 Solution: (ii)
We have m∠AOB = 135° and
m∠BOC = 45°. Since, ∠AOB and ∠COD
are vertically opposite angles. So,
D C
m∠COD = m∠AOB
Thus, m∠COD = 135° O
45°

Similarly, m∠BOC and m∠AOD are 135°

A B
vertically opposite angles. So,
m∠AOD = m∠BOC
Thus, m∠AOD = 45°
Finding Unknown Angles involving Adjacent, Complementary,
Supplementary and Vertically Opposite Angles
 Solution: (iii)
We have m∠BOC = 128°.
C
Since, ∠AOC and ∠COB
are supplementary angles. 128°

So, m∠AOC + m∠BOC = 180° B O A

m∠AOC + 128° = 180°
m∠AOC = 180° − 128° = 52°
Thus, m∠AOC = 52°
Finding Unknown Angles involving Adjacent, Complementary,
Supplementary and Vertically Opposite Angles
 Solution: (iv)
B
We have m∠AOB = 75° and
C
∠AOC = 45°. Since, ∠AOC and
75°
∠COB are adjacent angles.
So, m∠AOC + m∠BOC = ∠AOB 45°
O A
45° + m∠BOC = 75°
m∠BOC = 75° − 45° = 30°
Thus, m∠BOC = 30°
Finding Unknown Angles of a Triangle
 If the measurements of two angles of a triangle are known,
then the third angle can be calculated.

Example: Find the missing angle in each triangle.

Finding Unknown Angles of a Triangle
Solution: We know that the sum of the measures of three angles of a
triangle is always equal to 180°. Let us use the same angle sum property
of a triangle to find the following unknown angles.
A
(i) We have, m∠B = 52°, m∠C = 48°, m∠A = ?

We know that m∠A + m∠B + m∠C = 180°

m∠A + 52° + 48° = 180°

m∠A + 100° = 180°

52° 48°
m∠A = 180°− 100° = 80° B C

Thus, m∠A = 80°

Finding Unknown Angles of a Triangle
Solution:

(ii) We have,
B
m∠O = 90°, m∠A = 40°, m∠B = ?

We know that m∠O + m∠A + m∠B = 180°

90° + 40° + m∠B = 180°

90°
130° + m∠B = 180° 40°
O A

m∠B = 180° − 130° = 50°

Thus, m∠B = 50°

Finding Unknown Angles of a Triangle
Solution: (iii) We have, m∠D = 110° , m∠F = ?

m∠E = 30° (vertically opposite angles are equal)

We know that m∠D + m∠E + m∠F = 180°

(vertically opposite angles are equal)

110° + 30° + m∠F = 180° D

140° + m∠F = 180° 110°

E
m∠F = 180° − 140° = 40° 30° F

Thus, m∠F = 40°

Practice Questions
Q-1: Name all the angles in the figure which are adjacent.

c
d b
a
e

Q-2: In the following figure ∠AOB and ∠BOC are adjacent

angles. i.e. m∠AOB = 20° and m∠AOC = 42°. Find
m∠BOC. C

42° B
20°
O
A
Practice Questions

Q-3: Identify the pairs of complementary and

supplementary angles.
(i) 50°, 40° (ii) 120°, 60° (iii) 70°, 70°
(iv) 130°, 50° (v) 70°, 20° (vi) 50°, 100°
Q-4: In the given figure, find all the remaining angles.

m∠1 = ______ 3
30° 60°
m∠2 = ______ 2
m∠3 = ______ 1
Practice Questions
Q-5: Find the unknown angles of the given triangles.
B F
(i) (ii)

55° 150° 60°

C E
A 65° D
Q-6: Find the remaining angles in the given right angled
triangle. A

B C 30°
Circle
A circle is a simple plane shape of geometry also
called a simple closed curve, such that all its points
are at the same distance from a given point.

 Demonstrate a Point Lying in the Interior and

Exterior of a Circle

 A circle divides the plane into two regions:

an interior and an exterior.

 Circle
 In everyday use, the term “circle” may be used C

interchangeably to refer to either the boundary

D B
of the figure, or to the whole figure including
its interior; in strict technical usage, the circle
A
is the former and the latter is called a disk.
A
For example “A” is outside the circle, “B” is C

inside the circle and “C” is on the circle.

B
Describe the terms in Circle
Arc

Sector

● Arc: Any part of boundary of the circle.

● Sector: A region bounded by two radii and an arc lying

between the radii.

● Segment: A region bounded by a chord and an arc lying

between the chord’s endpoints.
Describe the terms in Circle

Tangent
Diameter

● Chord: It is a line segment whose endpoints lie on the circle.

● Secant: It is a straight line cutting the circle at two points. It

is an extended chord.

● Tangent: A straight line that touches the circle at a single

point.

● Concyclic: A set of points are said to be concyclic (or

cocyclic) if they lie on a common circle.
Circumference of a Circle
Diameter

● The perimeter of a circle is called its circumference.

Note:

• If “c” stands for the circumference of the circle and “d” is

𝑐
the diameter of the circle, then
𝑑

(circumference÷diameter) is the same for all circles. Its

value cannot stated exactly.

• The Greek letter 𝜋(𝑝𝑖) is used to stand for it.

Circumference of a Circle
𝑐 Diameter
∴ =𝜋
𝑑

𝑐 = 𝜋𝑑

𝑐 =𝜋×2×𝑟 ∵ 𝑑 = 2𝑟

𝒄 = 𝟐𝝅𝒓

22
𝜋 is a special number and is equal to 3.14159 … or
7

Area of a Circle

Area of a circle = 𝜋𝑟 2
Practice Questions
1
1. The surface area of sphere of radius 3 𝑐𝑚 is ?
2
2. If the area of a circle is 81𝜋, then its circumference
is?
3. If circumference of a circle is 3𝜋, then its area is?
4. What is the circumference of the earth at the
equator if the diameter is taken as 1.27 × 104 km?
5. Find the circumference of a circle with radius 5
units?
6. Find the area of a circle with radius 6 units?
Polygon
 A polygon is a closed plane figure with three or more straight
sides. Polygons are named according to the number of sides.
The names of the most common polygons are given below:

Triangle – 3 sides Quadrilateral – 4 sides

Pentagon – 5 sides Hexagon – 6 sides

Heptagon – 7 sides Octagon – 8 sides Nonagon – 9 sides Decagon – 10 sides

Define regular pentagon, hexagon and octagon
A polygon in which all the sides are of equal length is
called a regular polygon. All angles of regular polygon also
are of same measurement.

● Regular Pentagon: A five sided polygon in which all the

five sides and angles are of same size is called a regular
pentagon. The sum of measures of all the angles of a regular
pentagon is 540° . The size of each angle of a regular
540°
pentagon is = 108°
5
Define regular pentagon, hexagon and octagon

● Regular Hexagon: A six sided polygon in which all

the six sides and angles are of same size is called a
regular hexagon. The sum of measures of all the angles
of a regular hexagon is 720° . The size of each angle of a
720°
regular hexagon is = 120°
6
Define regular pentagon, hexagon and octagon

● Regular Octagon: An eight sided polygon in which all

the eight sides and angles are of same size is called a
regular octagon. The sum of measures of all the angles
of a regular octagon is 1080° . The size of each angle of a
1080°
regular octagon is = 135°
8
Example
● Find the perimeter of a regular pentagon with each side measuring 8
units.

Solution:

The perimeter of a pentagon is the sum of the lengths of its sides.

Since a regular pentagon has all sides equal, we can simply multiply
the length of one side by the number of sides. Given each side
measures 8 units, and a pentagon has 5 sides.
Perimeter = 5 × 8 = 40 units.

So the perimeter of the regular pentagon is 40 units.

Example
● Find the size of each interior angle in a regular hexagon.

Solution:

For regular hexagon, number of sides = 6

𝑛−2 ×180°
Each interior angle =
𝑛

4×180°
=
6

= 120°
Practice Questions
1. Find the perimeter of a regular hexagon with a side
length of 6 units?

2. Find the perimeter of the regular polygon with 𝑛

sides and each of the length with 𝑠 units?

3. Find the size of each interior angle in a regular

Octagon.
Demonstrate the properties of a parallelogram
 A parallelogram is a special type of quadrilateral whose
pairs of opposite sides are parallel.
For example quadrilateral ABCD is a parallelogram
because AB || DC and AD || BC .

A B

D C
Demonstrate the properties of a parallelogram
 A parallelogram has the following
properties:

i. A parallelogram is a quadrilateral with

both pairs of opposite sides parallel.

ii. In a parallelogram, the 2 pairs of

opposite sides are congruent.
Demonstrate the properties of a parallelogram

iii. In a parallelogram, the 2 pairs of

opposite angles are congruent.

iv. In a parallelogram, the consecutive

angles are supplementary.
A B
v. In a parallelogram, the diagonals bisect
each other.
C D
Example
● Given that QRST is a parallelogram, find the value of 𝑥 in
the diagram below.

Solution:
Q R

Since opposite angles of

(𝒙 + 𝟏𝟓)

parallelograms are congruent,

we have m ∠ (𝑥 +15)° = 127° 127°

T S
(Opposite angel in a parallelogram.)

m ∠ 𝑥 = 127 − 15 = 112°
Example
● Given that DEFG is parallelogram. determine the values of
𝑥 and 𝑦.
E D
Solution:

From the figure we get

m ∠ G = 70° + 45° = 115°

F G
Since 𝐸𝐷 || 𝐹𝐺 , we have m ∠ G + m ∠ D = 180°

⇒ 115° + m ∠ D = 180°

⇒ m ∠ D = 180° −115° = 65°

Example
⇒ m ∠ D = 5𝑦 = 65

⇒ 𝑦 = 13

Also m ∠ F = m ∠ D

⇒ m ∠ (7𝑥 − 5) = 65°

⇒ 7𝑥 − 5 = 65

⇒ 7𝑥 = 70

⇒ 𝑥 = 10

So, we have 𝑥 = 10 and 𝑦 = 13.

Example
● Given that ABCD is parallelogram. Find the value of 𝑥.
B
Solution:

We know that in parallelogram the A

Diagonals bisect each other. E

Thus we get m 𝐷𝐸 = m 𝐵𝐸 C

⇒ (4𝑥 2 + 5)cm = 41cm D

⇒ 4𝑥 2 = 41− 5

⇒ 4𝑥 2 = 36 ⇒ 𝑥 2 = 9 ⇒ 𝑥 = 3
SETS AND THEIR
OPERATIONS
Set
 Definition − A set is a collection of well defined
objects/numbers. The objects/numbers in any
set are called its members or elements.
 Set Theory − is a branch of mathematics that studies
sets.

It is the creation of George Cantor who

was born in Russia on March 03, 1845.
In 1873, he published an article which
makes the birth of set theory.
George Cantor died in Germany on
January 06, 1918.
 Expressing a Set
 There are three ways to express a set.
(i) Descriptive form
(ii) Tabular form
(iii) Set builder form
Descriptive Form
If a set is described with the help of a statement, it is
called as descriptive form of a set.
For example:
𝑁 = 𝑠𝑒𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑛𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑎𝑙 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟𝑠
𝑍 = 𝑠𝑒𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑔𝑒𝑟𝑠
𝑃 = 𝑠𝑒𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑝𝑟𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟𝑠
𝑊 = 𝑠𝑒𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑤ℎ𝑜𝑙𝑒 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟𝑠
𝑆 = 𝑠𝑒𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑚𝑜𝑛𝑡ℎ𝑠 𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑟𝑡 𝑤𝑖𝑡ℎ 𝑙𝑒𝑡𝑡𝑒𝑟 "𝐽"
 Expressing a Set

Tabular Form
If we list all elements of a set within the braces { } and
separate each element by using a comma “,” it is called
the tabular or roster form.
For example:
A = {a, e, i, o, u} C = {3, 6, 9, ... ,99}
M = {football, hockey , cricket} N = {1, 2, 3, 4, ...}
W = {0, 1, 2, 3, ...} X = {a, b, c, ..., z}
 Expressing a Set
Set Builder Form
If a set is described by using a common property of all its
elements, it is called as set builder form.
A set can also be expressed in set builder form.
For example, “E is a set of even number” in the descriptive
form, where E = {0, ±2, ±4, ±6,.....} is the tabular form of
the same set. This set in set builder form can be written as;
Set Builder Form
E = {𝒙 | 𝒙 is an even number} Some important symbols
and we can read it as, E is a set of elements x, such that x is | such that
an even number. ⋀ and
A = {𝑥 | 𝑥 is a solar month of a year} ∈ belongs to
⋁ or
B = {𝑥 | 𝑥 ∈ N ⋀ 1 < 𝑥 < 5}
≥ greater than or equal to
C = {𝑥 | 𝑥 ∈ W ⋀ 𝑥 4}
≤ less than or equal to
Practice Questions
1. Write the following sets in descriptive form.
(i) A = {a, e, i, o, u) (ii) B = {3, 6, 9, 12, ...}
(iii) C = {s, p, r , i, n, g} (iv) D = {a, b, c, ... ,z}
(v) E = {6, 7, 8, 9, 10} (vi) F = {0, ±1, ±2}
(vii) G = {𝑥 | 𝑥 ∈ N ⋀ 𝑥 < 3}
(viii) H = {𝑥 | 𝑥 ∈ N ⋀ 𝑥 > 99}
2. Write the following sets in tabular form.
(i) A = Letters of the word “hockey”
(ii) B = Two colors in the rainbow
(iii) C = Numbers less than 18 divisible by 3
(iv) D = Multiples of 5 less than 30
(v) E = {𝑥 | 𝑥 ∈ W ⋀ 𝑥 > 5}
(vi) F = {𝑥 | 𝑥 ∈ Z ⋀ – 7 < 𝑥 < –1}
Practice Questions
3. Write the following sets in the set builder form.
(i) A = {1,2,3,4,5}
(ii) B = {2,3,5,7}
(iii) N = set of natural numbers
(iv) W = set of whole number
(v) Z = set of all integers
(vi) L = {5, 10, 15,20,...}
(vii) E = set of even numbers between 1 and 10
(viii) O = set of odd numbers greater than 15
(ix) C = set of planets in the solar system
(x) S = set of colors in the rainbow
Basic Sets
●Definition – A set is any well-defined collection or list of
distinct objects, e.g. a group of students, the books in a
library, the integers between 1 and 100, all human beings on
the Earth, etc.
 well−defined means object either belongs to or not
belongs to the set.
 distinct means each object must appear once.
Members/Elements of a Set -
●Definition – The objects that are in a set, are called
members or elements of that set.
 Sets are denoted by capital letters such as A, B, C etc.
 Elements are represented by small letters such as a, b, c,
etc.
e.g. 𝑨 = 𝒂, 𝒃, 𝒙, 𝒚 or 𝑩 = 𝟏, 𝟐, 𝟑, 𝟕
Basic Sets (Cont.)
Elements belongs to Set -
 Definition – If 𝑥 is an element of a set, 𝐴, we write
𝒙 ∈ 𝑨, which is read as “𝑥 belongs to 𝐴” or 𝑥 is in 𝐴.
 If 𝑥 does not belong to 𝐴, i.e. 𝑥 is not an element of 𝐴, we
write 𝒙 ∉ 𝑨.
Note:
 The number of a set 𝐴, written as 𝑛 𝐴 , is defined as the
number of elements in 𝐴.
Null/Empty Set -
 Definition – A set that has no element is called an empty or a
null set.
Representation: It is denoted by the symbol ∅.
Note:
A set 0 is not an empty set as it contains an element 0.
Basic Sets (Cont.)
Unit/Singleton Set -
 Definition – A set that contains only one element is called a unit
set or a singleton set.
e.g. 𝐴 = 𝑎 or 𝐵 = 1
Finite/Infinite Set -
 Definition – A set is finite when it contains a finite number of
elements otherwise it is an infinite set.
Examples of finite Sets:
i) 𝐴 = 1,2,3, … , 99,100
ii) 𝐵 = 𝑥|𝑥 is a printing mistake in a book *
Examples of infinite Sets:
i) 𝐴 = 𝑥|𝑥 is an even integer
ii) 𝐵 = 𝑥|𝑥 is a sentence in the English language
*(the “𝑟𝑢𝑙𝑒” method or “set builder” method), that enables us to
determine whether or not a given object is a member of the set.
Subsets

 Definition – A set that consists of some elements or

members of another set, is called a subset of that set.
For example:
If 𝐵 is a subset of 𝐴, then every member of set 𝐵 is also
a member of set 𝐴 and we write 𝑩 ⊂ 𝑨.
which is read as ‘𝐵 is a subset of 𝐴’. For example, if
A = 1,2,3,4,5,10 and B = 1,3,5
then 𝐵 ⊂ 𝐴 , i.e. B is contained in A.
Equal/Identical Set -
 Definition – Two sets 𝐴 and 𝐵 are equal or identical, if
and only if they contain exactly the same elements.
That is 𝐴 = 𝐵 if and only if 𝐴 ⊂ 𝐵 and 𝐵 ⊂ 𝐴.
Subsets(Cont.)
Proper Subset -
 Definition – If a set 𝐵 contains some but not all of the
elements of another set 𝐴 while 𝐴 contains each element
of 𝐵, i.e. if B ⊂ A and 𝐵 ≠ 𝐴.
then the set 𝐵 is defined to be a proper subset of 𝐴.
Universal Set/ The Space -
 Definition – The large or the original set of which all
the sets are subsets is called the universal set or the
space.
Representation: It is denoted by 𝑆 or Ω.
For example:
A = 1,2,3 and 𝐵 = 4,5,6
Then 𝑆 = 1,2,3,4,5,6
Disjoint and Overlapping Sets
Disjoint Sets-
 Definition – Two sets A and B are said to be disjoint sets, if
there is no common element between them.
In other words there intersection is an empty set,
i.e. A ∩ B = ∅.
For example:
A = {1, 2, 3}, B = {4, 5, 6} are disjoint sets because there is
no common element in set A and B.
Overlapping Sets-
 Definition – Two sets A and B are called overlapping sets, if
there is at least one element common between them but none
of them is a subset of the other.
In other words, their intersection is non-empty set.
For example:
A = {0, 5, 10} and B= {1, 3, 5, 7} are overlapping sets
because 5 is a common element in sets A and B and non is
subset of the other.
Universal and Complement of a Set
Universal Set-
 Definition – A set which contains all the possible
elements of the sets under consideration is called the
universal set.
For example:
the universal set of the counting numbers means a set
that contains all possible numbers that we can use for
counting.
Representation:
To represent such a set we use the symbol U and read it
as “Universal set” i.e. The universal set of counting
numbers:
U = {1, 2, 3, 4, ...}
Universal and Complement of a Set (Cont.)
Complement of a Set-
 Definition – Consider a set B whose universal set is U,
then the difference set U \ B or U - B is called the
complement of a set B, which is denoted by B′ or Bc
and read as “B complement”.
So, we can define the complement of a set B as:
“B complement is a set which contains all those
elements of universal set which are not the elements
of set B”
i.e. B′ = U \ B.
Cartesian Product of Two Sets
 Cartesian product of sets is the product of two sets. Given
two non – empty sets P and Q. The Cartesian product P×Q
is the set of all ordered pairs whose first component is a
member of P and second component is a member of Q.

 Example:

set B = {𝑅𝑏 , 𝑃𝑏 } , set C = {𝑅𝑐 , 𝑃𝑐 , 𝑌𝑐 }

Cartesian Product (B×C) = {(𝑅𝑏 , 𝑅𝑐 ),(𝑅𝑏 , 𝑃𝑐 ),(𝑅𝑏 , 𝑌𝑐 ),

(𝑃𝑏 , 𝑅𝑐 ),(𝑃𝑏 , 𝑃𝑐 ),(𝑃𝑏 , 𝑌𝑐 )}

Example of Cartesian Product
Example: Let 𝐴 = {1,2,3}, 𝐵 = {3,4} and 𝐶 = {4,5,6}. Find
𝐴 × 𝐵 ∩ 𝐶 and (𝐴 × 𝐵) ∩ (𝐴 × 𝐶)?

Solution:

𝑨× 𝑩∩𝑪

𝐵 ∩ 𝐶 = 3,4 ∩ 4,5,6

= {4}

𝐴 × 𝐵 ∩ 𝐶 = 1,2,3 × {4}

= 1,4 , 2,4 , 3,4

Example of Cartesian Product (Cont.)
(𝑨 × 𝑩) ∩ (𝑨 × 𝑪)

𝐴 × 𝐵 = 1,2,3 × 3,4

= { 1,3 , 1,4 , 2,3 , 2,4 , 3,3 , (3,4)}

(𝐴 × 𝐶) = 1,2,3 × {4,5,6}

1,4 , 1,5 , 1,6 , 2,4 , 2,5 ,

=
2,6 , 3,4 , 3,5 , (3,6)

𝐴 × 𝐵 ∩ 𝐴 × 𝐶 = { 1,4 , 2,4 , 3,4 }

Practice Questions
1. Look at each pair of sets to separate the disjoint and
overlapping sets.
(i) A = {a, b, c, d, e}, B = {d, e, f, g, h}
(ii) L = {2, 4, 6, 8, 10}, M = {3, 6, 9, 12}
(iii) P = Set of Prime numbers,
C = Set of Composite numbers
(iv) E = Set of Even numbers,
O = Set of Odd numbers
2. If U = {1, 2, 3, ...., 10}, A = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5},
B = {1, 3, 5, 7, 9}, C = {2, 4, 6, 8, 10} and D = 3, 4, 5, 6, 7},
then find:
(i) A′ (ii) B′ (iii) C′ (iv) D′
Practice Questions
3. If U = {a, b, c,...., i }, X = {a, c, e, g, i}, Y = {a, e, i},
and Z = {a, g, h}, then find: (i) X′ (ii) Y′ (iii) Z′ (iv) U′

4. If U= {1, 2, 3, ..., 20}, A= {1, 3, 5, ... ,19} and B = {2,

4, 6, ... ,20}, then prove that: (i) B′ = A (ii) A′ = B (iii) A
\ B = A (iv) B \ A = B

5. If U = set of integers and W = set of whole numbers,

then find the complement of set W.

6. If U = set of natural numbers and P = set of prime

numbers, then find the complement of set P.
Venn Diagram
 Definition – A diagram that is represent
sets by circular regions, parts of circular
regions or their complements with respect
to a rectangle representing the space 𝑆 is
called a Venn diagram, named after the
English logician John Venn (1834-1923).
Use:
 The Venn diagrams are used to represent
sets and subsets in a pictorial way.
 To verify the relationship among sets and
subsets.
Example:
An example of a Venn diagram is as:
Representing Sets through Venn Diagrams
 In Venn diagram, a universal set is represented by a
rectangle and the other sets are represented by simple
closed figures inside the rectangle.
 These closed figures show an overlapping region to
describe the relationship between them.
 Following figures are the Venn diagrams for any set A
of universal set U, disjoint sets A and B and
overlapping sets A and B respectively.
 In the Venn diagram, the shaded region is used to
represent the result of operation.
U U U
B
A A B A

Set A Disjoint Sets Overlapping Sets

Operations on Sets
 Union of Sets
Now we represent the union of sets through Venn
diagram when:
● A is subset of B
When all the elements of set A are also the
elements of set B, then we can represent A U B by (figure).
Here shaded portion represents A U B.

U
B
A

AUB
Operations on Sets

● B is subset of A
When all the elements of set B are also the
elements of set A, then we can represent A U B by (figure).
Here shaded portion represents B U A.

U
A B

BUA
Operations on Sets

● A and B are overlapping Sets

When only a few elements of two sets A and B are
common, then they are called overlapping sets.
A U B is represented by (figure). Here shaded
portion represents A U B.
U

A B

A and B overlapping Sets

Operations on Sets

● A and B are disjoint Sets

When no element of two sets A and B is common,
then we can represent A U B by (figure). Here shaded
portion represents A U B.

A B

A and B disjoint Sets

Operations on Sets
 Intersection of Sets
Now we represent the intersection of sets through
Venn diagram when:
● A is subset of B
When all the elements of set A are also the
elements of set B, then we can represent A ∩ B by (figure).
Here shaded portion represents A ∩ B.

U
B
A

A∩ B
Operations on Sets

● B is subset of A
When all the elements of set B are also the
elements of set A, then we can represent A ∩ B by (figure).
Here shaded portion represents A ∩ B.

U
A B

B∩A
Operations on Sets

● A and B are overlapping Sets

When some elements are common, then we can
represent A ∩ B by the figure.

A B

A and B overlapping Sets

Operations on Sets

● A and B are disjoint Sets

When no element is common, then we can
represent A ∩ B by figure. So A ∩ B is an empty set.

A B

A and B disjoint Sets

Operations on Sets
 Difference of Two Sets A and B
It is represented by shaded portion when:
● A is subset of B
When all the elements of set A are also the
elements of set B, then we can represent A − B by figure.
There is no shaded portion. So, A − B = { }

U
B
A

A − B when A is subset of B
Operations on Sets

● B is subset of A
When all the elements of set B are also the
elements of set A, then we can represent A − B by (figure).
Here shaded portion represents A − B.

U
A
B

A − B when B is subset of A
Operations on Sets

● A and B are overlapping Sets

When some elements are common, then we can
represent A − B by the figure.

A B

A − B if A and B overlapping Sets

Operations on Sets

● A and B are disjoint Sets

When no element of two sets A and B is common,
then we can represent A − B by figure. Here shaded
portion represents A − B.

A B

A − B if A and B disjoint Sets

Operations on Sets
 Complement of a Set

For Complement of Set A For Complement of Set B

U U
A B

U − A = A′ U − B = B′
Practice Questions
1. If A = {3, 4, 5, 6} and B = {2, 4, 6}, then verify that:
(i) A ∪ B = B ∪ A (ii) A ∩ B = B ∩ A
2. If X = {2, 3, 4, 5} and Y = {1, 3, 5, 7}, then find:
(i) X − Y (ii) Y − X
3. If U = set of whole numbers and N = set of natural numbers,
then verify that:
(i) N′ ∪ N = ∪ (ii) N′ ∩ N = ∅
4. If U = {a, b, c, d, e}, A = {a, b, c} and B = {b, d, e}, then
show through Venn diagram
(i) A′ (ii) B′ (iii) A U B (iv) A ∩ B
5. If, U= {1, 2, 3, 10}, A={1,4, 8, 9, 10} and B = {2, 3, 4, 7,
10}, then show that through Venn diagram:
(i) A − B ≠ B − A (ii) A ∩ B = B ∩ A
(iii) A U B = B U A
(iv) A′ ≠ B′
 RELATIONS,
FUNCTIONS AND
THEIR GRAPHS
Relations
 Relation is a connection between or among things.

 Every relation involves minimum two identity.

 Every relation has a pattern or property.

For Example,

Line 𝑀 ⊥ 𝑁

Line 𝑀 ∥ 𝑁

𝑃>𝑄

𝐴⊆𝐵
Relation –
 A relation ℛ is a rule that links elements from one set
(called the domain) to elements of another set (called the
range) using ordered pairs (𝑥, 𝑦), where:

 𝑥 belongs to the domain

 𝑦 belongs to the range

 For example, if 𝑆𝑒𝑡 𝐴 = {1,2,3,4} and 𝑆𝑒𝑡 𝐵 = {1,4,9,16},

a relation could be defined by the rule 𝑦 = 𝑥 2 , resulting in:
𝑅 = { 1,1 , 2,4 , 3,9 , 4,16 }

This means each element in 𝐴 is related to its square in 𝐵.

Types of Relations
 Reflexive:

Every element is related to itself.

 Symmetric:

If a is related to b, then b is related to a.

 Transitive:

If a is related to b and b is related to c, then a is related to c.

 Antisymmetric:

If a is related to b and b is related to a, then a=b.

Representation of a Relation
 A relation may be represented by:

 Roster form

 Set – builder form

 An arrow diagram. (Visual)

Example:

𝐴 = {1,2,3,4}
𝑺𝒆𝒕 − 𝒃𝒖𝒊𝒍𝒅𝒆𝒓 𝒇𝒐𝒓𝒎:
ℛ = { 𝑥, 𝑦 ∶ 𝑦 = 𝑥 − 1}
𝑹𝒐𝒔𝒕𝒆𝒓 𝒇𝒐𝒓𝒎: ℛ = { 2,1 , 3,2 , 4,3 }
Representation of a Relation
Arrow Diagram:

1 1
2 2
3 3
4 4

A B

𝐷𝑜𝑚𝑎𝑖𝑛 = {2,3,4}
𝑅𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 = {1,2,3}
𝐶𝑜 − 𝐷𝑜𝑚𝑎𝑖𝑛 = {1,2,3,4}
Example
Let 𝐴 = {1,2,3, … , 14}. Define a relation ℛ from 𝐴 to 𝐴 by ℛ =
𝑥, 𝑦 : 3𝑥 − 𝑦 = 0, 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑥, 𝑦 ∈ 𝐴 . Write its, domain, co-
domain and range.
1 1
2 2
⋮ ⋮
A 14 A 14
⇒ ℛ = { 1,3 , 2,6 , 3,9 , 4,12 } ∵ ℛ = { 𝑥, 3𝑥 }
𝐷𝑜𝑚𝑎𝑖𝑛 = {1,2,3,4}
𝑅𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 = {3,6,9,12}
𝐶𝑜 − 𝐷𝑜𝑚𝑎𝑖𝑛 = {1,2,3,4, … , 14}
Functions
 Function is a set of action or activity.

 Compute output based on relationships between variable.

2 4
input output
4 𝑓 𝑥 = 2(𝑥) 8
100 200
Note: A B

• All functions can be relations.

• But all relations cannot be functions

Functions
 A function is a special type of relation that links each input
to exactly one output.

 Definition:

A function 𝑓 from set 𝐴 to set 𝐵 is a rule that assigns each

element in 𝐴 to one and only one element in 𝐵.

This is written as:

𝑓: 𝐴 → 𝐵

If 𝑥 ∈ 𝐴, then 𝑓(𝑥) ∈ 𝐵.
Functions in terms of Relations
 If 𝑓 is a function from 𝐴 to 𝐵 and 𝑎, 𝑏 ∈ 𝑓 , then

𝑓 𝑎 = 𝑏, where 𝑏 is called the image of a under 𝑓 and a is

called the pre – image of 𝑏 under 𝑓.

 The function 𝑓 from 𝐴 to 𝐵 is denoted by 𝑓 ∶ 𝐴 → 𝐵.

𝒇 𝒙 = 𝒙𝟐
1 1
2 2
3 9
4 16
5 25
A B
Algebra of Functions

 Addition of two real function: 𝑓 𝑥 + 𝑔(𝑥)

 Subtraction of a real function from another: 𝑓 𝑥 − 𝑔(𝑥)

 Multiplication by a scalar: a ∗ 𝑓 𝑥

 Multiplication of two real function: 𝑓 𝑥 ∗ 𝑔(𝑥)

𝑓(𝑥)
 Quotient of two real function: , where 𝑔 𝑥 ≠ 0.
𝑔(𝑥)
Types of Function
Function

Real Function Real – valued Function

Domain→ permissible input Range→ ℛ or Subset of ℛ
Range→ permissible output (that is output is ℛ but not
input)
Graphs
 Graph of Constant Function

• 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑘 , where 𝑘 is constant.
𝑌
8
𝑥 𝑦=𝑓 𝑥 =𝑘 6
−2 3 4
2
−1 3
0 3 𝑋′ −8 −6 −4 −2 𝑂 2 4 6 8 𝑋
−2
1 3 −4
2 3 −6
−8
• 𝐷𝑜𝑚𝑎𝑖𝑛 = ℛ 𝑌′

• 𝑅𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 = {𝑘}

• The graph is a straight line parallel to 𝑥 − 𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑠.

Graphs
 Graph of Identity Function

• 𝑓 𝑥 =𝑥 𝑌
8
𝑥 𝑦=𝑓 𝑥 =𝑥 6
−2 −2 4
2
−1 −1
0 0 𝑋′ −8 −6 −4 −2 𝑂 2 4 6 8 𝑋
−2
1 1 −4
2 2 −6
−8
• 𝐷𝑜𝑚𝑎𝑖𝑛 = ℛ 𝑌′

• 𝑅𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 = ℛ

• The graph is a straight line.

Graphs
 Graph of Rational Function

𝑓(𝑥)
• , where 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑌
𝑔(𝑥) 8
𝑥 1
𝑦=𝑓 𝑥 = 6
𝑥 4
−1
−2 2
2
−1 −1 𝑋′ −8 −6 −4 −2 𝑂 2 4 6 8 𝑋
−2
0 undefined −4
1 1 −6
1 −8
2
2 𝑌′
• 𝑓(𝑥) and 𝑔(𝑥) are polynomial function and 𝑔(𝑥) ≠ 0.

• Domain and Range both depend on 𝑓(𝑥).

Graphs
 Graph of Modulus Function

• 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑥 𝑌
8
• 𝐷𝑜𝑚𝑎𝑖𝑛 = ℛ 6
4
2
• 𝑅𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 = ℛ + 𝑋′ −8 −6 −4 −2 𝑂 2 4 6 8 𝑋
−2
𝑥 𝑦=𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑥
−4
−2 2 −6
−1 1 −8
𝑌′
0 0
1 1
2 2
Example:
 Determine f 1 , f(−2) and f(c + d) for the following
function: f x = 9x + 12

Solution:
f 1 = 9 1 + 12 = 9 + 12 = 21
f −2 = 9 −2 + 12 = −18 + 12 = −6
f c + d = 9 c + d + 12 = 9c + 9d + 12
Practice Questions
 Determine f 1 , f(−2) and f(c + d) for the following
functions:

−2x
i- f x =
9

x2
ii- f x = 36 −
2

iii- f x = t 2 x − ur + v

iv- f x = cx

v- f x = −x 2 + 5x