X-Rays

X-rays
• A form of electromagnetic radiation
• First example of ionising radiation
• Wilhelm Conrad Röntgen (1895)
• The first Nobel Prise in Physics 1901
• Frequency
• 3 · 1016 Hz – 3 · 1019 Hz
• Wavelength
• 0.01 nm – 10 nm
• Shorter than UV
• Longer than γ
• Energy
• 100 eV – 100 keV
• Higher than UV
• Lower than γ

Different applications use different parts of the X-ray spectrum.

[Cit. 10. 4. 2020] Available at: [Link]
Origin of X-rays
• X-rays are generated
• Whenever electrons become stopped after striking a heavy metal
target with a sufficiently high velocity
• Through two different atomic processes
• Bremsstrahlung
• Braking radiation
• K-shell emission
• Electron capture

X-ray generation. [Cit. 10. 4. 2020] Available at:

[Link]
X-rays: Generation
X-rays are a form of high-energy electromagnetic radiation. They are produced when high-
energy electrons collide with matter (typically a target in an X-ray tube). The process of X-ray
generation involves the conversion of kinetic energy of electrons into electromagnetic energy
(X-rays) upon interaction with atoms.
Generation Process:
• Electron Emission: Inside an X-ray tube, a cathode is heated (usually via a filament), and
this heating causes the release of electrons (a process known as thermionic emission).
• Acceleration of Electrons: These free electrons are accelerated towards the anode (target)
by applying a high voltage between the cathode and anode. The voltage is typically in the
range of 30 kV to 150 kV.
• Electron Deceleration/Collision: Upon hitting the anode, these high-speed electrons collide
with the atoms of the target material (commonly tungsten, molybdenum, or rhodium),
resulting in two key phenomena: the production of continuous radiation (Bremsstrahlung
radiation) and characteristic radiation.
• Continuous Radiation (Bremsstrahlung Radiation):
o Mechanism: Continuous radiation occurs when a high-energy electron is
deflected by the nucleus of an atom in the target. The electron loses energy
due to the interaction, and this energy is emitted in the form of X-rays.
o Energy Spectrum: The energy of these X-rays is not fixed but varies. As
the electron is deflected, the amount of energy it loses determines the
energy of the emitted X-ray. The result is a continuous spectrum of
radiation with a range of wavelengths and energies, with the highest energy
corresponding to the maximum kinetic energy of the electron.
o Spectral Characteristics: The continuous radiation spectrum has a broad
distribution, with most of the energy concentrated at the lower end of the
spectrum.
• Characteristic Radiation:
o Mechanism: Characteristic radiation occurs when an electron from the high-energy
electron beam knocks an inner-shell electron (such as from the K-shell) out of its
orbit in the target atom. This creates a vacancy in the inner shell. An electron from a
higher energy shell (such as the L-shell) drops to fill this vacancy, and the energy
difference between the shells is emitted as X-ray radiation.
The production of X-rays occurs inside a vacuum tube, which is a sealed container that allows the
electron beam to travel without interference from air molecules. The key components of the vacuum
tube include:
• Cathode: The cathode is the negative electrode, consisting of a heated filament (also called the
electron emitter) that releases electrons when heated via thermionic emission. The cathode is
typically made of tungsten or another material with a high melting point.
• Anode: The anode is the positive electrode that serves as the target for the accelerated electrons. It
is typically made of tungsten, a material chosen for its high atomic number (which increases X-ray
production efficiency) and its high melting point (since it absorbs the kinetic energy of the electrons
as heat).
• Anode Design:
o In many X-ray tubes, the anode is made as a rotating disk to prevent the target from
overheating, as the energy from the electron impact is converted primarily into heat.
o The anode can be either a stationary or rotating target. The rotating anode is used to spread
the heat over a larger surface area, reducing the risk of overheating.
• Vacuum: The vacuum inside the tube ensures that the electron beam does not interact with air
molecules. Without the vacuum, electrons would collide with air particles and lose energy before
reaching the target. The vacuum also prevents electrical discharges between the anode and cathode.
Intensities of X-ray Beams
The intensity of an X-ray beam refers to the amount of energy that passes through a given area
per unit time. The intensity is influenced by several factors:
• Tube Current (mA): The current (measured in milliamps, mA) determines the number of
electrons generated at the cathode and accelerated towards the anode. A higher mA leads to
a greater quantity of electrons hitting the target, which increases the number of X-rays
produced, thus increasing the intensity of the beam.
• Tube Voltage (kVp): The voltage (measured in kilovolts, kVp) controls the energy of the
accelerated electrons. A higher kVp increases the kinetic energy of the electrons, resulting
in more energetic X-rays (higher energy and higher penetration). Higher kVp also increases
the overall intensity of the X-ray beam because more energy is transferred to the X-rays.
• Exposure Time: The exposure time is the duration for which the X-ray tube is activated.
The longer the exposure time, the greater the total number of X-rays produced, and thus,
the higher the intensity.
Filters are used in X-ray tubes to improve the quality of the X-ray beam and reduce the radiation
dose to the patient.
• Purpose of Filters:
o Beam Hardening: Filters absorb lower-energy (soft) X-rays that do not contribute
significantly to image quality but increase patient dose. By removing these lower-energy X-
rays, the remaining X-rays have higher energy, which improves image quality and reduces
unnecessary radiation exposure.
• Materials for Filters: Filters are usually made from aluminum or other materials with high
atomic numbers. The filter is placed in the path of the X-ray beam before it exits the tube.
• Effects of Filtering: Filtering effectively reduces the overall radiation dose to the patient by
eliminating lower-energy X-rays that would be absorbed by the body without contributing to the
diagnostic image.
Characteristics of X-rays

[Link] Radiation: X-rays are a form of electromagnetic radiation, similar to visible light but with much higher energy. They have
wavelengths between 0.01 to 10 nanometers and frequencies ranging from 30 petahertz (PHz) to 30 exahertz (EHz). This high frequency
allows them to penetrate through various materials.

[Link] Power: X-rays have high energy and the ability to penetrate solid objects, including human tissue, which makes them valuable
for imaging. Their ability to pass through matter depends on the material’s density and atomic number—denser materials like bone absorb
more X-rays, whereas less dense materials like soft tissue absorb fewer.

[Link] Radiation: X-rays are ionizing, meaning they have enough energy to remove electrons from atoms, which can potentially damage
or alter cells and DNA. This is why proper precautions are needed when working with X-ray radiation.

[Link] to the Human Eye: X-rays are not visible to the human eye due to their wavelength being outside the visible spectrum. However,
they can be detected by special sensors or photographic film.

[Link] Shadow Images: When X-rays pass through a body or object, some of the radiation is absorbed, and the rest is detected on a film
or sensor, creating an image. Denser materials absorb more X-rays, which results in a dark shadow on the final image (e.g., bones appear
white on an X-ray).

[Link] be Reflected and Refracted: X-rays behave like other electromagnetic waves in that they can be reflected or refracted under specific
conditions. However, due to their high energy, the interaction with matter is different from lower-energy waves like visible light.

[Link] Wavelength: X-rays have shorter wavelengths compared to ultraviolet (UV) light, which gives them their higher penetrating power
and potential for causing ionization.
Application of X-rays (1)
• Diagnostics
• Principle: different tissues absorb radiation to different degrees
• Soft tissues are more „transparent“ to X-rays than bones
• Therapy
• The amount of absorbed radiation
• Different sensitivity of cells - destructive effect
• Rules for protection against radiation
• Same as for gamma radiation
• In radiography also scattering is of high importance
Application of X-rays (2)
Summation images Computed tomography

The very first image of the human hand with a ring on (left) A single slice image - a view of a transaxial section through
and a recent image (right). [Cit. 10. 4. 2020] Available at: the human brain and grey levels with assigned colours.
[Link] [Cit. 10. 4. 2020] Available at:
[Link]