Module 4:
Powder processing
Dr. Sushanta K. Sethi
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Introduction
❑ In Powder metallurgy, the term "powder" refers to finely divided,
solid particles of metal or a mixture of metals. These metal powders
are typically very fine and may have varying particle sizes, depending
on the specific application and desired properties of the final
product. (<1 mm)
❑ P/M → A manufacturing process that involves the production and utilization of these metal powders to
create various components and products. The process typically includes steps like compacting the metal
powder into a desired shape or form, followed by sintering, which is a heat treatment process that fuses
the powder particles together to create a solid, dense, and cohesive metal part.
❑ P/M is commonly used to produce components with intricate shapes, high precision, and unique
material properties that can be challenging or expensive to achieve using traditional machining or
casting methods.
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Advantages
1. Precision and Net Shape Manufacturing: PM allows for the production of highly intricate and complex shapes with
high precision. This minimizes the need for additional machining, reducing material waste and production costs.
2. Material Variety: It can be used to create components from a wide range of materials, including ferrous and non-
ferrous metals, ceramics, and even some polymers, providing flexibility in material selection to meet specific
application requirements.
3. Cost Efficiency: PM often results in lower material waste and reduced machining requirements, leading to cost
savings in production. Additionally, it enables the use of lower-cost feedstock materials, like recycled or pre-alloyed
powders.
4. High Material Utilization: PM typically has high material utilization rates, as unused powder can be collected and
recycled for subsequent production cycles.
5. Enhanced Material Properties: PM can produce materials with unique properties, such as increased hardness, wear
resistance, and enhanced magnetic characteristics. It can also produce materials with controlled porosity for specific
applications.
7. Complex Geometry: It is well-suited for producing components with intricate shapes, including internal features and
undercuts that are challenging to achieve using traditional manufacturing methods. 4
Advantages
8. Reduced Need for Post-Processing: In many cases, PM parts require little to no post-processing, which simplifies
production and reduces costs.
9. Customization: PM allows for easy customization and the development of tailored materials for specific applications.
10. Environmental Benefits: It can be an environmentally friendly process, as it often results in less material waste and
energy consumption compared to other manufacturing methods.
11. Production of Composite Materials: PM can be used to create composite materials by mixing powders of different
materials. This is particularly useful for achieving specific material properties.
12. High-Performance Alloys: PM enables the production of high-performance alloys and materials that are difficult to obtain
through traditional metallurgical methods.
13. Reduced Tool Wear: Because it's a cold forming process, there is typically less tool wear, leading to longer tool life and
reduced maintenance costs.
14. Small-Batch Production: It is well-suited for small to medium production runs, making it ideal for custom or niche
applications.
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Characteristics of powder
1. Particle Size: The particle size of the powder is a critical parameter. It can vary from very fine to coarse,
and it impacts properties such as flowability, packing density, and surface area.
2. Particle Shape: The shape of the particles can be irregular, spherical, or other shapes. The particle
shape affects how well the powder can be packed and compacted, as well as its flowability.
3. Purity: The purity of the powder is essential, especially in applications where high-quality materials are
required. Impurities can affect the final product's properties and performance.
4. Chemical Composition: The chemical composition of the powder determines its material properties.
This is a crucial factor for ensuring the final product meets the desired specifications.
5. Compressibility: compressible like gas but irreversible.
6. Flowability: The ability of the powder to flow is important for handling and processing. Flowability is
influenced by factors like particle size, shape, and surface properties. 6
Characteristics of powder
7. Surface Area: The surface area of the powder particles impacts their reactivity and the ability to adhere to other materials. A
high surface area can lead to enhanced chemical reactivity.
8. Porosity: Some powders may contain inherent porosity, which can be a desirable property in some applications. In powder
metallurgy, for instance, porosity can be controlled to achieve specific characteristics in the final product.
9. Consistency/Uniformity: Consistency in particle size, shape, and other characteristics is crucial for ensuring uniformity in the
final product's properties.
10. Packaging: The way in which the powder is packaged can impact its shelf life and ease of use. Proper packaging is
important for maintaining the quality of the powder.
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Simplified flow diagram indicating the various operations in powder metallurgy processing
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Link: [Link]
[Link] 9
Production of Metallic Powder
The initial phase in the comprehensive powder metallurgy (PM) process involves the production of metal
powders. The ultimate characteristics of a P/M product are influenced by the attributes of the metal or
alloy powders employed during its manufacturing. The important characteristics of powders include the
particle shape, size, and the size distribution. Several processes used for the manufacture of metal/alloy
powders:
❑ Solid state reduction
❑ Atomisation
❑ Electrolysis
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Solid state reduction
1. Selection of Metal/Alloy- Begin with selecting the desired metal or alloy for powder production, in this case, iron.
2. Crushing- Crush the chosen metal/alloy into smaller pieces to facilitate the subsequent steps.
3. Mixing with Carbon- Combine the crushed metal/alloy with carbon. The carbon serves as a reducing agent in the process.
4. Continuous Furnace Reaction- Pass the mixture of metal/alloy and carbon through a continuous furnace. Inside the furnace, a
chemical reaction occurs between the metal/alloy and carbon, leading to the formation of a cake of sponge metal.
5. Separation of Sponge Metal- After the reaction, separate the sponge metal from any non-metallic materials or impurities.
6. Crushing of Sponge Metal- Crush the sponge metal to break it down into smaller particles.
7. Sieve- Pass the crushed sponge metal through a sieve or mesh to produce the desired powder. The sieving process helps in
achieving a specific particle size distribution.
8. Purity Control- The purity of the final powder is dependent on the quality and purity of the raw materials used in the process.
High-purity raw materials result in a higher-purity powder.
9. Final Powder Characteristics - The resulting iron powder typically consists of irregular, sponge-like particles. These sponge-like
particles have properties that make them suitable for compression, providing good green strength.
This process is a common method for producing iron powder, and it involves a series of steps that transform the initial metal/alloy
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into a usable and often high-purity powder form.
Chemical Reduction Process
❑ Metal compounds like iron oxides are subjected to reduction using carbon monoxide (CO) or hydrogen gas
(H2) at temperatures below the metal's melting point within a controlled furnace environment. Following this
reduction process, the resulting material is finely crushed and ground, yielding iron powder.
❑ Copper powder is similarly produced through this method, where copper oxide is heated in a stream of
hydrogen gas.
❑ This reduction process can also be employed to easily manufacture powders of tungsten (W), molybdenum
(Mo), nickel (Ni), and cobalt (Co). It is a highly convenient, cost-effective, and versatile technique. Notably, a
significant volume of metallurgy powders is manufactured through this oxide reduction process.
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Atomisation
1. Introduction to Atomization: Atomization is a method used to produce metal powders. The process involves breaking molten
metal into small droplets by rapidly freezing them before they come into contact with each other or with a solid surface.
2. Mechanism: Atomization is achieved by bringing the thin molten metal stream in contact with high-energy jets of gas/liquid.
3. Types of Atomizing Fluids: Commonly used atomizing fluids include air, nitrogen, and argon as gases, and water as a liquid.
4. Particle Shape Determination: The shape of the resulting metal powder particles is largely determined by the rate of
solidification during atomization. If a low heat capacity gas is employed, the particles tend to be spherical. If water is used as the
atomizing fluid, the particles can be highly irregular in shape.
5. Control of Particle Size Distribution: By varying the design and configurations of the atomizing jets, pressure and volume of
the atomizing fluid, thickness of the molten metal stream, etc., it is possible to control the particle size distribution over a wide
range. This control is essential to meet specific requirements for different applications.
6. Applicability to Various Metals: Atomization is applicable to a wide range of metals that can be melted. It is used commercially
for the production of various metals and alloys, including iron, copper, alloy steels, brass, bronze, aluminum, tin, lead, zinc, and
cadmium.
7. High Melting Point Materials: In selected instances, atomization can also be employed for high-melting-point materials like
tungsten, titanium, and rhenium. This demonstrates the versatility of the atomization process. 13
Atomization
(2) (3)
(1)
(1) Atomisation using a gas stream to produce metal powder
(2) Atomisation using water stream to produce metal powder
(3) Atomisation using a rotating disk to produce metal powder
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Atomisation
Link: [Link] 15
Electrolysis
❑ The desired metal made as anode in an
electrolytic cell, such that it is dissolved by the
electrolyte in the cell and then transported and
deposited on the cathode in a spongy or
powdery form. The deposit is removed, washed
and dried to get the metal powder. Copper is the
primary metal produced by electrolysis, but iron,
chromium and magnesium powders are also
produced using this process.
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Mixing and Blending
Powder Blending and Mixing:
- Often, a single metallic powder may lack the necessary properties required for a specific part.
- To achieve the desired balance of properties, different powders with the requisite characteristics are mixed.
- Blending refers to mixing the same metal or alloy powders with different size distributions, primarily to reduce porosity levels
in the final product.
- Additional additives are combined with the powders to aid in alloying and provide lubrication during the compaction process.
- Volatile agents are added to include porosity.
Role of Lubricants:
- Lubricants are essential in the powder metallurgy process to reduce friction between the powder and the surfaces it
encounters during compaction, such as die walls and core rods.
- This friction reduction ensures uniform density distribution from the top to the bottom of the compact.
- Lubricants also facilitate easy ejection of the compact and help minimize the formation of cracks.
- Commonly used lubricants include stearic acid, stearin, metallic stearates (especially zinc stearate), and various organic
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compounds with waxy properties.
Mixing and Blending
• Mechanical Mixing Process:
• Blending and mixing are typically
carried out using mechanical processes.
• Rotating drums are often used as
mixing machines, with the powder
loosely filled to 20-40% of the drum's
volume.
• Internal baffles in the drum help
ensure thorough mixing.
• It's important to avoid over-mixing, as
it can increase the apparent density of
the mix, potentially reducing green
strength.
• Over-mixing may also reduce the green
strength by completely coating the
particle surfaces, limiting the area of
metal-to-metal contact on which green
strength depends.
• Such reduction in green strength can
also affect the sintered strength of the
final product.
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Compacting
1. Importance of Compacting: In powder metallurgy, compacting is a crucial step where loose powder is compressed into a shape
known as a "green compact.“ The primary objectives of compacting are to achieve high product density and uniformity of
density throughout the compact.
2. Compacting Methods: Compacting is typically accomplished using mechanical presses with rigid tools. Hydraulic presses are
also used in some cases. The choice of compaction method depends on the material being used and the specific requirements.
3. Compaction Pressures: Compaction pressures required can vary depending on the material type, typically ranging from 40 to
1650 MPa. The capacity of the press used in powder metallurgy is generally on the order of 1 meganewton (MN) or less.
4. Compact Size and Capacity: The press's capacity corresponds to the part's cross-sectional area and the average compacting
pressure applied. For larger part sizes, presses with higher capacity are necessary.
5. Sequence of Compacting: The upper punch initially moves away to allow for the filling of the die cavity. A feed shoe is used to
completely charge the die with powder. Compaction begins after the withdrawal of the feed shoe. The process is completed
when the punches reach their intended travel. The upper punch is then retracted, and the part is ejected using the lower punch.
The cycle is repeated for each green compact in the batch.
6. Consistency and Quality: Consistency in the amount of powder delivered to the die and the movement of the punches is
crucial to achieving consistent quality in the final parts. The powder's particle shape plays a significant role in determining the
bulk flow rate, which, in turn, affects the amount of powder delivered to the tooling. Particle shape also influences the final
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density of the component by controlling its compressibility.
Compacting
7. Compaction Mechanics: During the compaction process, the powder particles primarily move in the direction of the applied
force. The powder compresses until an equal and opposite force is generated within the compact. Friction plays a significant role
in the mechanics of compaction, both between the die and the powder and among the powder particles themselves.
8. Goal of Uniform Density: The ultimate aim during the compaction cycle is to achieve uniform density throughout the green
compact. In the early stages of compaction, the contact between powder particles increases, leading to reduced micro-porosity.
As compaction progresses, plastic deformation of the particles occurs. In the final stages of compaction, cold welding and
interlocking of the particles take place, imparting the necessary strength to the green part for ejection and further handling.
9. Challenges of Single Punch Compaction: The use of a single punch may not ensure uniform compaction. With a single punch,
the powder near the punch is compressed more, while the compacting force does not travel uniformly along the depth of the
part. As a result, the powder near the bottom of the die receives less compaction. For thin parts, a single punch may suffice, but
for thicker parts, a double acting press with two punches is often employed.
10. Advantages of Two Punches: The use of two punches in a double acting press ensures that the density is more uniform
throughout the part. It helps address the issue of uneven compaction, particularly in thicker components, and results in a more
consistent green compact.
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Compacting
• Compacting effectiveness depending upon the
number of punches used; (a) Single punch with non
• Compacting cycle for a single level uniform density; (b) Two punches ensure more
component uniform density of the powder compacting
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1. Cold Compacting: Compacting
- Temperature Range: Cold compacting takes place at or near room temperature.
- Process Description: In cold compacting, the metal or metal powder is compacted at room temperature without the application
of external heat. This process is often used when the material being formed has good flow characteristics at low temperatures. It is
suitable for producing components with intricate shapes and fine details.
- Advantages: Cold compacting is cost-effective and energy-efficient, with minimal risk of grain growth or distortion in the
material. It's often used for small, complex parts.
2. Warm Compacting:
- Temperature Range: Warm compacting occurs at temperatures above room temperature but below the material's
recrystallization temperature.
- Process Description: In warm compacting, the material is heated to an intermediate temperature before compaction. This helps
improve material flow and reduces the required compaction pressure. Warm compacting is used for materials that benefit from
improved plasticity at elevated temperatures.
- Advantages: Warm compacting provides better density and mechanical properties compared to cold compacting, without the
high energy costs associated with hot compacting.
3. Hot Compacting:
- Temperature Range: Hot compacting occurs at temperatures above the recrystallization temperature of the material.
- Process Description: Hot compacting involves heating the material to a temperature above its recrystallization point before
compaction. This significantly improves material plasticity and densification. The hot-compacted parts may require subsequent heat
treatment to achieve the desired properties.
- Advantages: Hot compacting results in the highest density and strength in the final product, making it suitable for high-
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performance applications. It's also effective for consolidating materials that might be difficult to compact at lower temperatures.
Other compaction Process
Cold isostatic pressing, (a) Charging of the rubber mould, (b) Hydrostatic pressure applied to the mould, (c) Finished part
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Other compaction Process
Cold Isostatic Pressing (CIP): In Cold Isostatic Pressing (CIP), the powder is contained in a flexible mould made of rubber or other
elastomer material. The flexible mould is then pressurized by means of a high-pressure water or oil. Thus, the powder is
compacted with the same pressure in all directions, and, since no lubricant is needed, high and uniform density can be achieved.
Then the pressure is released, and the finished part is ejected from the mould. The process removes many of the constraints that
limit the geometry of parts compacted unidirectional in rigid dies. Long thin-walled cylinders and parts with undercuts present
no problem.
Hot Isostatic Pressing (HIP): Hot Isostatic Pressing (HIP) is carried out at high temperature and pressure using a gas such as argon.
Because of the high temperature the flexible mould is made of sheet metal. In HIP, compaction and sintering are completed
simultaneously. The process is used in the production of billets of super alloys, high speed steels, titanium, ceramics etc., where
the integrity of the materials is a prime consideration.
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Sintering
• It involves the heating of powdered materials (often
metal or ceramic powders) to a temperature below their
melting point, causing the particles to bond together and
form a solid, coherent mass. The primary objectives of
sintering are to increase the density of the material,
enhance its mechanical properties, and often improve its
dimensional stability. Sometimes pre-sintering is also
required to increase the flowability (or for those
materials which are difficult for machining).
• 1. Densification: The primary goal of sintering is to
increase the density of the material. As the powdered
particles are heated, they diffuse and migrate towards
each other, resulting in a reduction of porosity and an
increase in density. A schematic model explaining the sintering process. 25
Sintering
2. Bonding: Sintering promotes bonding between the individual powder particles. At elevated temperatures, atoms or ions at the
particle surfaces diffuse and form interatomic or intergranular bonds, creating a cohesive structure.
3. Temperature: Sintering is typically performed at temperatures below the melting point of the material, but high enough to
allow atomic or ionic diffusion. The exact temperature and duration of sintering depend on the specific material and its desired
properties.
4. Pressure: In some cases, sintering is performed under pressure (hot isostatic pressing, or HIP). Pressure can further reduce
porosity and improve material properties.
5. Grain Growth: During sintering, grain growth may occur. This can lead to changes in microstructure and mechanical properties.
Proper control of grain growth is essential to achieve the desired material properties.
6. Porosity Control: Sintering conditions can be adjusted to control the level of porosity in the final product. Some applications
require a specific level of porosity for characteristics like lubrication or thermal insulation. 26
Secondary Operations
Repressing: It is performed on PM components to increase the density and improve the mechanical properties. During re-
pressing the density of the part is generally increased, especially if the as-sintered density is low. In certain cases where strength
and other mechanical properties are required to be at maximum, re-pressing is used principally to achieve such densification.
Further improvement is achieved by re-sintering.
Sizing: It is performed to modify the surface shape and provide stricter dimensional control. Generally, for parts ‘as-sintered’ to
be accurate to a tolerance of –0.050 mm per mm, in the direction at right angles to the pressing direction, and 0.10 mm per mm
parallel to the pressing direction. Sizing may be done in the die that was used for compacting the powder in those cases where
the dimensional change on sintering is controlled at or very near to zero, but commonly separate sizing tools are used.
Coining: It is used to imprint or emboss the face(s) of the component in contact with the punch that has the requisite details.
Heat Treatment: P/M components can be heat treated to improve strength and hardness, can be steam treated to make the
surface hard and more wear resistant as well as contributing to improved corrosion resistance and the sealing of porosity.
During the quenching process, because of the porosity inherent in sintered parts, they should not be immersed in corrosive
liquids such as salt baths, water, or brine and only oil cooling is preferred. Heating should also be done in a gas atmosphere. P/m
parts have inherent porosity built into them because of the structure of the part and the compaction pressure used. Normally
these pores are harmful for the mechanical strength of the part. However, these pores can be filled with materials such as
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metals, oils or plastics to achieve special properties that cannot be obtained by any other manufacturing process.
Secondary Operations
Infiltration: The P/M component is dipped into a low melting temperature alloy liquid, such that the liquid would flow into the
voids simply by capillary action, thereby decreasing the porosity and improving the strength of the component. The process is
used quite extensively with ferrous parts using copper as infiltrant but to avoid erosion, an alloy of copper containing iron and
manganese, is often used.
Impregnation: Impregnation is similar to the infiltration, except that in this case the powder metallurgy component is kept in an
oil bath. The oil will penetrate into the voids by capillary forces and remains there. The oil will be used for lubrication of the
component when necessary. During the actual service conditions, the oil will be released slowly to provide the necessary
lubrication. The components can absorb between 12 and 30 % oil by volume. It is used on PM self-lubricating bearing
components since the late 1920’s.
Sometimes resin (thermo-setting or other plastic materials) impregnation can be used to enhance machinability and improve
ductility and prepare parts for plating. The benefits to be obtained include some increase in mechanical properties, sealing of the
pores which may provide pressure tightness and will also prevent the entry of potentially corrosive electrolyte during a
subsequent plating operation. Additionally, the machinability of sintered parts is improved.
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Dis-advantages of Using Powder Metallurgy:
1. The tooling cost is generally high, and therefore can only be justified for mass production.
2. Raw material cost is high. However, it can be justified because most of the material is utilized without any wastage during the
processing.
3. Because of the presence of residual porosity the mechanical properties are inferior compared to the corresponding cast or
machined part.
4. With complex part geometries, the flow of metal powder into deep cavities and corners is a problem, and as a result, there
will be variation in the density in the part at different locations, which translates into different properties.
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Thank You
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