Environmental Science

I. Environment
Atmosphere
Definition 0.94
1.2 Composition of atmosphere
• Atmosphere – a thin layer of gases surrounding
the Earth by gravity.
20.94 Nitrogen
Composition
1. Constant gases Oxygen
• Their concentration remains same irrespective
of time and change.
Other (Argon, helium,
• Nitrogen – 78.09% 78.09
krypton, xenon,
• Oxygen – 20.94% nitrous oxide)

• Nitrous oxide and inert gases – 0.94%

2. Variable gases
• Their concentration changes with place
and time.
• Carbon-dioxide – 0.03%, water vapor,
ozone

Importance
• Earth is the only planet with atmosphere
• Supplies air (oxygen) to sustain life
• Keeps temperature stable – Warms the
planet by day and cools it by nights.
• Protect living things from harmful UV
radiations from Sun
Layers of atmosphere (Tasty Spicy Maggie Thora Extra)

Troposphere Stratosphere Mesosphere Thermosphere Exosphere

Troposphere Stratosphere Mesosphere Thermosphere Exosphere

Location Lowest layer 2nd 3rd 4th Outer-most layer
Height Tropics – 20 km 12-50 km 50-85 km 85 – b/w 500 & 1000 1000-10000 km
Middle latitude – 17 km km
Polar – 6 km
Average – 12 km
Temperature Temp. decreases Temp. increases Temp. decreases Temp. increases Temp. increases
upwards @ 6.5OC per upwards upwards upwards upwards
1000 m -53 OC ➔ -3OC -3 C ➔ -93OC
O -93 C ➔ 2000OC
O

15 C ➔ -53OC
O (Ozone absorbs UV
light so temp.
increases)
Features • Contains 75% of all • Contains ozone • Coldest layer • Auroras (Polar • Satellites
the air, almost al of layer – protects • Rocks and lights)
the water vapor from UV light. meteors burn in • Spacecrafts
• Commercial • Supersonic this region • Satellites
airplanes and planes and
parachutes weather balloons

Atmospheric pressure
• Atmospheric pressure – weight exerted by air molecules (4.5 x 1018 kg) on the surface of the Earth. It is the mass of air at a given
altitude.
• It is measured with barometer (a column of mercury in a glass tube rises or falls as the weight of atmosphere changes)
• It is an indicator of weather (low-atmospheric pressure in area ➔ cloudiness, wind and rain)
• Atmospheric Pressure decreases with increasing altitude (b/c density of air molecules decrease with altitude) ➔ Amount of oxygen
decreases too
 Hydrosphere
Definition
• Total amount of water on a planet including water on surface, underground, and in air in form of
ice, liquid, vapor.
• Surface – ocean, lakes, rivers, cryosphere (ice caps, glaciers, snow)
• Underground - wells, aquifers
• Water vapor – cloud, fog

Global Water Distribution

Importance of Hydrosphere and water cycle

• Basic human need: drinking, agriculture, electricity
• Parts of living cell
• Maintains life and ecosystem on planet
• Regulate global temperature and precipitation: Ocean and Wind Currents
• Reshaping of geological feature of Earth through erosion and sedimentation
• Changes in Temperature: Evaporation (Energy released ➔ Env. cools down) and Condensation
(Energy absorbed ➔ Env. warms up)
• Transport mineral across the globe due to flow of ice
• Provides water for animals, human, plants, fishes.
Water cycle
• Circulation and storage of water from one reservoir to other – atmosphere, ocean, lakes, river,
glaciers, soil, groundwater, aquifers.

Process
Evaporation/Transpiration of water
in lakes, oceans, rivers, gound, and
from plants leaves to atmosphere

Water infiltrates into ground Water vapors condense and

through soil and rock layers. This form drpolets which combine to
water is called Groundwater form of clouds in atmosphere

Water runs-off from surface and Water precipitates on ground in

flows into lakes, rivers, and forms of rain/snow/hail etc.
oceans
 Lithosphere
Introduction
• Earth’s Radius – 6378km
• Classification:
o Mechanically: lithosphere, asthenosphere, mesospheric mantle, cores (outer, inner)
o Chemically: crust, mantle, outer core, inner core

Crust Mantle Core

Upper Lower Outer Inner
Layer Outermost Aesthenosphere Liquid (due to high Solid (due to
layer (Transition zone) temperature) high pressure)
It controls earth
magnetic field)
Spread Continent –
25%
Ocean – 75%
Depth/Thickness Continent – 40- 70-670km 670-2900km 2900-5100km 5100-6378km
70 km (2300km) (1200km)
Ocean basin –
5-10 km
Temp 870OC
Density 2.8 g/cm3 less dense Denser
Composition Alunmino- Ferro- Magnesium, Nickel-iron ally Iron
silicates magnesium silicon, iron
Igneous, silicates
sedimentary,
metamorphic

Lithosphere Asthenosphere Mesosphere

Crust + solid portion of upper Semi-liquid b/w aesthenosphere and outer
mantle (70-100km - thick) Deep: 100-350km core

Tectonic Plates
• Broken lithosphere plates; move relative to each other and interact (converge, diver, slip) each
other at boundaries
• Size: variable (7 major plates and dozen minor)

Tectonic plate movement

• Convection in Earth’s mantle: Internal heat from mantle causes convection within it – hot rocks
rise and cold rocks descend
Plate boundaries
1) Divergent Boundaries (Constructive boundaries)
• Plates move in opposite direction due to volcanic or
seismic activity
o On ocean-floor: volcanic activity at plate boundaries
➔ formation of midocean ridges (mountain)
o On continent: continental rift valley (Ex: East
African Rift Valley, Red Sea)
2) Convergent Boundaries (Destructive boundaries)
• Plates collide head-on with each other. ➔ removal or
compression of surface crust. ➔ formation of mountain ranges, volcanoes, oceanic trenches

Ocean-Continental Convergence Ocean-Ocean Convergence Continental-Continental

Convergence
• Head-on collision b/w oceanic and • Two oceanic plates collide ➔ • Two continental plates collide,
continental plates ➔ oceanic one plate subducts beneath the one slips over another ➔
plates subducts beneath other ➔ formation of oceanic mountain ranges
continental plate ➔ formation of trench • No subduction (b/c continental
oceanic trench and mountains • Effects: volcanic activity (on crust is light)
(land). ocean floor), deep-focus • Ex: Indian sub-continent
• Effects: volcanic activity (on land), earthquake, volcanic island collided with Eurasia continent
deep-focus earthquake • Ex: Japan, Sumatra and Java ➔Himalayam Range
• Ex: Andes Range (South-America) islands (Indonesia)

3) Transform Boundaries
• Two plates slip laterally against one another at
transform faults (Ex: San Andreas fault – Pacific and
North-American faults)
• Effect: Shallow-focus earthquakes
 Minerals
Definition
• Naturally occurring inorganic solid that has crystal structures, and definite chemical composition.
• Five requirements of a mineral: naturally occurring, solid, inorganic, fixed chemical formula,
crystal structure.
• 98% crystals are made of 8 elements (oxygen, silicon, aluminum, iron, calcium, sodium,
potassium, magnesium)

Properties
• Color: color from presence of a particular element.
• Streak: color which a mineral display
• Transparency: transparent - transmits light, opaque - does not transmit.
• Lustre: how much a mineral sparkle (reflects light)
• Density: Denser (heavy metals, and dark colored), Lighter (non-metals, and light colored)
• Hardness: difficulty to scratch (Moh’s scale)
• Cleavage: Split of crystal along a smooth plane.
• Fracture: Split of crystal against a plane
• Tenacity: behavior under stress - brittle, malleable, ductile, sectile
• Crystal Habit: growth pattern of a mineral

Rocks
Definition
• Any coherent, naturally occurring solid consisting of one or more minerals

Types
Igneous Sedimentary Metamorphous
• Forms from cooling and • Sediments from rocks get buried, • Rocks changed due to extremely
hardening of magma (molten compacted and cemented in layers intense heat and pressure.
rock inside Earth) or lava (molten • Types: • Types:
rock on Earth’s surface) • Biological: deposition and • Foliated: layered and banded
• Types: accumulation of dead plants and appearance. Ex: Slate
• Intrusive: magma solidifies below animals. Ex: Coal, Limestone • Non-foliated: neither layered
Earth’s crust. Ex: Granite • Chemical: rock layers formed from nor banded appearance. Ex:
• Extrusive: lava on Earth’s crust precipitates of chemical reaction Marble
cools down. Ex: Basalt b/w minerals. Ex: Dolostone
• Clastic: rock layers formed due to
mechanical weathering of rocks.
Ex: Sandstone
 Rock Cycle
Definition
• Geological transition among three main types of rocks – sedimentary, metamorphic, igneous.

Igneous rocks weather

Magma/Lava cools Sediments are
(both physical and
down to form igneous deposited in river, lakes,
chemical erosion) to
rocks or ocean.
form sediments

They get buried

The rocks get buried
hundred of meters
deeper, and are heated
below Earth and get
up, squeezed and
compressed and
changed into
cemented into
metamorphic rocks
sedimentary rock
 Biosphere
• The three components of environment – lithosphere, hydrosphere, atmosphere – interact to
form biosphere. It is the biggest biological systems consisting of small functional units called
biomes.

Biomes
Definition
• A large geographical area of distinctive plants, animals, terrain and climate.

Types
1. Forest Biome
Types Tropical Rainforests – huge trees, deep roots, large green leaves -Ferns, Palms
Temperate Forests – less dense, little light on forest floor - Willow, Basswood, Elm
Boreal Forests – conifers, needle-like leaves, lots of light on forest floor – Fir, Spruce
Land cover on 30% Importance Store carbon
Earth Source of Raw materials
Temperature High (throughout the Biodiversity Most (millions of animals, insect,
year) birds, plants)
Soil Loose, airy, acidic, organic Humidity and Extremely high
matter Rainfall more than 200cm
Animals Birds, insects, bats, deer, foxes, reptiles

2. Desert Biome
Types Hot and Dry Desert – Sahara (North Africa), Tharparkar (Pakistan)
Semiarid Desert – Utah, Montana, Great Basin
Coastal Desert – Atacama Desert (Peru and Chile)
Cold Desert
Land cover on 20% Vegetation Less cover
Earth Plants Short, shrubs, cacti, less leafy –
Karir, Kikar, Babul
Temperature High Biodiversity
Soil Shallow, rocky, no organic Humidity and No humidity
matter, low salt content Rainfall No rainfall (less than 20%), low
cloud cover
Animals Birds, insects, snakes, lizards
3. Grassland Biome
Types Savanna Grassland – Africa, India, South America
Temperate Grassland – South Africa, Argentina, Central North America
Land cover on Vegetation Temperate grassland –
Earth Plants steppes, prairies
Temperature Extreme: hot summers, freezing Biodiversity
winters
Soil Savanna – thin-layered, organic- Humidity and Savanna – moderate
rich Rainfall rainfall
Animals Savanna – lions, hyenas, giraffes, buffaloes
Temperate grassland – hawks, owl, deer, mice, foxes, rabbits, spiders

4. Tundra Biome
Types Artic Tundra – North pole (Summer – 2- -3OC, Winter - -35 OC)
Alpine Tundra – Mountain tops
Land cover on 20% Vegetation Artic Tundra – short –
Earth Plants mosses, lichen
Alpine Tundra – Very few
trees
Temperature Coldest, freezing Biodiversity Least
temperatures
Soil Humidity and Rainfall Little rainfall
Animals Artic Tundra – hares, squirrels, polar bears, artic foxes, birds, insects, salmon
Alpine Tundra – birds, goats, marmots, beetles, butterflies

5. Aquatic Biome
Types Freshwater Biomes – lakes, rivers, ponds,
Marine Biomes – oceans, coral reefs, estuaries
Land cover on 73% Vegetation Algae, plankton, flora
Earth Plants
Temperature Biodiversity Quite
Soil Humidity and Rainfall Little rainfall
Animals Freshwater Biomes – salmon, worms, crabs
Marine Biomes – star fishes, sharks, tuna, sea birds
 II. Air/Atmospheric Pollution
Water and air, the two essential fluids on which all life depends, have become global garbage cans.
Jacques-Yves Cousteau

Definition
• It occurs when air contains gases, dust, fumes or odor in harmful amounts.
• It occurs when the amount of waste entering the atmosphere exceeds atmosphere’s ability to
break down the pollutants.

Types of Pollutants (their sources and effects)

Pollutants Sources Effects
NOx • Fossil fuel combustion (urban – • Respiratory problems
vehicles, industries) • Throat, eye, nose irritation
• Fertilizers (rural) • Acid rain
SOx • Volcanic Eruptions • Nose, eye, throat irritation
(Invisible gas, strong • Coal burning (Domestic, Industrial) • Respiratory problems
smell) • Processing of sulfur containing ores • Acid rain
Particulate matter • Natural: dust, sea spray • Lung irritation, Asthma
(Solid or liquid • Anthropogenic: smoke, exhaust • Cancer
matter suspended in emissions, tire-breaks • Pre-mature death
air)
CO • Incomplete combustion of organic • Heart diseases
(Invisible, odorless material – wood, coal, oil, gas • Binds with hemoglobin (iron protein) in
gas) • Diesel engines; biomass burning RBC → reduces blood capacity to carry
oxygen ➔ headache, nausea,
unconsciousness, death (in 3 minutes)
Bad Ozone • NOx and Hydrocarbons react in • Throat, eye irritation
sunlight → bad ozone • Breathing difficulties
Volatile Organic • Paints, varnishes, foams • Eye, skin irritation
Compounds • Breathing difficulties
• Nausea, dizziness
Micro-organisms • Bacteria, virus, molds • Breathing problems (Pneumonia)
• Allergic reactions
Sources of air pollution
1. Natural Sources (Stationary sources)
i. Volcanic Eruption ➔ SOx ➔ Acid rain (SOx + water – sulfuric acid)
ii. Forest fires ➔ Methan + CO2 (both GHG) ➔ Global Warming

2. Anthropogenic Sources
1) Stationary sources
i. Power plants ➔ Fossil fuel combustion – coal, oil, gas etc. ➔ SOx, NOx, Particulate matter,
CO, ➔ environmental and health problems (asthma, bronchitis, premature death)
ii. Factories exhaust (same as above)
iii. Agricultural activities ➔ Ammonia gas (from fertilizers + livestock waste) combines with
NOx and SOx ➔ particulate matter + aerosol (harmful gas) ➔ heart and respiratory
diseases

2) Mobile sources
i. Vehicle emissions ➔ SOx + NOx + CO + CO2 ➔ Global warming, Acid rain, breathing and
heart problems, irritation (nose, eye, throat)

Sources of air pollution

1. Acid Rain
• SOx, NOx ➔ mix with water in air ➔ Acid rain ➔ damage crops, lake acidification + skin
problems + damage to building
2. Accelerated Global Warming
• GHG (CO2, Methane etc.) release ➔ absorb more sunlight and solar radiation ➔ increase in
Earth temperature
3. Respiratory and Heart problems
• Irritation – eye, nose, throat
• Respiratory problems – asthma, bronchitis, emphysema ➔ lung cancer
• Heart diseases (toxic gases)
4. Wildlife Endangerment and Extinction
• Respiratory and heart problems in animals ➔
animals shift to other places ➔ loss of biodiversity
5. Threat to marine life
• Toxic chemicals deposit on ocean surface ➔ threat
to marine life
6. Smog effect
• Smoke + fog ➔ dark fog – over urban and rural
areas
7. Skin Damage (cause)
• Cause: Chemical intolerances, UV rays, acid rain
Solutions of air pollution
1. Source Control (Mitigation approach)
1) Minimize use of fossil fuel vehicles;
• Use Hybrid vehicles, public transport, ride bicycles
• Carpool with people
2) Use low ash, sulfur, lead content fuel
3) Afforestation and Urban plantation
4) Shift to renewable resources – wind, thermal, solar

2. Control Measures (Adaptation approach)

1) Catalytic convertors in cars – eliminate CO emissions
2) Scrubbers in industries – reduce SO2 emissions
3) Limiting industrial emissions
4) Continues monitoring of atmosphere
5) Energy conservation
• Turn off unnecessary lights, TV, electronic devices
• Use energy efficient appliances – LEDs etc.
• Less energy uses ➔ less electricity generation ➔ less pollution
5) Recycle, and reuse materials and container
6) Public awareness
 Greenhouse effect
Definition
• GH effect – Warming of climate that results when the certain gases (greenhouse gases - GHG) in
Earth’s atmosphere trap heat radiating from the Earth towards space causing Earth’s
temperature to rise.

Process
• Sunlight reaches Earth ➔ some is reflected back to space, while some is absorbed by Earth.
• Earth radiates energy back as heat
(infra-red radiations) ➔ GHG
(Carbon-dioxide-CO2, water vapor-
H2O, Methane-CH4) trap heat and
warm the Earth.

Importance
• GH effect keeps Earth’s climate
livable. W/o GH effect – the average
Earth’s Surface temperature would
have been -19OC (instead of present
15OC)

Enhanced Greenhouse effect

➔ Global Warming
• Industrial Revolution in 1750 ➔
enhance burning of fossil fuels + other anthropogenic activities ➔ increase in concentration of
GHG (CO2, CH4 etc.) in atmosphere ➔ increase in Earth temperature rise ➔ Enhanced Greenhouse
(GH) Effect ➔ Global Warming

Major Greenhouse Gases (GHG) & their Global Warming Potential (GWP)
• GWP – Warming effect of GHG

GHG Anthropogenic Source Atmospheric lifetime (Years) GWP (100-year

time)
Carbon dioxide Fossil fuel combustion 100 1
(CO2) Land conversion
Methane (CH4) Fossil fuel combustion 12 25
Domestic and agriculture waste
NOx Fertilizer, Industries, Fossil fuel 114 298
CFC-12 Foam, liquid coolants 100 10,900
HCFC-12 Refrigerants 12 1,810
Sulfur Dialectic fluid 3,200 22,800
Hexafluoride
 Global Warming & Climate Change
Definition
• Global Warming - Gradual heating of Earth’s surface, oceans and atmosphere, and increase in
global average temperature caused by anthropogenic activities (emission of GHG due to burning
of fossil fuels).
• Climate Change – A change of climate attributed directly or indirectly to human activities that
alters the composition of the global atmosphere and which is in addition to natural climate
variability observed over comparable time-periods

Causes of GW/Climate Change

1. Natural Causes
1) Changes in Sun’s Energy reaching Earth (Minimum effect on CC)
• Changes within sun ➔ changes in solar intensity in sun ➔ changes in sunlight intensity.
• Changes within Earth orbit ➔ (distance b/w earth and sun, change in earth’s orientation)
2) Changes in reflectivity of Earth’s atmosphere and surface (Minimum effect on CC)
• Light (cloud, snow) / Dark (forests, ocean, soil) colored objects and surfaces– reflect/absorb
sunlight;
• Human changes in land cover – deforestation, desertification, urbanization ➔ change in
Earth’s reflectivity (reflection of sunlight → cooling)
3) Volcanic Activity (happens once in million years)
• Volcanic eruption ➔ emission of SO2 in atmosphere ➔ Sulfuric acid clouds over globe ➔
Sunlight reflects ➔ Cooling effect
4) Plate Tectonics (happens once in million years)
• Tectonic plate movement ➔ change in shape of continents and oceans ➔ changes in
climate patterns and ocean-land currents
• Ex: Pangea (240 million years ago) ➔ Triassic (200 million years ago) ➔ Jurassic (170
million years ago) ➔ Cretaceous (90 million years ago)

2. Anthropogenic (Human) Causes

• Increase in CO2 (by 36%) and CH4 (150%) since Industrial Revolution (1750)
1) Fossil fuel combustion (industries and vehicles) – 82% GHG emissions from cars
2) Land conversion, deforestation
3) Fertilizer, pesticides, livestock waste
4) Domestic waste, urbanization
5) Foam, liquid coolants, Refrigerants

Effects of GW/Climate Change

1. Increase in avg global temperature – by 1.5OF (By 2100: 2.5-10 OF increase w.r.t 1990 levels)
(IPCC)
2. Increase in avg global sea level - by 1mm (over last century)
3. Oceans are warming and becoming more acidic
4. Accelerated Melting of ice and glaciers
 • Ice retreat – 10-15 times more than it would have been w/o GW
5. Decrease in snow cover and thawing of permafrost
6. Arctic sea ice loss – both in thickness and area
7. Increasing droughts due to increased evaporation
• Decade-long megadroughts expected in Southern US
8. Decrease in precipitation
• In subtropical regions – Mediterranean, Amazon, Central US, Indonesia, South Africa, Mexico,
Australia
9. More frequent and intense storms and hurricanes due to increase evaporation of oceans
• Ex: Frequency of snowstorms has become twice in US since 1900s (National Center for
Environmental Information)
10. More frequent natural disasters: 125 (1980s) ➔ 400-500 (2007) avg no: of annual global disasters
(Disaster Risk Reduction – Global Review 2007)
11. Decline in agricultural yield
12. Frequent and intensive heatwaves.
13. Increase in hunger and water crisis (in developing countries)
14. Increase in health and environment economic cost
15. Increase in spread of vector-borne diseases – malaria, dengue, yellow fever
16. Loss of biodiversity and shift in vegetation (type, coverage, distribution)
17. Early flowering of plants, birds breeding seasons, emerging of insects
18. Increased coral bleaching
19. Increased forest fires

Effects of GW/CC on Pakistan

1. Melting glacier in Himalayas ➔ increased flooding
2. Decrease in river water flow (future)
3. Decline in freshwater availability ➔ water crisis
4. Increased flooding in coastal areas
5. Decrease in crop yield ➔ hunger crisis/food insecurity + loss of livelihood
6. High mortality rates – due to cholera (in coastal areas), floods, droughts
7. Increase in social inequality ➔ instability, conflict, migration, displacement

Solution of GW/Climate Change

1. Reduce deforestation & promote afforestation
• Trees absorb CO2 (82% of GHG) ➔ decline in CO2 levels + cost-effective. Ex: Billion-tree
tsunami
2. More sustainable transportation habits
• Carpool, public transport, bike-riding, electric/hybrid cars
• No harsh braking or rapid acceleration – save 40% fuel (US Dept of Energy)
3. Low energy consumption
• Less use of heaters and air-conditioners (biggest energy expense)
• Energy efficient appliances -LEDs
• Switch off unused appliances
4. Renewable and clean energy production
5. Reduce, Reuse, Recycle
6. Population controls → less energy needs
7. Implementation of Kyoto and Montreal Protocol
 Ozone Layer and Ozone Depletion
Introduction
• Ozone layer (ozonosphere) – region in upper atmosphere contains high concentration of Ozone
molecules (O3).
• 90% - ozone in stratosphere, 10% - troposphere
• Temp increases in stratosphere with heigh – ozone layer absorbs solar radiation

Importance and disadvantage of Ozone

Importance Disadvantage
• Ozone blocks – UV and other radiations (of • In Troposphere, ozone = air pollutant, GHG,
wavelength below 290nm) and toxic to human and plants
• It protects human health, agricultural crops, • Source of Ozone in troposphere – vehicle
and marine life exhaust
Formation
In stratosphere
• 90% - ozone in stratosphere
• Oxygen (O2) (in stratosphere) splits in sunlight into single
oxygen atoms (O) ➔ Single oxygen atoms join with O2 to
form Ozone (O3)

In troposphere
• 10% - ozone in troposphere
• Oxygen atom in Nitrogen dioxide (NO2) splits in sunlight ➔ this oxygen atom (O) joins with O2 to
form Ozone (O3)
 Ozone Depletion
• UV-light strike with CFC (CFCl3) molecule in upper
atmosphere. ➔ C-Cl bond breaks ➔ Cl atom is produced.
• Cl atom reacts with Ozone (O3) molecule, breaks it and
destroys ozone layer. ➔ Oxygen molecule (O2) + Chlorine-
monoxide (Cl-O) molecule
• A free oxygen atom (O) reacts with Cl-O ➔ forms oxygen
molecule (O2) + chloride atom (Cl)
(the cycle starts from step 2)
• One chloride (or bromide) atom can destroy 100,000 ozone
molecules.
• These Chlorofluorocarbons CFCs are called Ozone-depleting
substances (ODS)

Ozone Depleting Substances

• ODS – man-made chemicals containing chlorine/bromine
atoms.

ODS Uses
CFC - Chlorofluorocarbons • Refrigeration, air-conditioning, insulation
HCFC - Hydrochlorofluorocarbons • HCFC replaced CFC for limited time but later banned
(ODS + GHG) • CFC – covered in Montreal protocol, HCFC – covered in Kyoto
Protocol
Halons • Fire extinguishers
Methyl Bromide (H-Br-C) • Fumigation, soil treatment, pest control (more destructive than CFC)
HBrFC - Hydrobromofluorocarbons • Fire extinguishers
Carbon tetrachloride (C-Cl4) • Pharmaceutical industries

Harms of Ozone Depletion

1) Damage to Human health due to exposure to UV light: skin cancer, cataracts, sunburns, weakening
of immune system, DNA mutation, quick aging
2) Damage to animal health due to exposure to UV light: skin cancer, cataracts etc
3) Damage to agricultural crops due to exposure to UV light: reduced growth, photosynthesis and
flowering ➔ reduction in output (wheat, rice, barley, corn, oats etc.)
4) Threat to marine life due to exposure to UV light: Decrease in plankton production ➔ disruption in
marine food chain
5) Loss of biodiversity in oceans, river, lakes due to exposure to UV light:
6) Degradation of plastics, wood, rubber, fiber due to exposure to UV light
Solution Ozone Depletion
1) Reduction in pesticide (contribute in OD) consumption: Manual weeding of farm + eco-friendly
pesticides
2) Less use of private vehicles: promote public transport, carpool, bicycle-riding
3) Use environment friendly cleaning products and not chemical ones
4) Prohit and control CFC emission: Montreal Protocol (1989) – covered CFC
5) Cover NOx in Montreal Protocol: NOx – not covered in Montreal protocol; it should be covered in
it and should be prohibited
 Acid Rain
Definition
• Acid Rain – Mixture of wet and dry deposition from the atmosphere containing higher than
concentration of sulfuric and nitric acids.
• Wet deposition: In wet areas, acid falls to ground in form of air, fog, snow, mist
• Dry deposition: In dry areas, acid chemicals incorporate into dust or smoke particles and fall to
ground as dry deposition and stick to ground, building, cars, tress etc. 50% of acid rain – dry
deposition.
• pH – below 5.2

Sources
Pollutants Sources Effects
NOx • Fossil fuel combustion (urban – • Respiratory problems
vehicles, industries) • Throat, eye, nose irritation
• Fertilizers (rural) • Acid rain
• Power generation – 25%
SOx • Volcanic Eruptions • Nose, eye, throat irritation
(Invisible gas, strong • Coal burning (Domestic, Industrial) • Respiratory problems
smell) • Processing of sulfur containing ores • Acid rain
• Power generation – 66%

Chemical reaction
• SO2 and NOx react with water, oxygen and other chemicals in air ➔ Form – sulfuric acid, sulfurous
acid, nitric acid, nitrous acid

SO2 + H2O ➔ H2SO3 (Sulfurous acid)

Effects of Acid rain
1) Health problems: respiratory diseases: by SOx - asthma, bronchitis, by NOx – pneumonia,
bronchitis, permanent lung damage
2) Harm to forests and trees:
• Acid rain washes away and dissolve essential growth nutrients (magnesium, calcium)
• Acid rain dissolves Aluminum ➔ trees cannot take up water
• Acid rain ➔ Holes in leaves, dead spots om leaves, falling of leaves.
3) Soil and water poisoning: Mercury and aluminum in soil dissolves in acid ➔ soil poisoning ➔ wash
away to water bodies ➔ water poisoning
4) Acidification of lakes and streams
• pH drops below 6.5 ➔ lake/stream becomes acidic ➔ threat to aquatic wildlife
(phytoplankton, trout, frogs, crayfish etc.)
5) Damage to buildings, monuments, statues: Limestone (Calcium carbonate) reacts with acid ➔
damaging in value and beauty
6) Corrosion of metals: copper, aluminum, cars etc.

Solutions to Acid rain

1) Reduce SOx and NOx emissions from sources
• Reduce private vehicle use: carpool, public transport, bicycles
• Reduce fossil fuel power generation: renewable energy (solar, wind, hydropower, nuclear)
• Factories: use scrubbers (to chemically remove SO2)
2) Energy-conservation
• Switch unused appliances; buy/use energy efficient appliance;
• Limited use of AC ➔ add insulation to house
3) Use scrubbers and catalytic convertors
• Scrubbers (in power plants): Chemically remove SO2 from emissions
• Catalytic convertors (in cars): Chemically reduce NOx from emissions
4) Use renewable energy sources
• Cleaner-burning fuels: low-sulfur coal
• renewable energy: Solar, wind, hydropower, nuclear, geothermal
 Montreal Protocol
Introduction
• Montreal Protocol on Substances that Depleting the Ozone Layer (A protocol to Vienna Convention
on Protection of Ozone Layer)
• Aim: Protect stratospheric ozone layer by phasing out production and consumption of ODS
• Signed: 16 Sept 1987; Enforced: 1 Jan 1989
• Parties: 191 nations

Salient Features
• Parties: 191 nations
• Reduce production and consumption of ODS
o CFC – by 80% of 1986 levels by 1994; Halons – by 50% of 1986 levels by 1999

Success
• MP – extremely successful
o Exceptional International Co-operation – 191 parties (universal ratification) - Kofi Annan
(Former UN Sec. Gen) “It is the single most successful international agreement to date”
o 99% ODS passed out, ozone layer will return to 1980 levels b/w 2050-2070
o Ozone hole in Antarctica – slowly recovering
o 2 million skin cancers will be avoided by 2030

Kigali Amendment to Montreal Protocol – 2016

• Background:
o CFCs were replaced by HCFCs/HFCs (because they were not ODS)
o But HCFCs/HFCs are powerful GHGs
• 170 + countries agreed to amend (Kigali Amendment) Montreal Protocol in it 28th Meeting of
Parties to the Montreal Protocol held in Oct-2016 in Kigali, Rwanda
• Aim: Phase-out the production and consumption of HFCs
• Goal: 80% reduction in HFC consumption by 2047.
• Benefit: It will avoid 0.5OC increase in global temperature by 21st century
 Kyoto Protocol
Introduction
• KP – international agreement under UNFCCC (UN Framework Convention on Climate Change)
• Aim: Reduce CO2 emissions and GHG in atmosphere
• Adopt: Kyoto – Japan (11 Dec, 1997);
Enforced: 16 Feb, 2005 (after acceptance of Russian Federation – 55 countries responsible for 55%
emission in 1990)
• Current parties: 192 (191-states and EU); US dropped in 2001

Parties
Annex-1 Non-Annex-1 Annex-2
Industrialized states (37 states + Developing Countries Industrialized states
EU) • China • OECD (and not EIT)
• OECD members – 1992 • India • Provide financial assistance
• EIT Parties – Russian • Pakistan etc. to developing countries –
Federation, Baltic States, • Non-binding (voluntary) – undertake emission
Central and East European more than 100 reduction projects and
States. adapt to climate change
• Emission reduction – legally effects
binding
Objectives
• Main goal: Control GHG emissions
• Annex-I Parties:
o Legally binding commitments to reduce GHG emissions
o Each state shall prepare policies and measures to reduce GHG
• Compliance Committee – enforce compliance with Protocol commitments
• Adaption Fund – to minimize impacts on Developing Countries
• Accounting, Reporting, Review – by parties (to ensure integrity)

Commitment Period
1) 1st Commitment Period (2008-2012)
• Annex-I countries – 5% GHG emission reduction of 6 gases (N2O, SF6, CO2, CH4, HFCs, PFCs)
(compared to 1990 levels)
• EU – 12.2% reduction;
• Total GHG emission (2010) – 24% increase (India and China responsible)

2) 2nd Commitment Period (2013-2020): Doha Amendment to Kyoto Protocol (8-12-2012)

• Annex-I countries – 18% GHG emission reduction of 6 gases (N2O, SF6, CO2, CH4, HFCs, PFCs)
(compared to 1990 levels)

3) Paris Climate Accord (2015)

• Signed by all UNFCCC parties to replace Kyoto Protocol
Mechanism
Article-12: Clean
Article-17: Emission Article-6: Joint
Development Mechanism
Trading/Carbon Trading Implementation
(CDM)

Industrialized state can Industrialized state can

implement emission- implement emission-
reduction or emission- reduction project in
Each Party - AAU (Assigne
removal project in another developing country in
Amount Units)
insustrialized country in exchange of Certified
exchange of Emission Emission Reduction (CER)
Reduction Units (ERU) Certificates

A party with spare AAU can

trade it with other party Solar electification Solar electification
which has crossed its Energy efficient boiler etc. Energy efficient boiler etc.
limits.

Criticism
1) Non-ratification by US
• US – 25% global GHG emission (biggest GHG emission) – dropped from KP in 2001 on the
pretext that KP would harms its economy. Plus, KP was unfair – it called only

2) Exclusion of Developing Countries

• India and China (2nd biggest GHG emitter) unchecked ➔ increase in overall GHG emission
• Suggestion: Include all countries

3) No penalty for non-compliance

4) Exploitation of carbon trading
• Rich countries avoided cutting emission by investing in emission reduction projects. 80%
emission reduction projects – India and China

5) Heavy direct and economic cost of implementation

• So, other projects – clean water – cheap and immediate benefits to majority

6) Brazil wanted Amazon to be counted as its Carbon sink

Success or Failure
• Failure: GHG emission increased by 24% in 2010 (due to China and India) (Failed to achieve
objective)
• Success: KP laid foundation for future programs, increased awareness, initiated research and
technology to cub Climate Change

Paris Climate Accord (2016)

Introduction
• Paris Climate Accord/Deal (Paris Agreement) – sponsored by UN to fight CC
• Signed – 5 Oct 2016; Ratified – 4 Nov 2016 (after 55 countries responsible for 55% global
emissions)
• Aim – Limit global avg temp increase to below 2OC
• Obj: adopt green energy sources, reduce GHG emission, limit rise of global temperature

Salient Features
• Limit global avg temp increase to below 2OC above pre-industrial era, and make efforts to limit
temp increase to 1.5OC
• Individual Plan – Nationally determined Contributions – for each country o tackle GHG
• All countries- review their contribution after every 5 years. Each new plan – more progressive than
previous plan.
o Obama administration – vow to cut emissions by26-28% below 2005 levels by 2025
• Funding demand from Developed countries - $100 billion (US pledged $ 3 billion to Green Climate
Fund)
 III. Water Pollution
Definition
• Water Pollution – contamination of water bodies (lakes, rivers, oceans etc.) by human activities
• Water pollution – all of the waste material, introduced into water bodies by anthropogenic
activities, that cannot be broken down by water and degrade water quality.

Sources of Water Pollution

Point sources Non-point Sources
• Contamination originates from a single • Contamination originates from different/scattered
source. source.
• Ex: Wastewater from industry, illegal • Difficult to identify and cannot be traced back to a
dumping, oil spill. particular location.
• Ex: Domestic waste, agricultural run-off,
construction sites, leaching of chemicals into
underground water supply

Causes of Water Pollution (their sources and effects)

Causes (Type Detail (Pollutants) Source Effect
of pollutant)
Chemical • Fossil fuel products (crude • Industrial waste • Toxic and harmful to marine life
Pollutants oil, diesel, kerosene etc.) • Oil spilling (in and people who consume fish
• Petroleum Solvents oceans) products
(benzene, toluene etc.) • Pharmaceutical
• Chlorinated solvents industries
• Organic solvents (alcohols, • Chemical
acetone etc.) industries
• Pharmaceutical products
Metals and • Mercury, Arsenic, Chromium • Industrial and • Toxic and harmful to marine life
their etc. mining sites and people who consume fish
compounds products (cancers etc.)
Biodegradable • Animal, plant, human waste • Domestic, • Infectious diseases (diarrhea,
waste • commercial, cholera etc.)
• industrial • Oxygen depletion due to
• agricultural areas decomposition by microbes ➔
killing aquatic life
 Plant nutrients • Phosphates, nitrates from • Agriculture run-off • Eutrophication – algae bloom
fertilizer, • Livestock farming ➔ water turns green and
• Livestock and animal waste cloudy ➔ plants (weeds) grow
➔ bacteria decompose plants
and use up oxygen ➔ aquatic
life dies
Sediments • Mineral and organic solid • Construction • Clog municipal water
matter • Agriculture and • Thermal pollution – water
livestock becomes cloudy, turbid and
• Flooding accepts more solar radiation
• Domestic areas
Acid and • Sox, NOx • Acid rain • Acidification of lake
Alkaline • Industrial, power • Leaching of heavy metal into
materials plants and vehicle water bodies
emissions
Radioactive • Radioactive material • Nuclear plants • Radioactive reaction in aquatic
pollutants life – changing DNA
• Cancers in animals/humans

Effects of Water Pollution

1. Human health – contamination of water from human and animal waste, agriculture, industrial
waste, sewage facilities, power plants etc.
a. Illness due to unsafe drinking water: 1 billion get sick annually (mostly in LDCs)
b. Diseases spread by water-borne pathogens – cholera, giardia, typhoid
c. Lack of access to safe drinking water – 2.1 billion people
d. Cancers from radioactive waste
2. Environment – threat to marine life span and reproduction ability
a. Eutrophication → death from marine life
b. Chemical and heavy metals from industrial and municipal wastewater
c. Marine debris (plastic bags, soda cans etc.) – strangle, suffocate, starve animals
d. Acid Rain – death of aquatic life due to lake acidification

Solutions of Water Pollution

1. Individual Level
a. Water conservation – less use → less contamination
b. Avoid excessive use of fertilizers – people use – 10-50 times more fertilizer
c. Use less phosphate detergents – plants can remove only 30% of phosphate from waste
d. Use natural cleaner (baking soda, vinegar) rather than industrial cleaners.
e. Reduce (consumption), reuse, recycle plastics
f. Proper disposal of oils, chemical cleaners to prevent them from drains.
2. Societal/State Level
a. Proper disposal and containment of toxic materials from factories, construction, chemical
factories
b. Renewable energy resources (solar, wind, hydro-power) are eco-friendly and pollution free
c. Clean and filter toxic fumes from industrial zones → less acid rain
d. Manufacture eco-friendly and recyclable products and goods
e. Wastewater treatment – physical, chemical and biological processes to remove pollutants
f. Green agriculture – limit the use of chemical fertilizers and pesticides
g. Drip irrigation to conserve water – 70% global water is used by agriculture
h. Stormwater management in urban areas to reduce runoff of rainwater.
i. Plastic waste reduction and improve plastic wase management – 80% of plastic in ocean in
from land
j. Water conservation – water is scarce resource – only 3% - freshwater (out of total Earth’s
water)
 IV. Land Pollution
Definition
• Degradation or destruction of earth’s surface and soil, directly or indirectly, due to anthropogenic
activities.

Causes of Land Pollution

1. Deforestation and soil erosion to create dry and barren lands – for construction, roads etc.
2. Land conversion: alteration or modification of original land for specific purpose – agriculture, road,
construction etc.
3. Unused land over years becomes barren.
4. Excessive use of highly toxic fertilizers and pesticides causes soil contamination and poisoning
5. Mining activities: removal of fertile topsoil + land caving in + land excavation for extracting
valuable elements
6. Overcrowded landfills: huge amount of domestic and industrial waste ➔ unrecycled items end up
in landfills causing land pollution.
7. Increasing Industrialization ➔ more deforestation for industrial land.
8. Expanding urbanization: deforestation for construction + more waste generation
9. Dumping left over nuclear and chemical waste in ground ➔ land poisoning
10. Leftover treated sewage ➔ landfills and land pollution

Effects of Land Pollution

1. Soil poisoning due to overuse of chemical fertilizers.
2. Soil erosion and loss of fertile soil due to deforestation and over-grazing
3. Loss of biodiversity and Threat to wildlife due to loss of habitat ➔ animal migration → death and
extinction
4. Change in rain cycle and patterns due to deforestation and loss of green cover
5. Change in climate patterns and Global Warming due to deforestation as there are less trees to
absorb Greenhouse gases (CO2)
6. Human health problems: toxic chemicals and pesticides in foods and vegetables ➔ skin cancer,
respiratory issues + birth defects.
7. Damage to food safety: contaminated soil ➔ toxic pollutants enter plants ➔ animal eat plants
8. Air pollution due to waste burning
9. Spread of disease due to increase in rodents and mice
10. Groundwater poisoning in landfills: toxic chemicals (arsenic, lead, cadmium) mix with groundwater
thorough water percolation and leaching from landfills.
11. Loss of tourism due to urban land pollution.
Suggestion to control and prevent Land Pollution
1. Public education and awareness about Reduce, Reuse, Recycle
2. Proper disposal of personal litter
3. Buy biodegradable products.
4. Avoid excessive use of fertilizers and pesticides.
5. Organic gardening Treatment and eat organic food
6. Avoid buying packaged products
7. Replantation and urban plantation
8. Dumping sites – away from residential areas
9. Sustainable Forest Management – to prevent soil pollution and barren lands
10. Proper waste disposal and management system - proper and efficient waste disposal of toxic and
hazardous material
 V. Solid Waste Management
Definition
• Waste: Any waste discharged from domestic, commercial, industrial areas or from agricultural and
mining processes.
• Solid Waste Management: It is systematic management of Generation, Collection, Transfer,
Treatment, Recycle, Recovery and Disposal of solid waste

Current Status
• Global waste generation – 2.01 billion tons of municipal solid waste annually
Expected: 3.4 billion tons (by 2050 – 70% increase)
• Pakistan – 20 million tons (0.283 to 0.612 kg/capita/day, growth rate – 2.4%)
Daily: 71,000 tons (Karachi – 9000 tons)

Categories of Solid Waste

Category Explanation
Municipal solid Household garbage, sanitation residue etc.
waste
Industrial waste Waste generated while industrial manufacturing and processing.
Agricultural waste Animal dung and crop residue from farm activities
Fishery waste Waste from fishery activities
Biodegradable Waste generated during diagnosis, treatment, and research activities of
waste medical sciences.
Radioactive waste Waste from nuclear processes (radioactive material)
E-waste Discarded electrical or electronic devices.
Hazardous waste Waste dangerous to human, plant or animal life.
Types: Ignitable, Corrosive, Reactive (chemically), Toxic
Sources: hospitals, labs, industries, agriculture

Reasons for Solid Waste Management

• Health and environment protection
• Breathing problems – by harmful gases released by rotting garbage
• Foul smell → nausea
• Water borne disease – cholera, abdominal discomfort
• Global cleanliness, sustainable development (health and resource conservation)
Solid Waste Management: Issues in Pakistan
• Heavy waste generation
o Annual – 20 million tons (0.283 to 0.612 kg/capita/day, growth rate – 2.4%)
o Daily: 71,000 tons (Karachi – 9000 tons)
• Increase in population and household size in major cities (Karachi, Hyderabad, Lahore etc.)
o 1.9 to 4.3 kg/house/day; Population double in 10 years
• Poor/No solid waste management poses threat to environmental sustainability
o No proper collection, treatment, or disposal
o Open dumping, and burning, un-engineered landfill
o Inadequate human and capital resources for collection and disposal
o No official dumping site and/or recycling processes
• Unplanned urbanization, poor sanitation, ill-planned drainage system
• Inadequate environmental legislation and outdated rules and regulations.

Solid Waste Management (G, C, T, R, R, T, D)

1. Generation – waste disposal
2. Collection
a. Primary collection: waste collection from source (domestic/commercial) and transported to
transfer point or recycling/treatment/disposal sites.
b. Secondary collection: waste collection from transfer point and transported to
recycling/treatment/disposal sites.
3. Transfer – transport of waste from source or transfer point to recycling/treatment/disposal sites
• Recycle – Collection, sorting and processing used, unused, reused item into new raw material➔
remanufacture them into new products
4. Recovery – converting waste into useable heat, electricity, or fuel through combustion, gasification
etc.
5. Treatment – reducing the volume and toxicity of waste. (Shredding, incineration, anaerobic
digestor)
6. Disposal – discharge, deposit, dumping solid or hazardous waste into landfill (disposal facility –
trenches and pits)
Waste Management Hierarchy
• Introduced by EU Waste Framework Directive – 1975 as SWM policy
• WMH ranks the various management strategies from most to least environmentally preferred

• Waste prevention – reducing waste generation at source

Reduction • Ex: Reduce packaging; use cloth napkins (not paper napkins); avoid
(Most environmentally disposable glass, cups, plates; avoid over-packaged products
preferred) • Benefits: reduce toxicity, conserve natural resources and energy, reduce
pollution etc.
• Re-use materials and products
• Ex: Old jars and pots – to store loose items
Reuse Tires – tire-swing; Old clothes – cushion covers
Newspaper: wrap/pack items
• Benefits: conserve resources and environment
• Collection, sorting and processing used, unused, reused item into raw
material and remanufacture them into new product.
• Ex: Buy recyclable products - glass jars
Recycle
Buy recycled material – recycled paper, recycled glass etc
Sort b/w recyclable and non-recyclable products
• Benefits: less pollution, energy saving, resource conservation, etc.
• Converting non-recyclable waste into useable heat, fuel, electricity via
Recovery combustion, gasification, anaerobic digestion, landfill gas recovery (LFG).
(Waste-to-energy) • Benefits: renewable energy, less GHG emission, less methane emission
from landfills
• Reduce volume and toxicity of waste
Treatment • Physical – shredding, Chemica – incineration, biological – anaerobic
digestor
Landfill • Structure for garbage disposal
 Landfill
• Structure carefully designed and constructed (in or out of ground) for garbage disposal and protect
environment and public.

Types of landfills
• Sanitary landfills: accept hazardous waste – hospital waste
• Municipal solid waste (MSW) landfills: accept domestic and commercial waste.
• Construction and demolition waste landfills: debris of construction, renovation, demolitions of
buildings and bridges.
• Industrial waste landfills: industrial non-hazardous waste

Structure of landfills
• Bottom-liner: The bottom surface constructed with HDPE (High Density Polyethylene), and
compacted clay and soil. It separates waste from soil and groundwater, and prevents leaching and
percolation.
• Cells: area of waste disposal where waste is placed in layers then compacted with landfill
compaction machinery
• Leachate collection system: waste liquid collected, removed and later treated.
• Methane collection system: Bacteria breakdown trash under anaerobic conditions giving off
methane gas. It is collected with pipes. (Use: energy production)
• Cover (cap): to isolate waste from exposure to air, pest and control odor. Permanent cover –
polyethylene plastic, compacted soil and clay.

Advantage Disadvantage
• Cheap waste disposal • Ugly site look
• Local jobs • Air pollution and Global Warming (Methane)
• Different type of waste can be disposed • Water pollution – percolation and leaching
• Methane gas – used for generating power • Land cannot be used for re-development

Composting
• Microbes breakdown (decompose) organic waste material into ➔ Compost

Advantage Disadvantage
• Compost can be used as environment friendly • Only biodegradable waste can be composted
manure • Heavy initial investment
• Improves soil quality and structure (Cheap soil • Unpleasant smell and appearance
conditioner) • Attract pests (rats, snakes, bugs)
• Fully organic fertilizer • Time-consuming and space consuming
• Better yield • Disease spread
• Easy to produce • Fire hazard
• Environment friendly • Not suitable for all kinds of organic matter
• Less waste • Requires constant monitoring
 Incineration
• Burning solid waste to ashes at high temperatures.
• They are made in such a way that they do not give off extreme amounts of heat when burning solid
wastes.
• Modern incinerations: incineration under controlled conditions
• Combustion stages:
o Primary combustion: moisture driven off ➔ ignited and volatized
o Secondary combustion: oxidation of remaining unburned gases and particulates ➔ odor
elimination and reduction of ash

Advantage Disadvantage
• Can be done by individuals, municipalities • Increase in CO2 production (due to
and even institutions. combustion)
• Reduces volume of waste to 20-30% of • Incomplete fusion of ash and mineral matter
original volume. • Air pollution control cost > energy conservation
• Energy recovery – heat and electricity cost
consumption • Ash – dewatered and chemically stabilized
• Reduction in energy cost before disposal
• Ash – used as cover for landfill • Wastewater from air pollution control is
• Less need for landfills discharged to treatment plant.
• Recover and sell metals

Comparison
Landfill Incineration Composting
Advantages • Low investment • Harmless • High quality organic
• Simple • Less land fertilizer
implementation • Power generation • Recycling
• High capacity • Volume reduction
• Low operation cost
• Biogas production
Disadvantages • More land • High cost and technology • High sorting cost
• Pollution • Air pollution (harmful gases • Used for limited organic
and toxins) matter
 VI. Remote sensing and GIS
Remote Sensing
Definition
• It is a science of obtaining information about Earth’s surface from a distance – from satellite or
aircraft.
• Remote sensors collect data by detect reflected energy from Earth. These sensors can be mounted
on satellites or aircraft.

Types of Remote Sensors

• Passive Sensors: They record reflected or emitted energy from Earth’ Surface. They can only work
when the sunlight is illuminating the Earth (only in day-time).
• Active Sensors: They have their own energy source for illumination. The sensor emits radiations
towards Earth’s surface, and detect and measure reflected radiations from Earth.

Remote Sensing Platforms

• Ground-based sensors: they are placed on ladders, tall buildings, crane etc. The information
collected is compared with information collected from aerial platforms.
• Aerial platforms: Sensors is attached to aircraft, helicopter or satellites (Ex: Landsat-8)

Components and Process of Remote Sensing

• 4 components: Energy source, target, transmission path, sensor

Energy source: Atmosphere and target Recording by sensor

It illuminates The energy travels through The sensor collects and
electromagnetic energy atmosphere, and interacts records the
to target. with target. electromagnetic radiation.

Transmission, receiving,
Interpretation and processing
Application
Analysis It transmits recorded
The information is
The image is interpreted energy to receiving and
applied to solve a
and analysed to extract processing station, and
particular problems
information data is processed into
image.

Image Analysis
• The satellite capture image and send it to computer for digital processing and analysis. Software
like ERDAS Imagine, MapInfo, ERMapper are used for image processing.
Types of Image Resolution
Spatial Spectral Resolution Temporal Radiometric
Resolution Resolution Resolution
Definition It is the size of Ability of satellite Ability of a satellite Ability of a satellite
smallest object sensor to measure to collect images of to differentiate
that can be specific wavelengths the same between variation
detected by (of electromagnetic geographical in light intensities or
satellite. resolution) location at different reflectance or
times. energy
High Small resolution Narrower wavelength smallest possible Clear distinction
resolution and greater no: range for a particular time difference: 2 between light
of pixels channel or band hrs., 24 hrs., 1 week intensities
Advantages
• Quick and time saving: Speedy gathering, transmission and processing of information.
• Gather information of inaccessible areas (mountains, disaster affected areas)
• Saves fieldwork efforts and time
• Provide repetitive coverage of same geographical area for monitoring any variation
• Help study variety of earth’s surface features.

Applications of Remote Sensing

Area Explanation Use
Coastal areas Monitor shoreline changes Coastal mapping
Mop coastal features Erosion prevention
Oceans Monitor ocean circulation and current Better management of ocean
Measure ocean temperature and wave resources
height
Hazard assessment Track hurricanes, earthquakes and floods Assess impact of disaster
Create preparedness strategies
(pre and post disaster)
Natural Resource Monitor land use, wetlands and wildlife Protect natural resources
Management habitat
Use in Pakistan
Agriculture Monitoring, forecasting, and estimation of wheat, cotton, rice, sugarcane
and maize crops. (Managed by SUPARCO)
Forestry Forest mapping, updating, resource inventory, changing & GID base
development
Monitor Mangrove and coastal forests
Disaster monitoring Satellite images, damage assessment for disaster planning, management,
and management and mitigation
Land Use Mapping of Land use, infrastructure, urban sprawl mapping,
AJK
 Geographic Information System (GIS)
Definition
• GIS – a computer system designed to capture, store, update, manipulate, analyze, and display all
forms of geographically referenced information. (US-Geological Survey)
• Examples: AGIS (Automated GIS), EIS (Environmental IS), LIS (Land IS),
CAD/CAM (Computer-aided drafting/mapping)

Origin
• John Snow (1st GIS Case - 1854) (London Cholera Case)
o Epidemiological analysis of disease: understand spread of disease.
o Geographical analysis of disease: plotting deaths on map
• Dr. Roger Tomilson (1933-2014): Father of GIS

Components
• Hardware: A Computer on which GIS operates. Ex: Servers, desktop computers etc.
• Software: It provides functions and tools required to store, analyze, display and geographic
information. Ex: Graphic User Interface (GUI), tools for – input, manipulation, analysis,
visualization of geographic information
• Data: Geographic (spatial) or tabular data.
• People: Technical experts (design and maintain system), daily users
• Procedure: plan, business rules, models, operating practices

Types of GIS software

• Desktop GIS: Mapping software that runs on desktop computer.
• Geobrowser: Collection of many types of geographic data. It is Internet explorer for geographic
information. Ex: Google Earth
• Web-based GIS: Online GIS application to view geographical data. Ex: London Profiler, office pf
National Statistics (ONS)

Working
• A GIS arranges different types of geographic maps (of a common location) into layers and combines
them together in a one single map displaying different type of information
• Example: Using GIS, a single map can incorporate different maps giving information about people
(population, income, educational), landscape (kinds of vegetation, soil), sites (factories, farms,
schools etc.).

Application
• Environmental System: Environmental Impact Analysis, Climate Change, Groundwater
contamination tracking
• Agriculture: Soil mapping, Crop productivity
• Military and Defense: Location intelligence, Spy satellites, Logistic management
• Urban planning: Area zoning, Crime analysis, City development planning
• Forestry: Deforestation, Forest cover
• Public safety: Spread of disease, Disaster response, public health
 VII. Population Planning
Current Population Status and future trend
• UN report – World Population Prospects – 2015 (in billions)
o 7.3 (2015) ➔ 8.5 (2030) ➔ 9.7 (2050) ➔ 11.5 (2100)
• Pakistan population (in millions)
o 32.5 (1951) – 14th most populous country ➔ 184.5 (2013) (5.5 times increase) – 6th most
populous ➔ 2050 – 5th most populous country (estimated)
o Population growth rate – 2%

Definition
• Population planning: practice of intentionally and artificially controlling the growth of a human
population.
• Family planning: Allowing individuals and couples to anticipate and attain their desired no: of
children, spacing and timing of their births

Historical population planning

• Before 1900s – goal: increase the rate of human population.
• After 1950s – goal: reduce population growth due to increasing poverty, environmental
degradation and other issues.

Types of population planning by governments

• Increase overall population growth rate.
• Decrease overall population growth rate.
• Eugenics - decrease relative population growth rate of a less favored subgroup (ethnicity, disabled,
religious minority etc.) Ex: Hitler’s extermination of Jews
• Equal average rate of population growth rate of all subgroups.

Population policies to reduce population growth rates

War Higher taxes (on having more kids) Abortion Contraception
Sterilization Education Family planning One child policy

Population policies to increase population growth rates

Higher taxes (on Promoting bigger Subsidies for families Less immigration
having no or less kids) families with children restrictions and/or
mass recruitment of
foreign workers
 Methods of contraception
Method of contraception Explanation
Last long, more effective
Long-Acting Reversible
• Intra-Uterine Device (IUD): last 5 or more years
Contraception (LARC)
• Implants under skin: 3-5 years
Stop ovulation ➔ prevent pregnancy (99% effective)
• Combined Oral Contraceptive pill/injection – contain progestin and
Hormonal contraception
estrogen
• Progestogen only Contraceptive pill/injection –
Pills used by women to prevent unwanted pregnancies. To be used with
Emergency Contraception 120 hours (5 days) or ASAP
Pills (ECP) • Oral Contraceptive pills – contain progestin only
• Combined Oral Contraceptive pills – contain progestin and estrogen
Barrier methods • Condoms (male): latex rubber covering on penis
(Stop sperm from entering • Condoms (female): poly urethane patch inserted in vagina
vagina) • Diaphragm (female): latex cup inserted in vagina
• Recognizing signs of fertility in woman’s menstrual cycle to plan or
Fertility awareness
avoid pregnancy
• Vasectomy (males): vas deferens tubes are cut and tied. ➔ No sperm
in semen.
Permanent contraception
• Tubal Litigation (females): fallopian tubes are clipped/closed ➔
sperm can’t get to an egg to fertilize.

Demography and Demographic processes

• Demography: study of human population w.r.t size, composition (age, gender, education, marital
status), distribution and changes in population that increases with time.
• Demographic processes
o Fertility: no: of births that occur in a population
o Mortality: no: of deaths that occur in a population
o Migration: movement of people into or out of a specific geographic location
• Causes of increasing population

Increasing birth rate Declining death rate Increase in migration

• social and cultural • Better life quality • Pull • Push
opposition to family • Better sanitation and o Persecution, violence, o Safety, stability,
planning environment war freedom
• lack of political will to • Improved health o Poor wages, lack of jobs o Higher wages, job
family planning facilities o Agriculture failure, prospect
• Limited access to o Increased life span feminine o Food availability
contraceptives o Vaccinations o Natural disaster o Better environment
• Lack of public education, o Reduced child o Limited opportunities, o Better life quality
communication and will mortality services o Availability of
• Inefficient management services
Disadvantages of Large Population
• Low per capita income.
• Poverty and declining living standards
• Increase unemployment rate
• Food insecurity
• Decline in social infrastructure
• Environmental degradation
• Inefficiency in labor force

Benefits of family planning

• Preventing pregnancy related health risks in women:
o Prevent early childbearing in young women
o Appropriate spacing between pregnancies
o Prevents unintended pregnancies and unsafe abortions
• Reducing infant mortality: by avoiding closed spaced and ill-timed pregnancies.
• Preventing the spread of HIV/AIDS: condoms; avoiding birth of children whose parents were
infected with HIV.
• Better education for children: Less children ➔ Better education facilities
• Women empowerment and autonomy: women can pursue education and/or employment over
family.
• Reducing adolescent pregnancies: less baby-health issues and school/education issues
• Slowing down unsustainable population growth rate

Benefits of population planning

• Limited choice of methods
• Limited access to contraception among young and poor (only small fraction uses contraceptives)
o Pak – 25% married women are in dire need of family planning
• Fear of side-effects and experience
• Cultural and religious opposition
• Poor quality of available services