Ministry of Higher Education and Republic of Côte d'Ivoire

Scientific Research Union-Discipline-Work

BASIC FASCICLE:
COURSE
EXPLOITATION
MINING
BTS Cycle Field
MINES-GEOLOGY-OIL
Mining operation course

CHAPTER I GENERALITIES
I. Mining activity

Mining activity has always influenced human activity. It has even been a
benchmark for appreciating the progress of humanity notably through the definition of eras
in prehistory and history.
Indeed, the period during which man crafted true tools without stone
the age of the chipped stone or Paleolithic. The one that saw man polish stone.
is called the polished stone age or neolithic.
Later, men discovered that by heating iron ore in large
furnaces, called blast furnaces, iron is obtained with which it was possible and easy to
manufacturing tools and weapons. The manufacturing of metal tools based on iron and
other metals correspond to the Iron Age or the age of metals or the modern era.
Currently, the by-products of mining activity undoubtedly constitute
vital data in our lives. We can mention:
the use of coal, gas, oil, and uranium as sources of energy;
the use of stones, sand, cement, iron (steel) as materials
constructions
the use of nitrate, sulfur, potassium, and phosphates as fertilizers,
the use of gold, platinum, silver, columbite-tantalite as precious metals
the use of diamond, emerald, sapphire, ruby as precious stones.
Mining activity remains essential in human activity.

II. Importance of mining activity

If mining activity proves to be important in the development of human culture, it

It is therefore obvious that it is of vital importance in the development of a country.
The development of a country is measured by its level of consumption of mineral products.
Infrastructure, transportation, telecommunications, machinery, and energy have
experienced remarkable growth thanks to the mining industry. Agriculture has experienced a
development partly thanks to fertilizers.
Due to the importance of minerals in modern society, their discovery, their
showcasing and their productions have a considerable influence on politics and
the economy at the global scale as well as at the international scale. The mining industry
allows to supply the global market with raw materials.

III. Evolution of mining techniques

The first miners or primitive miners (Neolithic men, for example)

worked with their hands and the material on which they were working was made of
stones, bones, and wood. Later, the societies that followed, clearly better organized,
used slaves as labor. Wood was used for heating.
The slaughter was done without explosives and the tunnels were lit by candles.
fortunes.
With the industrial revolution of the 19thecentury, there is a strong demand for minerals, which
has sparked new techniques. There has been, for example, the introduction of gunpowder
as an explosive, thus allowing to bring down considerable amounts of materials.

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We observed the emergence of steam and compressed air machines, to replace

human energy. There has also been the introduction of electric machines, thanks to
the invention of electricity. This increased the mechanization of farms and made the
more powerful and more flexible machines.
Thanks to these innovations, we have been able to observe the reopening of old underground mines.
put on hold due to difficult working conditions and/or by default of
appropriate technology. Indeed, the ventilation conditions underground have been
improved. The renovation of techniques has significantly improved the conditions of
the hardships of miners and also increased production rates which reach
several thousand tons per day.

IV. The future of mining activity

Man depends and continues to depend on the use of minerals in various ways.
fields. With the progress of technology, there will always be a growing demand for
minerals with the aim of producing a greater variety of elements in certain
fields such as aeronautics, space vehicles, to name just a few.
This goal will be achieved through an improvement of exploration techniques and a
better understanding of the genesis and research methods of deposits in
depth. It is a matter of finding relatively economical exploitation methods
in the case of low-grade deposits. Because deposits are becoming increasingly
rare. As long as the minerals involved in human activity (oil, gas, gold, sulfur,
platinum, ...) have not found artificial substitutes, as long as there are men,
mining activity will thrive. There will obviously always be a sustained demand for
qualified technicians and engineers.

Mining is an important primary industry, just like

agriculture, forestry, and fishing, but, unlike the latter,
minerals and rock cannot be replaced or renewed once they have been
extracted and used. However, metals have a unique characteristic: once
recycled, they retain their elemental properties. Some minerals and metals
can be recycled and reused multiple times.

V. Definition of some mining terms

Mineral: chemical body, inorganic, sometimes organic, natural, presenting
in the form of a crystalline solid. It is defined by its chemical composition and by its mode
of arrangement or organization of atoms. It is a solid that appeared naturally,
characterized by a well-defined chemical composition.
Mineral substance: amorphous or crystalline substance, solid, liquid or gaseous; or
a fossilized organic substance.
Mineralization; local concentration of substance.
Mineralogy: the science that studies minerals. It is concerned both with the aspect
macroscopic properties of minerals (color, shape, density…) compared to their physical properties
chemicals and their intimate structure (crystallography). It is both a science
of observation and a branch of physics and chemistry.
Gangue: a collection of constituents of an ore that are of no interest.
economic

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Site: exceptional concentration of mineral or fossil, or site of concentration of a

or several useful minerals, without connotation of size or importance.
Deposit: exploitable site under current economic conditions, or site of
concentration of one or more elements that can be exploited profitably.
Ore: a rock mass containing useful substances in a sufficient percentage
to justify an exploitation. We also talk about a rocky ensemble containing one or
several elements in a sufficiently important proportion to allow a
exploitation under economically profitable conditions.
Resources: known potentially exploitable sites or unknown sites but
of plausible existences in view of the geology of the sector.
Reserve: estimation of the quantity of ore that can be extracted in a way
profitable based on certain parameters determined by studies.
Deposit: a site or deposit of detrital gold, diamonds, or other stones and metals
precious.
Prospecting: a set of work or operations involving methods
surface itinerants in order to detect clues and anomalies or concentrations of
useful mineral or fossil substances.
Exploitation: operation aimed at extracting useful substances for it
dispose for utility purposes; set of works that aim to enhance a resource
of ore.
Extractionaction of extracting ore by open-pit mines or by mining works
undergrounds.
Mines: areas where useful substances other than rock materials are exploited.
open sky, whether underground; mineral resource extraction site, whether open sky
open or underground.
The ore content: concentration of an economic mineral or metal in a
ore deposit
Limit grade or cutoff grade: grade below which the deposit is not
more economically viable
Crystal: mineral substance that naturally has a well-defined geometric shape
Rock: a mineral mass showing homogeneity of composition and structure
Sterile Mining: Rock in place or extracted that does not contain minerals in quantity
sufficient to allow for economically viable exploitation.
Ore processing: Operation that consists of extracting ore, concentrate or
mining residues, the economic substances contained therein.
Terril (or spoil tip): It is a significant accumulation of unremarkable materials.
commercial ('sterile'), resulting from surface stripping or deep production
capable of reaching several hectares and dozens of meters in height, they sometimes serve
at the partial backfill of the end-of-life quarry.
The tile: it's in the bottom of the pit the horizontal plateau formed by the progressive advance
of fronts. It can reach hundreds of hectares in very large quarries
Mound: a pile formed by waste and tailings resulting from extraction
ore.

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CHAPTER II THE DIFFERENT PHASES OF MINING OPERATION

Introduction

The mining industry is summarized in two main operations which are mining exploration and
mining.
The first is responsible for demonstrating the existence of a deposit, that is to say a set
rocky where a useful mineral substance is found in sufficient quantity to
justify an exploitation.
The second consists of implementing work and techniques aimed at extracting the
or the useful substances to dispose of for utility and commercial purposes.
Mining exploration is carried out in several stages that we group into 5 phases:
The documentation or approach to the subject;
the search for clues and anomalies;
the control of indices and anomalies;
the recognition of the mineralized body;
the evaluation of the deposit.
This last phase allows us to calculate the reserves, to specify the ranges,
tonnage and grade, to define the appropriate treatment, to choose the extraction method
and to study the profitability of the project. If the project is viable and the funds are secured,
So we move on to the big exploitation operation.
Mining involves extracting rocks and materials from the [Link]
which have economic value. It is responsible for bringing the deposit for utilitarian purposes.
and commercial. It is done in five phases:
the development
the extraction,
loading and transportation
the treatment and
marketing.

Types of ore deposits

There are several types of ore deposits:

Magmatic: crystallization of minerals inside a magmatic body.
Magmatic deposits are also known as signed deposits. The minerals
accumulate in layers or other separations of minerals near the bottom of
magma intrusions.
Hydrothermal: hot fluids released when magma cools, minerals
precipitate from fluids
Metamorphic: the result of pressure and temperature applied to the rock
surrounding a magma intrusion.
Sedimentary: precipitation of minerals from a lake or seawater.
Residual: concentrations of minerals produced by weathering and reactions
chemicals with oxygen and water.

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It is a very general classification. There are many sub-genres and even more
genres.

Concepts of reserve calculations

Calculation of the weighted average content

1 2 3
t1 t2 t3
L L L

i Covered area
ti
by the deposit
LI

n
tn
L

The deposit is divided into several panels characterized by specific grades.

Each panel is characterized by its length (L) and its content (t). The average content
weighted is equal to:

Calculation of the surface of the mineralized body

The mineralized body is not generally rectangular. Moreover, it is buried, which

makes the surface of the body on the ground a projection. The surface (S) of the mineralized body
east

Length (L)
Width (l) or
thickness (e)

Calculation of the volume of the mineralized body

Let's outline a section of the mineralized cut.

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Ground surface

Thickness
From the mineralized body at various points, let us note E, the weighted average thickness of the block of
ore. The volume V of the mineralized body is:

Calculation of ore tonnage

So, the density of the ore. The tonnage of the ore is calculated as follows:

Calculation of the quantity of useful mineral or useful substance in the body

mineralized

I. The development

It is the set of preparatory work for extraction. It can vary from one deposit to another.
other account taken into consideration:

From the environment where legislation is located (presence of hydrographic network...)

And from the geological configuration of the deposit (layer, vein, placer deposits, etc.…)

1. Site identification of blocks to be exploited and their clearing

The area to be exploited must be cleared of all vegetation, making it accessible either by
dozers (bulldozers) or machetes (artisanal exploitation).

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Figure 1: A bulldozer

2. Flood protection

When it comes to valley deposits, it is necessary to channel or even divert the course.
this latter is of little importance.
For rivers with high flows, we start by raising solid protective levees.
along the shore.
Then, we protect ourselves upstream and downstream with transverse dikes starting from the river
and extending to the mineralized zones.
These dikes are generally made using the sterile removed from the surface of the blocks, this
who can simultaneously start the excavation work.
Afterwards, it is good to strengthen them by covering them with gravel from the waste of
the processing unit. The machines used for these tasks are the dozers or tractors,
you dumpers-barge operators (Canadian expression).

3. Evacuation of runoff or infiltration water

This is done by drainage towards a low point, otherwise by pumping (drainage: drying out of
runoff water) water brought into a reservoir dug into the ground at a location
or this one has a good consistency (bed-rock: solid rock).
The proper drying of the air to be exploited is of even greater importance.
considerable that the site will be mechanized and that it will be necessary to create roads for the
circulation of large excavation and transport equipment.

4. The creation of access roads

The operation requires the creation of solid and well-studied routes for implementation.
equipment area of laundries in processing units only for front access
of excavation and spoil heaps.
The road layout is done by bulldozers and graders.
The first carry out the necessary excavation and backfill work. The seconds
they finalize the profile and carry out the maintenance.
In the case of underground exploitation, there is the sinking of upward shafts and the
drilling of advance galleries.

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Figure 2: Grader

5. Installation of laundries

Elevated platform and developed in an area already exploited or not mineralized, the washery
is a workshop where various operations are carried out with the aim of sorting,
enrich and prepare the ore. It is a cleaned and flattened area by bulldozers and
graders.
We primarily watch over the possibilities of industrial water supply and wastewater disposal.
sludges and stacking of laundry products.

II. The extraction

It is the operation that aims to extract the ore from the ground, separating it from the soil for
take it to the laundromat or the treatment unit. Very often, the ore is covered with
sterile. There will therefore be 2 phases in the extraction:

The removal of sterile or uncovering

The extraction of ore

1. The removal of sterile or dead soil

In almost every project, the ores are buried under a layer of ordinary soil or
of rock (called 'dead ground' or 'rock waste') that must be moved or
dug to allow access to the mineral deposit. For most mining projects,
la quantité de morts terrains générée par l’exploitation minière est énorme.
Also called stripping, the removal of overburden is carried out using mechanical equipment.
It involves stripping the ore by removing the overburden that is on top.
If the discovery is important, the removal will be done in steps.
We will successively examine the excavation and transport methods implemented.

a. Preliminary work

It is about:
The reconnaissance of the terrain, the delimitation of the new construction site, and the marking of the
first cut. The operator will have an interest in taking wells and drillings as a reference
prospecting, after complete and certain identification. During a discovery of
site, the old production front will serve as an excellent starting point.

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Before any other work and to allow the machinery to tackle the sterile, it will be
necessary to clear the ground of various obstacles, (trees, shrubs and even
scrap) ; bulldozers and graders will come into action.
Simultaneously and by the same means, a road will be carefully drained thanks to
a calculated slope.
Through the electrical service routes, a line will be drawn from the nearest electrical substation.
close to the limit of the construction site. We will ensure that the poles and cables do not interfere with
access to the site, nor the further development of the excavation.
After digging a protective drain parallel to the first working front, the shovel
can be brought to the work site.

b. Discovery by shovel in a mound

In order to set up a starting platform, the excavator will take position and begin the
work at the level of the first step, at the lowest point of the front, and the waste from the
the first discharges will be poured below.
The face of an excavation (well, gallery, or site) is the wall of the construction site that the
The miner must bring down this advancing front as the mining work progresses.
A terrace is a part of the dead terrain or the deposit that is removed or extracted from.
autonomously and is served by transportation means.
In addition to the shovel, a bulldozer will allow for a sufficient horizontal area for the
maneuver of transport equipment.
The first cut will be made by frontal attack. From then on, we will be careful
particularly :
To place the tracks of the excavator perpendicular to the front to be excavated;
To arrange the work on a sufficiently wide front to distribute the transport vehicles.
on either side of the shovel without being threatened by landslides.
To keep the excavation level approximately horizontal (very slight slope: 1%)
To maintain a front height not exceeding the capabilities of the shovel.
Simultaneously with the discovery, the removal and transport by machinery of the
sterile excavated.

Figure 3: Excavation by shovel in a mound

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c. Dragline excavation

Unlike the shovel in a berm, the dragline excavates in a trench, that is to say, in
against the bottom of the support surface, using a bucket operated by cable
which empties by inversion. The efficiency of the engine particularly depends on its
stability. Therefore, it is necessary to ensure that work is done on a flat, firm, and well...
drained. The dragline is used either to complete the overburden removal of the gravel in the
places that are difficult to access for earthmoving equipment, whether for the excavation of waste or
of transport equipment. It is also used for cleaning thin films, or for
raise the dikes and dig channels. It then works in direct discharge without machines.
transport.

Figure 4: Discovery by dragline

d. Maneuvering of transport equipment

The transport vehicles commonly used are dump trucks and scrapers.
(tournascrapers ou tournarockers ou tournapelles). Ils longent le front en sens inverse de
the progress of the excavation and come to a stop at the height of the shovel without having to
reverse operation. This provides increased safety and allows for a gain of
considerable time. The vehicle starts off in a straight line and is immediately followed by a
another engine for loading. This method allows:
a continuous rotation,
an easy excavation with a desired rotation angle (90° view),
a quick cleaning of the pathway, a movement of the excavator in line
right.
In short, this greatly contributes to the improvement of the shovel's performance.
To facilitate the maneuvering of transport vehicles near the excavator, we will request
The intervention according to the needs of bulldozers and graders. They will also intervene.
Usefully after heavy rains, to clear the access roads of the mud that may have accumulated there.
accumulated.
The tournarockers will normally carry out excavation, transport and
spreading of land. They are also used for road construction, leveling,
compacting, etc.… loading, unloading occurs during progression
and by the front of the 'scraper' bin equipped with a blade, a retaining apron and a
mobile fund.

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Figure 5: Maneuvering of transport vehicles

in a mine

e. Conveyors

The transport of the excavated earth takes place to the spoil heaps through a succession of
conveyors that can reach lengths of several thousand meters. The
conveyors move at a speed of
a few meters per second (4 m/s). The
divers conveyors are related
electrically connected to each other by relays
which ensure their activation
successive.
They can be powered by
bucket excavators and excavators
bucket chain. The conveyors are linked
to these excavators.
Their diet can be done differently
by traditional transport vehicles such as
whether the dump trucks or the scrapers. Figure 6: Conveyor network in a sand quarry

2. Ore extraction

Once the material is 'discovered', cleared of dead ground, the extraction work
can start.
The extraction of the ore takes into account the nature and mechanical characteristics of the
rock.
If the rock cannot be attacked mechanically by loading equipment.
offers too great a resistance, it will be necessary to proceed with a deconsolidation in order to be able to
the extract. This deconsolidation is done using explosives that are introduced inside
the rock through a hole.
If the rocks are soft enough to be attacked directly, the extraction operations will
to be confused with those of loading. The soft rocks assume the schists,
coal, phosphates, placers, etc.…

a. Preliminary works

Before attacking the front, we will have taken the same precautions as for the sterile, as to
the drainage of runoff water, to any possible needs, to the development of the
platform and the maneuvering area of transport equipment.

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b. Excavation

The actual excavation of the ore by bucket on a berm or by dragline differs significantly.
little of the sterile. Details below, the useful variants:
The skin will be excavated in thin and regular layers in order to properly disaggregate the
matter
In the case of very hard layers, it is interesting to fluff the material during the
dead time and even in regular passes. Eventually, we could equip the buckets.
the shorter teeth
The operator will be advised not to load large blocks into the bins, but
to place them on the side (figure 7).
The operator will also avoid undercutting or leaving overhangs.
The normal advancement of the front will occur in parallel slices of a few meters.
large.
Moreover, if in the sterile it is only a matter of earth evacuation, in gravel, one must take into account
account of the laundry or treatment unit. And particularly of the regularity
of its diet.

Figure 7: Error to avoid during the

loading of transport vehicles

III. Loading

Once the ore is excavated or mined, it must be loaded onto the transport equipment for
It will take him to the laundry or to the treatment unit. As transport equipment, we have:

1. Front loaders

These earthmoving machines, tracked or wheeled, are equipped with a bucket.

bucket. They are used for the recovery and loading of materials. The capacity of the bucket
varies by 1 m3at 7.5 m3for powers from 80 to 550 HP. The bucket positioned at the front must
have a width greater than that of the tire tread to protect them.
Loaders are also capable of digging but only to a shallow depth.
depth, unlike shovels.
It should be noted that the loader is both a loading machine and a transport vehicle.
dumping of bulk materials (soil, gravel, ore, etc.), either into a truck,
whether in a wagon, in conveyors, etc.

a. Chain or tracked front loaders

They operate in difficult-to-access marshy areas. They load

in front using a bucket.

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Front-end loaders are typically used in the case of hard rock mining.
to the explosive.

Figure 8: Chain Front Loader

b. Wheeled loaders

They operate in areas where conditions are less difficult. The workplace is
clean, allowing for quick movement of the machine. The materials must be
sufficiently fragmented. Wide-base tires are used to improve the surface of
contact. Their carcasses are calculated to support a given load at a certain
speed under a given inflation pressure.

Figure 9: Wheel loaders in an underground mine (g) and in a granite quarry (d)

2. Continuous chargers

Generally used in ores, excavation is at the same time loading.

Excavation machines become loading machines. Therefore, there is no
of interruption between excavation, loading, and transport of the material.

Figure 10: Example of continuous loaders: wheeled excavator (g); chain excavator (m), surface miner (d)

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In addition to front loaders and continuous loaders, cable shovels, shovels

hydraulic systems, and draglines can also serve as loading equipment.

Figure 11: Loading with a cable shovel (g), a hydraulic excavator (m), and a dragline (d)

IV. Transport

Transportation to the processing plants can be done by different vehicles.

At the same time, extensive maintenance is devoted to these machines. This is to ensure that the price
the cost should be the lowest. Among the means of transportation, we can mention:

1. Dump trucks or tippers

In open-pit mines, dump trucks or tippers (name given by the ...

manufacturers themselves) are often used for the transport of ore and materials
excerpts. They are mainly used in quarries where the distances covered are
important and where the stands are made of solid rock. They are more suitable for transportation
minerals and more easily convertible for other needs. One of their
advantages are their flexibility of use when the extraction points are multiple. They
It is advantageous to easily negotiate steep slopes or gradients (steeper slopes),
but they have the disadvantage of being relatively expensive over long distances.
the distance between the extraction site and the washing plant or treatment factory must not
exceed 4 to 5 km (optional figure). The roads must be good to ensure the
Maintains the wheels. The tracks must be constantly reshaped.
It should be noted that in a quarry, the capacity of the production chain is defined by
the processing installation, itself calculated according to market needs.

Figure 12: dump trucks or tippers (or tombs)

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2. The scrapers or scrapers

Alone or in combination with other machines, they will carry out all the tasks.
earthworks, stripping, and loading by elevator.
Less fast than dump trucks, it is advisable to use them over short distances.
Scrapers have the advantage of self-loading and feeding the laundry in a way
uniform.

Figure 13: Stripper

3. The conveyors

After dump trucks and scrapers, conveyors are the most common modes of transport.
used. They offer the advantage of transporting large volumes and tonnages over long
distances at reduced costs.
The installation of conveyors, on the other hand, requires significant investment. Therefore, it is...
desirable to install the conveyors when the expected duration of the mine is
relatively long. The material must be crushed and reduced to small size.
The path of the conveyor belt can be horizontal, ascending, or descending.
may be straight or have curves.

4. The trains

They allow for the transportation of large volumes and tonnages over long distances at
lower costs per ton transported. The investment costs are very high.
The transport area must be relatively flat because the
the train cannot climb a slope of more than 3%. They are
suitable for long-term mines (30 to 50,
see 80 years old).
Trains are rarely used for long journeys.
inclined or for very large tonnages with
Soil types favorable for the movement of pathways.
They are not often used in quarries that involve
numerous stands. However, some spread over
vast spaces require the use of railways.
Figure 14: Ore transport train
In general, transport by train and conveyor is less expensive for long distances.
distances. But trucks and scrapers are intended for short distances.

V. The treatment

This is the phase of extraction where the useful substance is recovered to be

marketed.
The treatment of the ore aims to transform the raw mineral extracted from the mine into
a marketable product. It usually takes place on-site, in a facility

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named "ore processing or concentration workshop". Its main objective

consists of reducing most of the ore, which must then be transported and
transformed through other processes (for example, fusion), using methods
allowing to separate the desired valuable mineral(s) from the gangue. The product
Commercializable is called concentrate and the remaining materials are called residues.
The techniques used in ore processing influence the characteristics
residues.

VI. Commercialization

Like any product, the derivative products of the mining industry are subject to sale.
The commercialization of gold, diamonds, and any other mining products is organized and
governed by regulation.
There is obviously a market that includes producers, sellers, and buyers. This
are either individuals or legal entities (from small businesses
up to multinational corporations).

1. The marketing circuit of the artisan to the exporter

a. Case of the diamond

The people involved in this circuit are:

the artisans, also known as gold panners,
the collectors
and the purchasing counters.
The artisans are those who work on the plots and exploit the diamond.
Seconds are buyers, unstable in most cases, on the site.
At the end of this circuit in Côte d'Ivoire, there are buying centers which are
official companies for the purchase of gold and diamonds, almost all located in Abidjan and
belonging in almost all cases to expatriates (Europeans, Lebanese).
The collector is always on the mining site and buys the produced diamond from
the craftsman. Some shops send men to their service to buy directly
the diamond on the field.
In any case, the collectors come to Abidjan to sell their product at the counters.
purchases or purchases are made directly on site at buying counters
who move on the ground.
The Ivory Coast is not a country that has a developed diamond industry (cutting,
precision instruments, watchmaking, drilling crowns,...), rough diamond is exported
outwards, particularly Europe.
This export is subject in Ivory Coast to rules. The exporter, whether they are in
sole proprietorship or corporation must follow and complete the following steps:

Authorization for the purchase and sale of diamonds

Diamond trading is an activity that can also be conducted by individuals.

individuals of Ivorian nationality and by legal entities, that is to say, companies
of Ivorian rights. The economic operator must provide the following documents:
trade register mentioning "gold trading"

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request addressed to the Minister in charge of mines,

a passport photo
a certificate of nationality,
a criminal record of less than 3 months,
a residence certificate,
a certificate and a bank statement dated less than 3 months ago, justifying the
financial means to undertake this activity (at least 5,000,000).
Once the file is complete, it must be submitted to the mining department, to the responsible service.
jewelry checks for examination. It is after this that he will be able to receive or not, his
provisional authorization for the purchase or sale of diamonds.
The request is subject to a fixed fee that the applicant pays upon withdrawal.
from his authorization. Once issued, it is valid only for one year, renewable.
as many times as the operator wishes upon presentation of an activity report concerning
the previous authorization accompanied by the other constituent documents of the files
request for authorization.

Expertise of precious stones

The operator, in possession of his diamonds, goes to the mining management for appraisal.
the precious stones, in the presence of a customs officer to allow him to calculate the taxes
and exclusive right of exit. A report of rough diamond expertise is given to
the exporter.
The expertise classifies precious stones into three categories:
Cut stones or gemstones
Industrial stones
Boarts
Diamonds of the first category have the following characteristics:
double pyramidal shape,
pure, not containing spikes,
white color.
In general, these are the most beautiful stones, and they have the advantage of being cuttable.
Industrial stones are dark-colored or not, and of any shape. they
used for the industry using diamond (cutting, watchmaking, drilling crown, etc.)
The boarts represent the brown stones, heavily broken.
This expertise is complemented by a new certification that was established during
the meeting of diamond producing and exporting countries in South Africa, in 2000.
The Kimberly process in question is a certification based on origin.
provenance of the exported diamond.
It aims to prevent the use of diamond trade revenues by forces or
powers that are stakeholders in a conflict.
A member of this process since 2003, Côte d'Ivoire has demanded and obtained that its activities
diamond mining should be suspended due to war, so that these resources or riches
are not looted and transferred to neighboring countries where they can be sold under the
covered by these countries.

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Table 1: export data

of diamond by Ivory Coast
1994 to 2011 (Source)
[Link]

Exit tax regulations

This operation is carried out after the expertise. The customs officer performs calculations. The operator
pays and receives a customs receipt in return.

Shipping the package outside of Côte d'Ivoire

The exporter can travel himself with the package. In this case, he just needs to present
at the different controls at the airport, the expert report and the customs receipt.
In addition, he can entrust his package to a freight forwarder (SAGA, DHL, CHRONOPOST...) who will
responsible for sending it by plane. The freight forwarder then issues an Air Waybill
(LTA) that includes the certificate of expertise and the customs receipt. He attaches everything to
package for shipping.
The representative of the freight forwarder or a forwarder chosen by the operator receives the package.
The exporter will have previously delegated to its forwarder who will have to receive the package.

b. Case of gold

The circuit is the same as that of the diamond, with the only difference being the exported product.
The people involved in this circuit including artisans, collectors, and counters
purchasers or exporters.

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The provisional authorization for the purchase and sale of gold, required by the authorities, includes the
the same files and follows the same procedures and the same rules as those observed in the
case of the diamond.
In general, raw gold is exported in the form of bars. These bars before exportation
must be subject to an assessment.
Thus, once the operator has his gold and his purchase authorization
sale, he goes to SODEMI (Company for the Mining Development of Côte D'Ivoire),
located near the RTI in Cocody, to request a quality control.
This expertise is paid and is certified by a quality control certificate.
or or a certificate of raw gold expertise issued to the exporter.
Then the declarant must obtain from the services of the Directorate of Finance
external, and upon presentation of its temporary sales authorization, the documents
following:
a permit for gold trading (crossed green cards),
a currency commitment,
and an export certificate.
These documents must go through the services of the approved intermediary bank, then
those of the external financial department, and finally to the mining department for there
receive the various stamps, visas, and signatures from the said services (domiciliation
banking,…)
The declarant will then only have to submit these documents for visas and stamps.
customs services and pay the various export taxes.
It is only after all these steps that the operator can ship his package either by himself-
even, whether through a freight forwarder.
Whether for the marketing of gold or that of diamonds, a clause
Regulations require the repatriation of currencies after the sale of these products to
the outside.

2. Marketing circuit of an industrial operating company since the

Ivory Coast.

Here, the quality of the product has been known since the processing unit.
Thus, for example, in the case of gold with SMI (Ity Mining Company, today...
The mining product was transported by BRINK'S (currency transport company and
other precious products) to the BCEAO which is the buyer.
Furthermore, when the SOMIAF mine was still operational, the gold that was there
The product was transported by BRINK'S and shipped by the care of a forwarder outside the country.
For these large companies, all regulatory conditions related to
The commercialization of gold has already been fulfilled since the creation of the firm and its opening.
from mine.

3. The diamond trade in the world

The prosperity of the diamond trade has significantly decreased from 1950 to our present day.
days. The global production of natural rough diamonds is about 110 million
carats (ct) per year (1 carat is equal to 0.2 g), of which about 80 million are of quality
precious and 30 million of industrial quality. In2005the global production of
diamonds were 173.5 millioncaratsand the main producers are thereRussiathe

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BotswanaAustraliaand theDemocratic Republic of the Congowho produce among themselves four

a little over 73% of global production. This production decreased by 3.7%
2007 to 2008. It decreased from 168 million carats in 2007 to 161.8 million.
carats in 2008(source: [Link] the diamond remains a
exceptional mining product. The organization of diamond trade has a character
a particular being that suffers from no disorder.
The rough diamond distribution center is London, where the productions converge.
Commonwealth countries and other British countries, as well as the States that are part of
the diamond producers' association. Today, four countries share nearly
80% of the world's production: Russia, Botswana, Australia, and China. In value, it is the
Botswana, Russia, Canada, Angola, and South Africa, which are the first
producers.
The diamond cutting distribution center is in Antwerp, Belgium, where, in addition to
its own products, large quantities of cut diamonds from others
centers, and which serves the global consumer markets. Less markets
important ones exist (London, Johannesburg, New York, Tel Aviv, and Amsterdam). The
Global diamond production in 1958 was estimated at 28,100,000 carats.
Besides these two countries (Great Britain and Belgium) that handle the distribution of diamonds.
Raw materials, there are consumers and importers:
The United States: They are the main clients of the diamond trade. However, the
Global market demand is primarily driven by the markets.
emerging from Asia and the Middle East; even if the United States continues to buy 60% of the
market diamonds. In 2009, the US market lost 44% while the Chinese market
(2nd before Japan) was progressing by 16%.
Canada: A large mining country, Canada consumes a lot of industrial diamonds.
for diamond drilling crowns used in mining and oil drilling (to
At a certain time, this consumption was about 10% in volume of the production.
world of industrial diamonds.
Switzerland: The United Kingdom, Belgium, the Netherlands, and Israel appear as
suppliers of the Swiss gemstone trade.
Germany and the United States are the main clients of this market.
Lebanon: Beirut has become a distribution center for rough diamonds due to the
trafficking of rough diamonds from African mines. The Lebanese traders
installed in diamond areas (Sierra Leone, Liberia, etc.) have made themselves a
specialty: purchasing and exporting diamonds to Lebanon.
Far East:
Hong Kong: the diamond sold on this market comes from South Africa,
from Belgium, the Middle East, the United States, India, Switzerland, and
Central America.
Singapore: The main suppliers in this market are mainly the
Belgium and the Netherlands. The statistics do not reflect the importance of
diamond commerce.

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CHAPTER III: ARTISANAL EXPLOITATION

Introduction

According to the Ivorian Mining Code, in its first article, traditional exploitation or
Artisanal is any operation whose activities consist of extracting and concentrating the
mineral substances and to recover marketable products by methods and
manual and traditional methods. An article from the Department of Economic Affairs and
United Nations Social adds that artisanal exploitation is the direct use of
human energy in mineral extraction.
Artisanal exploitation, by its name, refers to operations
operating manuals. It will then intervene in the case of low yield deposits.
reserves and content, which cannot be subject to industrial exploitation. It relies on
so on rudimentary techniques that miners working in small and
average operations use to extract the mineral substance which, very often, is
find to be gold.
Thus, the gold placers of Issa have been and are the subject of attention for several years.
small-scale and semi-industrial mining at the sluice. These placers have also made
the object of semi-industrial exploitation.

I. Gold placers of Issia: brief description

The gold placers of Issia are located in the basin of the Lobo River, which is a tributary.
from the right bank of the Sassandra. The surveys have allowed for the localization of a series of small
mineralized placers, the most important of which is that of Babadougou.
Alluvial deposits are recognized in the flats (watersheds) of the tributaries of the
Wolf.
The mineralized eluvions consist of small altered blocks of red color with a
very fine structure, altered rock fragments in which multiple grains are visible
whites (mainly quartz), iron concretions, lateritic gravel,
sometimes red shales, blocks of quartz from multiple shattered veins
in the alterites. Gold content is around 1g/m.3.

II. Artisanal exploitation by GVC

The activities of the GVC on the plots are divided into 4 main parts: prospecting,
extraction, transport, processing of ore.

The equipment

It is mainly composed of:

pick axes for the digging of wells and trenches,
shovels for collecting sterile and ore
calabashes for the transport and concentration of ore
The seals for the drainage of wells.
2. Prospecting

The artisans, to whom the plots are assigned, carry out reconnaissance work and
of control by drilling wells, which can be rectangular or circular in shape.

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The first ones are 1.20 m long by 0.80 m wide, with a depth
variant from 2 to 3 m. The second ones have diameters of 0.80 m.
The gravel that has come out is washed and concentrated in the calabash.

Figure 15: circular well (g) and

rectangular well (d)

3. Extraction

Ore extraction is done around the shafts.

productive (or bearing wells) that are enlarged and
transformed into panels, which vary in size in
function of the laminarization extension around the
producer well.
Under these conditions, the workers come together in teams.
of several people (3, 6 to 8).
The extraction is done individually in the case of a
shallow well.
Figure 16: Men digging the earth

4. Transport

The ore is transported on the head by men or

generally women, up to the car wash station
specially arranged (generally near a course).
Moreover, during the rainy season, the ore is processed on
because the wells are abundant in rainwater.

Figure 17: Group of women transporting sand for washing

5. Ore processing

The washing and concentration of mineralized gravel is done using a gourd. The gravel is
washed, deburred by hand in the gourd. Once the gravel is clean, the craftsman dips the
gourd containing gravel in water. The gourd is stirred from left to right
horizontally (jig principle). This movement allows heavy minerals to be
understood gold, to settle at the bottom of the calabash while the lighter minerals
They resurface. We slightly tilt the gourd after a few movements.
précités pour vider la calebasse des minerais légers restés en surface. On procède ainsi

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until only the heavy minerals and gold remain at the bottom of the gourd. The
The obtained concentrate will be subjected to sorting or the ore separated from non-useful minerals.

Figure 19: Concentrated gold obtained at the pan

Figure 18: Women practicing simple washing

Figure 20: Diagram explaining the treatment of gold ore in a panning process

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III. Semi-artisanal exploitation at the sluice

It is called semi-artisanal exploitation because it involves both energy.

human and mechanical energy. It consists of three main phases:
The extraction of mineralized alluvial and eluvial deposits
The transport of ore,
Washing

The equipment

The equipment made available for production is as follows:

A sluice
A pump and accessory (suction hose)
Basins
Sieves
Figure 21: Pan
Breads
Jigs
Wheelbarrows, machetes
Shovels, picks
One or more pickups

2. Ore extraction

It is a manual extraction done with a pickaxe and a shovel according to the layers.
delimited around the exploration wells that yielded good concentrations.
It involves removing the sterile layer, discarding it, and attacking the ore layer.
exploitable.
The width of the trenches rarely exceeds 4 to 5 m to facilitate the disposal of waste.

3. Transport of ore

The transport of ore from the trenches to the washing device is generally done in two stages.
steps.
First step: the ore that has been blasted and shoveled at the edge of the trenches is evacuated by
barrows to a storage platform near the laundry. In some cases, the
gravel extracted, stored is loaded by shovel into a pickup and transported to the station of
washing. This step is considered necessary to minimize dilution and ore losses,
très fréquentes en bordure des tranchées (mélange accidentel du stérile au minerai,
training through runoff water.
Second stage: the ore stored near the washing device is transported to the
by wheelbarrows as needed at the sluice head to be diluted. New tracks of
drains are cleaned as the trench moves away from the washing device
so that transportation is in no way delayed.

4. Ore processing

The treatment device is a sluice made up of a wooden settling box of which

the walls are covered with aluminum sheets. This box is placed on a floor and
door 70 cm from the edge, a 8 mm mesh metal grid. The bottom of the box is

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extended by gutters or canoes or tailboxes (we will have a long or short sluice)
depending on the number and length of the gutters) of 2 m each. The boxes of
which are lined in their bottom with rifles arranged at equal distances. These boxes are
also equipped with removable bag mats to trap gold. The water necessary for washing
du graveleux aurifère est amenée à la tête de sluice par une motopompe à raison de 60
m3per hour. While the current of water carries away the sterile part of the gravel, the minerals
heavy liberated ones settle between the rifles. The latter create a rippling effect that
favors the density separation of gold. Generally, gold nuggets are
collected in the first canoe, the intermediate grains in the second, the most
small things to the powders in the canoes that will follow. Recovery controls
are regularly conducted on the waste to check if the system works
correctly. The final step of the process is the 'clean up' which consists of recovering the
gravel held between the riffles and on the mats to be washed off the pan. The gold is recovered,
dried, separated from heavy elements and subjected to weighing.

Figure 22: Different types of artisanal sluices

Figure 23: Principle of using a sluice

Just like the sluice, the jig is a device for gravity separation processing.
act according to the same principle. Separation occurs through the movement of particles
subject to both the action of gravity and the resistance of the liquid in which they are
are suspended.
Simple to use, mobile, very comfortable during exertion, it is easily
transportable by men on bush paths.
It consists of a double metallic casing in a welded monocoque structure.
weighing approximately 120 kg and filled with water. Each chamber is separated by a piston membrane.

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CTC which, by moving through the water, fluidizes the mineral grains and allows for the
sedimentation of heavy useful materials at the bottom of the boxes and the elimination of light sterile materials in
surface. A pedal boat uses the sole driving force of a person who operates a pedal.
while sitting.
In a jigging box, a bed of mineral particles is put in suspension.
(fluidized) in an alternating water current. In each cycle, the densest particles
descend towards the bottom and, during the retreat phase, the fine particles and in
the densest particles continue their descent by passing between the large ones
particles. The fractionation sharpens with the repetition of the cycle.

Figure 24: principle of action of a jig

A craftsman who washes 35 liters of ore per hour at the pan can wash 1200 liters with a jig.
two buckets of 10 l/min.
A 'jigger' easily processes a volume of 150 pieces of 7 liters per hour for
only 5 pans per hour manually.

Figure 25: Jig in a craft operation

5. Effectiveness of the laundry

Anomalies can be observed in the operation of the laundry (sluice). These

anomalies influence the efficiency of the laundry. They can be translated as:
The presence of abnormal gravel in the concentrate
The appreciable accumulation of gold nuggets in the third tail box

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The presence of black spots in the tailings

Water loss through sluice joints
Rectifications and corrections are therefore necessary. They are:
The change and strengthening of the settling grid,
the reduction of mesh size,
The revision and correction of the slope of the canoes (6 to 8%)
The obstruction of cracks at the joints
Washing verification tests every hour on sampled taken.
in the tailings over a given period.

Calculations

expansion coefficient: expansion is the increase in volume of the

ore after extraction. It is also the capacity of a volume to increase when it is
moved. The swelling coefficient is the constant by which a material
increases in volume once extracted.

VPThe in-place volume is calculated from the dimensions of the trench or wells.

Example: let there be an ore with a swelling coefficient Cf. = 1.1. The excavated well has the
The following dimensions: diameter: 2 m, depth: 2 m. The well is circular in shape.
Determine the volume to be excavated.

Resolution:

Effect of the swelling coefficient for the content: calculation of the excavated content

The dilution factor also affects the ore grade. It therefore allows for
differentiate a content in placetpand an excavated contente.

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The bulking factor is both the ratio of the volume of bulged ore to the
volume of ore in place and the ratio of in situ grade to ore grade
excavated

Example is te1.5 g/m3and Cf. = 2.1. What is the content in place.

Dilution rate

Dilution is the accidental mixing of sterile material with ore during the process.
extraction. It is measured as a percentage by a rate that is the ratio between the volume
of sterile on the volume of ore (or also the weight of sterile added to the weight of
undiluted ore). It generally varies between 10 and 20%.

Application exercise: Let there be a deposit of 500 m3gold ore graded at 0.5 g/m3,
with a dilution rate of 10%. Calculate the value of the deposit with a cost of 6500 F/g.
Resolution

In summary, the dilution rate also affects the content. It is proportional to the content.

Let's solve the previous exercise in another way to appreciate the impact of the
dilution rate on the content

It is often difficult to exploit wisely and to avoid dilution.

The degree of dilution varies according to the type of deposit and geometry and on the control.
quality in mining operations.
A typical dilution hypothesis in open-pit mines is 10% (meaning that
10% of the ore extracted is actually waste) while the dilution hypothesis in the
Underground mines typically have a rate of 15%. However, these must be considered
as estimates in the absence of information.

Recovery rate

It is the proportion of the estimated tonnage of ore or the contained element recovered by
the exploitation and/or processing at the concentrator.

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In extractive metallurgy, it indicates the proportion of precious material obtained in the

processing of an ore. It is generally expressed as a percentage of the material
recovered relative to the total material present.
Let us be:
Mttotal mass to be recovered or processed
tpcontent of ore in place
VPvolume of ore in place
Rerecovery rate

Calculation of yield

On the construction site, it is important to calculate certain data to have a rough idea.
exact presence of your yield.
This data will allow you to organize work on the ground. It is about:
The volume of ore excavated per team and per man;
The volume of ore diluted per hour;
Concentration at the batter: pans/man/hour

7. Maintenance and condition of the machinery

The aluminum sheets covering the walls of the decantation tank often become the subject
of usury. Indeed, the dredging is done with the shovel that deteriorates the sheets.
They should be replaced with thicker metal sheets.
On the other hand, it is necessary to address the premature wear of the debris grid.
It would be desirable to add a settling tank to the washing machine.

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CHAPTER IV: SEMI-INDUSTRIAL EXPLOITATION

Introduction

A semi-industrial operation is an operation that is partly industrial and not.

namely a part using human energy.
In fact, it is a small-scale industrial operation, the size being indeed...
relatively small.
We use very few excavation and transport machines (no more than 4 machines).
It is important to know that this type of exploitation is generally considered for
low reserve detrital deposits and low grades

I. Classification of placers

These are secondary deposits of sedimentary rocks, producing metals and

heavy minerals, including gold and precious stones. The formation of placers is
the result of mechanical and chemical natural processes: release, transport,
concentration, alteration, dissolution and precipitation. Their size varies from a few
tens of centimeters to several hundreds of kilometers. The placers are classified into
several categories based on their mode of implementation. Thus, we distinguish:

1. The residual placers

They are made up of minerals derived from rocks decomposed in situ (in place) by weathering.
chemical.

2. The colluvium

They come from hills and form a transitional zone between the disintegrated minerals of
rocks and river placers

3. The river placers

They are formed from the flow of waterways.

4. The wind farms

These are concentrations mixed in place by the wind

5. The beach placers

They are formed by the effect of sea erosion on the coastline.

The most common placers are those of rivers or alluvium due to the concentration.
effective value minerals under the action of water flow.

6. The placer minerals

Gold has been mined in the form of placers since the dawn of time.
In addition to gold, there is diamond.
Many other minerals such as platinum, sapphire, ruby, columbotantalite have made
the purpose of explantation by placing.

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II. Prospecting in the placers

Opening of the trenches: we are opening trenches in the mineralized sector.

Well positioning: Wells are positioned along the lanes at regular intervals.

Puits

Identification of each exploration well: Each well must be given a

number.
Drilling of wells: We drill rectangular wells measuring 1.20 m long by 0.8 m
large or circular wells with a diameter of 0.80 m.
It is necessary to separate the waste from the ore. It is necessary to take measurements at each change of the
geological configuration.
Thus we will have the thickness of the sterile and the thickness of the gravel. One must dig in the clay.
up to a maximum of 5 cm deep.

Calculations
It is necessary to determine the volume of ore extracted from the well based on the panels (capacity
7l): we will thus have the abundant volumef.
We then calculate the in-place volume based on the dimensions of the well: Vp.
We will therefore determine here the quantity of ore extracted (excavated volume = loose volume)
and the volume in place.
Thus we obtain the swelling coefficient Cfthrough the relationship:

Washing and concentration in a batée or pan

It is necessary to wash the gravel and concentrate it in the pan or with the sluice to collect the mineral of
value.
The pan is known asChinese hat,because of its shape.
As forpanthe date of the Gold Rush and it is of American origin: it was used
simply the frying pan for panning. So it is just a pan, deprived of its handle,
the edges being higher to increase its capacity.
Note: the steel pans and bowls are blackened at the bottom to allow for better
visualization.

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Figure 26: Panning with a sluice (g) or a pan (d)

Then, it needs to dry, and then weigh the product. Thus, we obtain the weight of our product P.

Figure 27: Instrument for weighing gold

Calculations
Thus, we determine two (2) contents, one washed and one in place.
Washed or treated content:

Content in place:

Report the corresponding content in place for the well on the map, well1
corresponding to the content1:

Create a summary table of all the results (contents).

No. of Volume content

eg T=t×V
well (t) mineral
1 eg1 t1 V1 T1
2 eg2 t2 V2 T2
3 eg3 t3 V3 T3
4

n egn tn Vn Tn

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Calculate the average content of mineralizationm : It is the quotient of the mass

total of the deposit and the total volume of the deposit:

Example: Let there be a prospecting on a gold placer according to the grid below.

Number of volume of Content

20 m 1 2 3 Eg (m)
well ore (t)
1 eg1 3
4 5 6 2 for example2 2
3 eg3 4
4 5
5 4
6 3
Calculate the average content of the deposit

III. Semi-industrial exploitation of the placers of Issia by SODEMI

The gold deposit of Issia is partly the gold deposit of Babadougou, contained in
alluvial gravel. It is the main mineralization. Its content is relatively
variable.
We will therefore divide the deposit into several panels characterizing nearby grades already.
calculated.

Bulldozer extraction

The extraction is done by bulldozer stripping. The thin sterile layer is

quickly cleared and the gravel is scraped and piled up in the extraction areas.

2. Loading and transport

These two operations are carried out respectively by means of:

from a CAT brand front loader;
A 6 m dump truck3for the transport of mineralized gravel

3. The processing unit

a. General diagram of the factory

b. Operation of the unit

The first mechanical operation of the unit is carried out by the washing deburring machine.
inside of which is a sieve. This device performs both a washing and a

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granulometric separation of mixed materials. This separation allows for the obtaining of
elements larger than 10 mm that will be stored outside the unit. The other fraction
Granulometric (less than 10 mm) will undergo treatment. We proceed this way because the study
the deposit has demonstrated a detrital placer, presenting itself in the form of gold dust.
Elements smaller than 10 mm are stored in a hopper and then driven by
the water coming from a motor pump in the hydro cyclones (cyclone banks) that
classed by grain size and by density. This results in two parts:
The fine elements that go to the overflow (surface) and that will be rejected
The coarse and dense elements that go to the underflow and will be sent to
the jigs
Jigs, through the pulsation of heavy elements, create a density separation. This phase
Sedimentation occurs in two stages:
The first is done by a primary jig.
The second is carried out by a secondary jig and will result in obtaining a
concentrated (the heavy elements). The non-concentrated elements (less dense) will
rise to the surface of the hopper to be discharged at the overflow or the discharge.
The obtained concentrate is subjected to a batée treatment, allowing to obtain a
final concentrate with a high content.
Further processing takes place at the SODEMI laboratory (melting and quality control).

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CHAPTER V: GENERALITIES ON INDUSTRIAL OPERATIONS

Introduction
Industrial exploitation is the extraction of large tonnage ore using machinery.
mechanics. To this end, several methods are being considered.

I. The different methods

The mining methods used in mines are well suited to
mechanical characteristics of the rocks encountered at the depth of exploitation and
to the characteristics of vehicles likely to appear on the market. In
large tonnage extraction, We distinguish three main methods:

1. Surface method or open-pit mining

This method is used when the ore is located at a relatively deep depth.
low. In such cases, the first meters of soil are removed, and then the ore is
extracted by excavation from the surface, which requires much less technology
complex. Three types are distinguished:
The method with two steps or large excavations
The method with several funnel-shaped steps
The extraction of placers

Figure 28: Method

open-pit mining

2. Underground mining methods

They are generally used when the deposit is located at a depth.
relatively high. They require digging galleries to access the veins of
coal, galleries that must be dug, supported, cleared, drained (there is sometimes a lot
water in a mine), ventilate, illuminate, etc. the techniques used during
Underground mining varies according to the forms and characteristics of the deposits.

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Figure 29: Method of exploitation

underground

3. Survey methods
They consist of extracting minerals located at a very great depth by drilling.
starting from the surface. Among the minerals extracted by drilling, there is water, gas,
oil, salt.

II. Criteria for choosing between open-pit mining and underground mining methods
After a deposit has been discovered, delineated, and acknowledged, the next step is the choice.
of the method which is economically, physically, and environmentally suitable
for a good recovery of the ore deposit. This choice takes into account the
exploration data. The factors that guide this choice are:
1. The spatial characteristics of the deposit
These are the size, shape, depth, and location of the deposit.
2. The physical properties of mineralization and the host rock

The nature of the ore and the surrounding rock, their mechanical properties (soft rock
hard rock), play a role in the choice of exploitation methods and
concentration.
3. Groundwater and hydrographic conditions
The presence of groundwater and a hydrographic network guides the choice of a
method.
4. Environmental conditions
The prevention against any destruction of nature and against any contamination of
Water and air can greatly affect the choice of a method.
5. Economic criterion or consideration

The choice of a method is always economic. Indeed, no one will exploit a

a deposit at a loss. The economic aspect takes precedence over all others

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criteria for choosing a method of exploitation. The data taken into account in the
economic criteria are:
The content,
The extraction or production costs
The production rate
The sterile report on ore (costs of sterile removal)
The dilution
The costs of collection (recovery)

III. Comparison of the two methods

In the pit mining method, the waste must be completely removed to
access the ore. On the other hand, in underground mining, a shaft and galleries
advancements are arranged to allow for more selective extraction of the ore,
leaving aside most areas containing spoil or low-grade ore
content. The waste to be extracted is moved inside the mine or raised up to the
surface.
The volumes of topsoil, dead earth, and waste materials that need to be moved in the
open-pit mining methods are more important than for an underground mine.
The exploitation of open-pit mining is increasing very rapidly and considerably.
with depth while it increases slightly when it comes to the method
underground. Hence the interest in the sterile report on ore.
Initially, open-pit mining is less expensive than underground mining. It is
also more profitable in terms of productivity and management flexibility. The conditions of
work there is also much less risky. But it proves to be less satisfying.
from an ecological point of view: the sites are defaced and the local atmosphere is polluted by
the dust.
For underground extraction, it is also possible to use depleted areas as
filling.
This operation can be tricky to carry out in open-pit mines where one advances
vertically as extraction progresses, unless the backfill can be
piped to another pit. However, there is a gradual return of open-pit mines.
open where the progress is horizontal.

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CHAPTER VI OPEN-PIT MINING

Introduction

The open-pit mining method concerns shallow deposits. It requires

important capital (particularly due to equipment). In operation
open sky, the work begins with the widening of the cutting trenches of which
the walls are cut into steps (we attack only one of the walls).
This method is also characterized by high production (large quantities extracted).
It has many advantages:
Low operating cost at the start
Better security
Superior productivity (quantity produced per unit of time per person)
Capital investment lower per ton of waste, ore, dead land
Better recovery of mineral reserves (including low-grade areas)
Possibility of using more powerful and more efficient equipment.
In general, an open-pit mining operation has the appearance of a crater, made of successive benches.
more or less circular. Each one constitutes a sort of circular front, in an arc
in a circle or straight line, where cutting, changing, and transporting is carried out.
Some benches are entirely made of ore, while others are made of waste, wholly or partially.
part. Therefore, it is necessary to cut down and load separately two types of products of which the
transport must be done on various (marked) roads: the ore to the processing plant,
the sterile at the spoil heap.

Figure 30: Open-pit mining

A. Open pit with several tiers

I. Pit planning

In an open-pit operation, the aim is to remove a minimum of waste.

recovery to reach the mineralized volumes with the highest value
trader, in order to achieve the best possible return on investments
consentis.

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Mining Operations Course

To limit investments to a minimum and extract the most mineralizations

interesting, we draw up a detailed exploitation plan, planning precisely the
cutting and extraction of the ore. This plan depends on the geological characteristics and
mineralogical of the ground.
Whatever the extent of the mine, the plan outlines the profile of the pit, the
management and transport infrastructures, operating equipment, the rate of
admissible discovery and the targeted production rate. These last two factors
determine the lifespan of the mine, which corresponds either to the depletion of the deposit,
as soon as the break-even point is reached.
The different steps in planning a pit are as follows:

1. Exploitation of survey data

Their data allow for an understanding of the distribution of the ore, the distribution of
contents of the different layers of mineralization, etc. The information obtained is
recorded in plans and sections.
The general plan of the mine and the limits of the deposit dimensions are added to
cuts made.

2. The sectioning

It is done to determine the envelope of the deposit, in order to better visualize.

the mineralized formations. It is about delimiting the mineralization based on the concentrations.
Inside a section, there are mineralized benches with similar grades.

Deposit shape Sections

view from the surface
3. Geotechnical study

Geotechnical tests are conducted to understand the mechanical properties of

rocks when subjected to stress.
This allows for determining the slope of the embankment.

4. Determine the sterile/ore ratio

The sterile/ore ratio (or coverage coefficient) is the mass of the sterile to
exploiter to obtain a unit of mass of ore. This is an important ratio for a

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Mining Operations Course

open pit. It indicates the amount of waste to be mined to extract one ton of
ore.
Before the ultimate limits of the trench can be defined, this report must be established.
maximum permissible stripping, that is to say the maximum ratio of waste to ore.
It is generally noted as R.

Let us be:

5. The discovery

It is the removal of the sterile part to access the mineralization.

Indeed, the consolidated or unconsolidated sterile soils that need to be removed for
exposing the mineralized deposit constitutes the discovery.
There is an advantage in removing the least amount of overburden possible to achieve the...
interesting mineralizations, but when they lie at great depth, it is necessary to
to resolve to remove a larger volume of waste.

6. Determination of the ultimate depth - economic study

Several deposits can be fully mined using open-pit methods;

others must be mined underground from the start. In similar conditions, the
open-pit methods are usually more economically advantageous than
underground mining.
In the choice between an open-pit method and underground methods, several
factors must be taken into consideration, such as:
Dimensions, geometry, and depth of the deposit.
The conditions of the rocky massif.
Productivity and machinery capabilities.
Capital requirements and operating costs.
Ore recovery and revenue.
Security.
Environmental aspects.
Other deposits can be mined open-pit primarily but underground
later. Thus, the following question arises: what is the optimal depth for passing
from open-pit method to underground method?
The ultimate depth will be determined in two ways:
(1). In the first, we will estimate, based on a chart, the level of attainment of the
ultimate depth.
(2). In the second, the economic study will allow us to calculate the ultimate depth.

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 Mining operations course

a. Determination of the ultimate depth (by the graphic method)

The cost of an open-pit operation rises quickly with the

depth, while it increases very slightly in underground mining method,
depending on the depth.
Therefore, there is always a critical depth H.0 and also a valueR0
representing the sterile/ore ratio beyond which underground exploitation
is of lower cost than that of the pit.
The fact is that to extract a deposit in a pit, the quantity of waste to be moved
gradually increases with depth and, moreover, the angle must be maintained
walls to ensure the stability of the slope.
The ratio also increases with depth until reaching a critical point that
corresponds to the ultimate economic depth of the trench.
It is determined graphically.

1ercase: Combination of surface method and underground method

Operating cost
of a ton of ore
Open pit operating cost
open pit
Value of ore per ton

M
Underground operating cost
(underground)

H0
Depth (m)
Ultimate depth

Interpretation of the curves representing the extraction cost per ton of

ore and the depth of the ore
1ercase: the point represents the critical point that is reached when the cost of the
The open-pit method is equal to that of the underground method. Point M corresponds to
H0the ultimate exploitation depth (critical depth), useful depth from
which we change the method of operation.

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 Mining Operations Course

2eopen pit method only

Operating cost
of a ton of ore

Underground operating cost

Open pit operating cost

Value of ore per ton N

H0
Depth (m)
Ultimate depth
Interpretation of the curves representing the extraction cost per ton of
ore and the depth of the ore
2ecase: point N is reached when the cost of the open-pit method is equal to the
value of the ore. This point corresponds to H0what is the ultimate depth that should not be
do not exceed or not reach.
In this case, there is no longer any question of considering an underground exploitation method.
Open-pit mining will therefore only occur below point N.
b. Economic study of an open pit

The economic study allows us to demonstrate that the ultimate critical depth is
data according to the relationship:

There are two approaches to determine the ultimate depth of an open-pit mine:
Approach 1: In this approach, in addition to the surface method, it is possible to
also carry out underground exploitation.
Furthermore, we want to benefit at the start from the low open-air costs for a certain
depth.
In other words, it's when one wants to optimize profits by using both.
methods.
Approach 2: In this approach, it is impossible to consider the underground method.
for economic or physical reasons.
In these two approaches, the determination of the ultimate depth will be done by calculation.

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Cours d’exploitation minière

Approach 1
This approach is used when it is possible to combine surface method and
underground method aimed at optimizing profits. In this approach:
The ultimate depth of the pit is reached when the costs of the surface method
are equivalent to those of the underground method
The volume of waste increases with depth due to slope stabilization.
during open-pit mining. This increase is accompanied by a rise
surface costs that reach a given depth (ultimate depth) the costs
underground. At this point, it is advantageous to switch to underground mining which the
counts are more or less constant at a certain depth.
If for economic reasons it is possible to start the exploitation works at
open sky and to pursue them through the underground method, it would be desirable to know
Which of the two methods is more cost-effective?
The economic study will therefore compare the costs of the open-pit method and those of the
underground method. Let's consider the following parameters:

R0is reached when surface costs are equal to underground costs.

The economic approach consequently gives us the following relationship:

vegetation cover
Dead land

Sterile Sterile

Thickness (e)

H D
Minerai D

Hest the depth of the ore. The ultimate depth H0is reached for:
Let it be:
sterile
ore

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Mining Operation Course

R0can also be given by the relation:

SetM can be expressed in area units (m2), ou en unité de tonnage (Kg, t) ou
in volume unit (m3).In this case :
we can calculate the areas of waste and ore
the ultimate depth is H
Let's determine the ore surface:
Let's determine the surface of the sterile when 1 m of ore is removed (thickness
elementary).
The removed sterile part is the colored section that forms two equal surfaces:

(6)

Let's determine a relationship between the width of the waste and that of the ore:

Thus in the first approach, we will switch to the underground method when the
the depth H of the ore will be equal to:

Approach 2

In this case, there is no possibility to make the comparison with the underground method.
The sterile/ore critical ratio, which will determine the ultimate depth, will be determined by
the economic value and the operating costs. Let it be:

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 Mining Operations Course

Knowing R0as well as the geometry of the pit, we can calculate the ultimate depth.
When one reaches the ultimate depth, there is no longer any extraction by the method of
surface. So, C0, the cost of extraction by surface method is zero (C0=0).

Application Exercise (1):

The recoverable value per ton of ore is 3300 F. The extraction costs amount to
at 450 F/t and the processing cost is 50 F/t.
The stripping cost is 450 F/t of waste. Determine the waste/ore ratio.

Application exercise (2)

Here is the geometry of a pit Ws

=60m
m
The cost of underground extraction per ton is 1200 F
The extraction cost per ton for open-pit mining is 400 F
The cost of stripping per ton of waste is 400 F.
Determine the ultimate depth H. H

RESOLUTION

Application exercise (1)

On a :

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Mining Operations Course

Application exercise (2)

On a:

Let's determine R0:

7. Tracing of the pit

Mining research allows us to make an initial representation in

ore block cut in place.
Ground surface

Land mortgage (coverage)

Sterile

Sterile

Ore

Slope of the embankment

Ultimate depth

The dead ground must be stripped and the following cut is obtained:

Stripped land

Sterile Sterile

Ore

Slope of the embankment

Ultimate depth

The ore is divided into several steps of almost equal heights.

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Mining operations course
Bare soil

S1
Sterile 1 Sterile
S2
2
S3 Ore

3
Sn Slope hair

Ultimate depth

1, 2, 3,…, n represent the successive benches of minerals that will be extracted.

S1, S2, S3…, Sndesignate the successive layers of waste to be removed per ton of
extracted ore.

The implementation of this layout provides a stepped exploitation.

1ergrades
Bank

Bank Development Department

Route

Bottom of the pit: ultimate depth

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 Mining Operations Course

Let's observe the pit below (top view)

Route
1hebank

Bottom of the pit

A Figure 31: Open-pit mine

open (top view)

Geometry of the bleachers

Skin

Bank
(30 to 35 m)
H
(10 to 15 m)

Base
Bench
Gentle slope road
(5 to 15 m)
(8 to 10 %)

Perspective diagram of a tier

Talus

Food

Wall

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Mining operation course

Fundamental elements of an open-pit operation.

The term 'pit' refers to the set of structures constructed for the extraction of surface minerals.
open ("pit" in English).
The ledge is the equivalent of a level in an underground mine, easily noticeable.
by its stair-step structure in an open-pit mining face. The
the height of the bench is suited to the strength of the rock, to the mine's operability and
to the capabilities of open-pit mining machines. It varies between 10 and 20 meters.
The stands are thus steps or horizontal floors above which
materials are excavated on a contiguous front and on which it is possible to carry out
foraging, cutting or rolling materials ("Bench" in English).
It is the first element of an open-pit operation. In a bench, one can distinguish:
The roof: the horizontal surface limiting the step to its upper part
The wall: the surface that limits the step side of the void of the operation
The embankment: sloping land forming the edge of a ditch.
The upper edges: the lines of the roof of the tier with its slope
The lower edges: the intersecting lines of the wall with its embankment
The slope angle: the angle that the slope makes with the horizontal.
The stands are utilized by width zones along the entire length of the stand. These zones
Removed are called yeasts.
A part of the yeast delimited in length and exploited by means of slaughter.
and independent loading is called a block. The term blocks refers to the segmentation
operating units.
The fundamental elements of the surface method include:
The bleacher
The block
The pits or structures for draining runoff water.

8. Calculation of the total sterile to be moved

We calculate either the volume or the tonnage of the total waste to be removed or relocated. It is enough
to know the dimensions of the pit to determine the volume, and the density for
calculate the tonnage.

9. Calculation of total ore to be extracted

The process of determining the total ore tonnage to be extracted is identical to that
you sterile.

10. Calculation of the overall average ratio

It is the calculation of the tonnage to be raised for one ton of ore for the entire
pit.

Final pit plan or definitive plan drawing

All the aforementioned steps (from 1 to 10) allow for a one-time setup.
the plan of the pit.

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Mining Operations Course

II. Slaughter

In the case of soft rocks, the equipment used to extract the ore...
limited to mechanical shovels (slope shovel or dragline shovel).
In the case of consolidated, hard rocks, extraction is done by blasting with explosives.
uses drills (percussion drill and rotary drill) to make holes
vertical or slightly inclined according to the pattern (or shooting plan). The diameter and the
The depth of the holes depends on the height of the bench, the pattern used, and the strength of
The most commonly used explosive is ammonium nitrate combined with diesel.
In the case of stepped pits, we distinguish between blasting shots and detonating shots.
The first ones allow the dislocation of the massif in view of the loading while the
seconds aim to draw the stands.
Each type of shot will then have its plan and specifications.

III. Extraction and loading

The extraction and loading are done by various machines. Among others, we can mention:
The shovels (extraction and loading).
The scrapers (loading).
Front loaders (loading)
The loading equipment capacity depends on the volume or tonnage of
materials to load or transport.
The shovels operate according to five phases that form a loop, or a cycle:
Filling of the bucket
Bucket lift
Rotation and positioning above the truck to be loaded
Unloading
Repositioning during the filling phase
The excavators and front loaders are types of cyclical machines.

IV. Transport

The equipment used for surface mining of ore has already been
étudié auChapitre I. ce sont :
Trucks generally associated with excavators and loaders
Trains for transporting large volumes over long distances
The conveyors

B. Open pit with two tiers

This method is used for horizontal layer deposits such as coal.

In this case, drilling and blasting are not required. The extraction will consist of removing the
recovery and the ore by extraction directly without blasting. The material of
The recovery will be rejected to the back of the excavation.

C. Extraction of placers (See chapter IV)

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CHAPTER VII: UNDERGROUND MINING

There are underground mines all over the world, which bear witness to the multitude of
methods and existing exploitation materials. Each mine constitutes a case
in particular, the facilities and operating methods being dictated by nature and
the characteristics of the deposit, the geographical situation, the geological conditions
as well as by economic considerations such as existing markets and the
Financing possibilities. Some mines have been continuously operated for more than
of a century, while others have only just been opened.
The safety and protection of the health of minors are an integral part of a healthy
mining practices and constitute a legal obligation in most countries.
The underground mining method is used for deep deposits, that is to say
for mineralizations located more than ten meters deep.
An underground operation is characterized by:
A labor-intensive workforce
An expensive operational cost
A lower production in terms of material moved in tonnage
A deep deposit with fairly good grade.
During operation, the mining field can be divided into stages, by supports or
No. In underground mines, it is essential to ensure drainage, lighting, ventilation.
support for the safety and health of workers.

Figure 32: Underground exploitation

I. The different types of deposits, their characteristics and the works of

development

Underground mining techniques vary greatly due to the wide variety

the shapes and characteristics of deposits. The underground operations
primarily concerning two types of deposits:

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Mining Operations Course

Metallic deposits
Regularly layered sedimentary deposits
Metallic deposits have the following main characteristics:
Non-stratified
Intrusive origin
Filon-like form, in clusters or in veins
Irregular mineralization
Hard rocks
Blast felling
Support not necessary
Generally no gas
Regarding sedimentary deposits, they are generally:
Layered
Of sedimentary or detrital origins
In layer form, or tabular
Regular mineralization
Soft, yielding rocks
Requires very little explosive demolition
Support always required
Presence of dangerous gases
As an economic characteristic, it can be noted that metal deposits have:
Reserves that are generally small in size
A mine lifespan ranging from 10 to 20 years
As for sedimentary deposits:
The deposits are large areas (very wide deposits)
The lifespan of the mine ranges from 50 to 100 years.
Development work or preparatory work varies from one type of deposit to another.
other.
Thus for metal deposits:
This work spans multiple levels.
The framework is in the vertical plane.
As for sedimentary deposits:
The layers being generally horizontal, the work extends to a few
levels (of depths)
For a framework in the horizontal plane, the layers do not extend in
depth (vertical) but in width (horizontal)

II. Exploitation of sedimentary deposits

There are two cases:

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Mining Operations Course

1. Case of thin films

Layers are generally extracted all at once from the roof to the wall. Generally,
the thicknesses or powers of the thin layers do not exceed 3 to 4 m. The methods
the employees' tasks are:
The room and pillar method
The room and pillar method with blasting
These two methods are used in coal mines. The abandonment of pillars leads to
a loss of ore ranging from 30 to 50%. In return, this method allows for a
large mechanization that delivers remarkable yields.

2. Case of thick or powerful layers

Thick layers are generally found in coal mines. Two

methods are used to exploit them:
The exploitation of inclined layers.
The exploitation of horizontal slices.
The second method is by far the most used in the case of irregular or very deposits.
pendage (slope ≥30%). The first is preferred in the case of regular deposits because
allowing lengths (slices) as large as in thin film.

III. Underground exploitation of intrusive deposits (metallic deposits)

Intrusive deposits are often metallic ores that stand out from
sedimentary deposits by:
A more irregular mineralization that allows, better yet, requires a selection of
panels to exploit
A hard and denser ore
Spans of better quality (limit between the mineralized layer and the host rock)
Absence of risk from gas, dust, fires as in the deposits of
coal
These deposits can occur in the form of:
Filon
Amas
Lentils
Most peeling methods (pillar method) for sedimentary deposits
are used for the exploitation of intrusive deposits but the technical characteristics
and the economics of these deposits allow for the use of other methods.

IV. The steps of underground exploitation

Underground mining follows an organization of work. It begins with the

development work to end with the extraction or removal of the ore.

Development work

These works include:

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Mining Operation Course

The main entrance

The main entrance is usually a well (vertical, allows you to descend the
personnel and materials by elevators called shafts), called main shaft. It
perhaps also a ramp (an inclined surface that connects two separate levels)
or to allow access to a level from the surface).
The descents, which replaced the wells in the 1980s, are true
inclined underground routes allowing the passage of motorized vehicles;
The main entrance is used for:
transport the ore and the waste to the surface
transport the personnel and the equipment
passage location for piping for water, compressed air, pumping
of electrical conduit
of ventilation

b. The galleries

They form a network from which the depot will be attacked by peeling in the
logging sites. The entire network of galleries is referred to as tracing.
The galleries, horizontal or of gentle slopes, dug into the barren rock, connect the
wells or the descents to mineralized areas.
They serve as a basis for mineral exploitation (site operation) and also
transport routes for the ore. They are also used to continue the
mining exploration.

c. The assemblies

We connect the levels with each other through the shafts (or uprights) in the ore.
and the sterile. Their usefulness is to allow access to the different levels without going through the
main shafts. They also serve for ventilation between the different levels and
they serve the different logging sites. They also serve to extract the ore or the
sterile.
d. The crossing benches

They allow access to the different horizons in the ore. We also talk about
tunnel allowing to connect two benches (or layers).

e. The gas stations

They relate to pumping stations, primary crushing stations,

the installation of fans, the room to recharge batteries, the repair workshop.
These are underground spaces designed for carrying out the aforementioned work.

The ore chimney

It is an inclined (or vertical) ramp intended for the gravity movement of the ore.
up to the crushing station. It often resembles a ventilation shaft, which is not
not always the case.

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Mining Operations Course

Several chimneys can be arranged side by side and connected at the base by a
collecting conveyor belt, which allows the transportation of ore from the levels
superior to a single draw-off point at the rolling level.
The exhaust chimney is closed at its base by a hatch. As a general rule, it
opens just above the rolling gallery, so that when the hatch opens
the ore falls directly into the cars.

g. The recipes

The wells serve the different stages of exploitation. Each level is called a recipe.
or unloading. These are unloading points for trucks into wagons or in
a hopper, usually at the bottom.

Figure 33: Different components

from an underground mine

Diagram of a mine combining MCO and MST (see appendix)

Once all these works are developed, it is necessary to move on to exploitation or extraction.
properly speaking. This phase is carried out using various methods:

2. Methods of exploitation by stripping or mining

The choice of the exploitation method depends on the dimensions and the configuration of the
deposit, the value of the minerals it contains, the composition, the stability and
of the resistance of the rock mass and the requirements for production and safety.
Mining methods have undergone continuous evolution since
Antiquity. Each mine is a particular case, but they all have in common the search.
of profitability and security.

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Mining Operations Course

De-shelling or slaughtering offers several methods:

a. Method by room and pillar

This method involves mining the ore and leaving voids in place of the ore.
lowered, thereby forming rooms, and leaving a gap or space between each room.
pillars as support structures. It applies to flat sedimentary deposits.
such as coal, potash, salt, and limestones. It also applies to
formations where the dip, null to moderate, does not exceed 20°. However, the extraction does not
will not be done at 100%.

This method involves a thorough study of the resistance of the pillars, of the span
from the upper layer and other factors as well. The chambers serve as pathways
Rolling for the transport by trucks of the ore to the storage silo.

Figure 34: Exploitation by rooms

and pillars of a horizontal deposit

b. The operation by store chambers

The general principle of this extraction method is the mining of low-grade ore in
high, climbing the dip of the layer; the ore blocks flowing by gravity
within the room.

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 Mining Operations Course

The mined raw ore is stored on site and contributes to the lifting of the
roof and wall. Throughout the duration of the felling, only the surplus is removed
ore due to the swelling supported from the base gallery. The excavation
progresses upward and the surface of the mined ore serves as a workspace contributes to the
support of the spoils. This method, based on the gravity flow of the ore,
applies to the deposit having:
An accentuated slope (between 35° and 40° of inclination)
A hard and competent ore, in a regular shape and under wall and ceiling conditions.
stable.

Figure 35: Simplified representation of the ore evacuation scheme in the chamber method
stores without scraping lane (g) and with scraping lane (d).

c. The exploitation by struck blocks

Mine shafts are created in a fan shape. This technique involves extracting the ore by
tranche, by level or by block. Block mining is a method of exploitation for
large scale, applied to clusters or layers of large powers (> 20 m) and
suitable for masses capable of disintegration (internal tensions must favor the
disaggregation of the mass after peeling a slice of ore at the base of the block.

Figure 36: Example of exploitation by

struck blocks

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 Mining Operations Course

When executed correctly, block striking is a low-cost method and

productive. The difficulty lies in predicting the behavior of the mass. In addition,
The scope of the preparatory work creates significant delays before the start of the
production.

d. The exploitation of empty rooms

These methods are characterized by the removal of the ore as it is processed.

cutting. The void created by the removal of the ore is neither backfilled nor collapsed. The roof
is artificially supported by a complete framework. The ore is extracted in cubes.
from 2 to 3 m of edge. The roof is not also supported by a pillar.

Figure 37: Example of exploitation through empty rooms

(Inverted step method with work on the floor)

These methods are common in sub-vertical veins, at shallow or medium depth.

In fact, in many cases of vein exploitation, the resistance of the overburden by
The relationship to the push of the ground is such that it is possible to sometimes abandon voids.
stretched. The dilution rate must be calculated.

e. Backfilled chamber methods

The ore is mined in horizontal slices starting from the bottom of the site and moving upwards.
The mined ore is completely cleared from the site. The corresponding volume is
filled with other sterile materials or sand. The backfill serves both to support
the walls and roof of the construction site and to create a working platform for the next steps
Backfilling can be done manually or mechanically.

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Mining Operations Course

Figure 38: Example of the backfilled rising slices at the Crouzille uranium mine

3. Loading and transport equipment

a. Loading equipment

These are:
The front loaders
Continuous loaders, conveyors, chimneys

b. The transport equipment

These are:
The trucks
The loaders, the carriers
Trains and conveyors

4. The ventilation

The role of ventilation:

Preservation of human lives underground (respiratory conditions made
normals)
Ensure normal working conditions
Maintains atmospheric conditions below normal temperature

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 Mining operations course

Cooling of the temperature

Evacuations of dust created by mining activities (blasting, transport,
loading, crushing
Dilution of fumes produced by explosives and equipment
The principle of ventilation:
It is created by a difference in pressure between the inlets and outlets.
The direction of air moves from a point of high pressure to a point of low pressure.
The ventilation pressure compared to atmospheric pressure can be positive or
negative
The pressure created must be strong enough to overcome frictional resistances.
Vacuum cleaner
Fan

Wells of
ventilation Main well

Ore

Pipes of
ventilation

Peeling: an operation during which miners clean the walls of a gallery.

Support: drilling holes and installing anchor bolts or a mesh to support the roof
of a gallery.

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Mining operation course

CHAPTER VIII: DRILLING AND SLaughter TECHNIQUES

THE EXPLOSIVE
Introduction

Drilling is an operation that involves boring a hole in the rock.

This is the most common method of rock drilling. It occupies
an important place in the mining industry where it is first used
as a sampling method allowing to
know all mineral concentration by a
deep extraction. Therefore, It
allows to determine the existence of reserves
sufficient to be exploited profitably.
In the mines where production is done by mining
From the rock to the explosive, drilling is the operation that
precedes the skipping. In this case, it is used to
to obtain a sufficient opening in the rock for the
placement of explosive charges. Different types are distinguished
foraging in the mining sector:
Exploration forage
The development drilling
Production drilling

I. Exploration forage

His main objective is to determine the presence or absence of demineralization indicators.

get a preliminary idea of the size of the mineralized body.
Secondarily, it provides information on the stratigraphy and the
structures of the adjacent rock. Core drilling allows obtaining cores, and the
destructive foraging, debris.
The exploration drilling program can only be implemented if the knowledge
Geological and geophysical studies have demonstrated the existence of interesting evidence.
The drilling must provide enough information to respond positively or
negatively, within a relatively short timeframe and at a sufficiently low cost, to uncertainty
related to the existence of a deposit.
In general, the number of drillings at the reconnaissance stage of the index must
to be limited to 2, 5 or 6 in order to reduce the initial risk which is very high.
If the results of these drillings are positive, the risks being considerably reduced, we can
So undertake a more complex drilling program that takes into account the early ones.
results.

II. Development forage

It aims to determine the content, volume, and outline of the mineralized zone.
likely targeted by exploration. Development drilling is distinct from drilling.
exploration simply because it is only interested in mineralized areas. The program
development drilling must provide us with information on:
The geology of the mineralized zone

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Quantitative data on the content and tonnage of available material

The size and geometry of the deposit, with the mineralized and barren parts
The mineralogical and metallurgical characteristics of the ore
The physical characteristics of the ore (alteration, density)
Data on any other factors that could affect the operating works
mining (groundwater, working conditions)
To achieve these goals, an appropriate program must take into account the number of holes.
to drill, the spacing and orientation of the holes and another program suitable for the
data collection.
This last program takes into account the sampling, the logging of holes and a
appropriate presentation of data.
Once the data is collected, it is important to analyze and interpret it.
From this moment, we can design cross-sections and level plans.
which constitute the best approach to communicate information about the different
types of structures and rocks for planning.
All the information obtained should lead to the calculations of the reserves.

III. Production forage

During the operation phase, this type of drilling is a basic necessity operation.
it precedes the blasting with which it combines to form the two unit operations,
necessary for the dislocation and fragmentation of the consolidated material in place. Its purpose
It is therefore to provide a cavity for the installation of explosives.
In the vast majority of surface and even underground mines, drilling and
Dynamiting is essential to the production cycle.
Unlike exploration and development drilling, production drilling is
a destructive drilling that pulverizes the rocks in place.

FORMATION 2a. PREPARATION OF THE SHOOT 2b. TIR

CASE 1: MANUAL PURGING

3. PURGEAGE 4. LOADING 5. BOLTING

Case 2: Mechanized Purging

3. LOADING 4. PURGEAGE Bolting

Figure40 :Exemple de cycles de production (mine de fer de LORRAINE)

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IV. Felling, blasting or detonating

Explosives or explosive substances

An explosive is a substance composed of solid and liquid elements that are likely, under
certain conditions, of violent and rapid decomposition, giving rise to two
different and complementary actions:
a shock wave (shock effect, shattering)
a release of a large quantity of gas at very high temperature after
detonation (thrust effect).
During the explosion, one can observe:
A gas release
A heat production
An increase in pressure a high pressure

Characteristics of explosives

Density of the explosive, expressed in g/m3or in Kg/l

Detonation velocity: speed of the shock wave propagation in the explosive charge
or simply, the speed at which the explosion occurs. It is from
this property that we tried to classify explosives into two categories: the
detonating (or shattering) and deflagrating (or slow)
Power: it is the coefficient of mass particle relative to volume. It is the
volume of rock that the explosive can blast relative to the mass of the charge.
Shock sensitivity: it is the ease or ability with which the explosive can
stand out.
Mode of action

In the action of the explosion, firstly, the shock wave acts on the material like the
would make a huge hammer strike and crack it. Then, the gas released, highly compressed,
seeking to escape, penetrates into the cracks, widening them and dislocating the
material.

2. Classification of explosive substances

Deflagrating or slow explosives

These are slow explosives whose action is gradual. These explosives can be
stirred by the sole action of a spark.
Their decomposition speed is relatively slow (for example 800 m/s).
They understand gunpowder (consisting of 75% potassium nitrate, 10% sulfur and
from charcoal (15%), liquid oxygen explosives, ammonium nitrate.
They ignite with a slow fuse or electric ignition.

Explosive detonating or blasting

These are explosives whose action is almost instantaneous (rapid detonation). They do not
can only be triggered by a violent shock.

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They are used in cases where one wishes to achieve advanced fragmentation of the rock.
which is generally the case in mines and quarries.
The detonation velocity is very high, the shock wave pressure is significant. These
Explosives are very sensitive and of high density. They are generally used for
detonations in the open air.
Shattering or detonating explosives include:
Dynamites, made from nitroglycerin (extremely sensitive toxic liquid
to the shock).

Nitrates
Chlorates

[Link] of explosives

The main explosives commonly used are:

Dynamite
Fuel nitrate
Nitrated explosives

The dynamites

These are mixtures based on nitroglycerin (essential component) and nitrate.

of ammonia. There is a whole range from low to high explosives.
The first contain a low percentage of nitroglycerin. The second are
blasting dynamites because they cause the strongest shock waves. The percentage of
nitroglycerin and is high (40% and more).
Nitroglycerin is a powerful explosive and very sensitive to shock. In order to use it
industrially, it is necessary to add absorbing bodies to minimize its power and
its sensitivity.
Dynamites are delivered in the form of cartridges and are often used for
hard rocks, in connection with fuel nitrate for ground blasting.
Like dynamite, we can mention:
The dynamite gum
Sofranex
Forcite 15 (F 15)
tolamite
dynalite and dynalite R

b. Slurry explosives

These are viscous substances, made of dynamite and gelatin. They contain
10 to 30% water and are based on ammonium nitrate, calcium or sodium, associated
to small grains or flakes (in suspension) of toluene, aluminum. They are
characterized by a maximum loading density, good water resistance, a
safer manipulation.

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c. Nitrate explosives

These are also mixtures containing Ammonium Nitrate and sensitizers.

The proportion of nitrate is still high. The performance of these explosives is
less than those of dynamites. They are used on softer rocks.
Fuel nitrate (ANFO): It is a mixture of ammonium nitrate and fuel.
is not an explosive. It is typically used as fertilizer in agriculture. But by
with the addition of a quantity of fuel, it becomes an explosive substance. ANFO is
composed of about 94% ofammonium nitrateand about 6% diesel (which can be
replaced bykeroseneofthe essence. To achieve the best absorption of the oil by
ammonium nitrate, the latter must be in granular form. ANFO consists of
place, on the job site, at the very moment of employment. This is what makes it successful.
The NC4It is a nitrated explosive made in a proportion of 75 to 78% nitrate.
ammonium and the rest of TNT.

d. Emulsified explosives

These are mixtures composed of fuel mineral oil and nitrate.

ammonium.

e. The chlorates

These are explosives primarily based on sodium chlorate mixed with substances.
nitrates or combustible fatty substances. They are rarely found on the market and they
are used for special work.

4. Fire-starting devices or accessories

The ignition of explosives requires a number of special accessories that play a

important role in achieving good performance. The choice of these accessories must be made
with the greatest care. There are two types:
Non-electric systems
Electric systems

a. Non-electric systems or pyrotechnic devices

We have the ordinary detonator, the slow fuse, and the blasting cord.

Figure 41: felling shot

(pyrotechnic chain)

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The detonator: It consists of a tube made of copper or aluminum containing a

powerful and very sensitive explosive charge at its end. This charge is protected by
a metal piece called a cap and in which an opening is made. It is through
this opening through which the fire spat by the slow fuse transmits to the explosive charge.

Slow wick Black powder

Charge n°1
Fulminate of mercury
Operculum

Initiation charge
Ignition powder
Copper tube or
in aluminum
Charge explosive
Charge No. 2 (Tetryl)

Figure 41:
Left: cutting of a regular detonator fitted with a slow fuse
Right: Simplified diagram of a regular detonator

Slow fuse: Also called a safety fuse, it consists of a thin strand of

black powder wrapped in one or more layers of jute made of cotton called a sheath and which
are impregnated with various substances intended to give it greater
waterproofness
Before proceeding to ignition, we cut the end of the fuse at an angle so as to
bring part of the powder line into view.
Lit at one of its ends, the fuse has the property of burning slowly with
a great regularity and easily giving at the other end, a jet of spark
capable of igniting a charge of black powder in grain or compressed form. The speed of
The burning of the slow wick is 1.5 m/min with a tolerance of plus or minus 5%.
Black powder Jute
Black powder

Cotton
Plastic sleeve

Cotton or textile sheath Envelope

plastic sleeve
Plastic film
Figure 42: Simplified diagram of a slow fuse
Left: side view
Right: front view

The detonating cord: Unlike detonators that 'detonate' under the action
from heat, a more violent shock caused by an explosion is needed to set in
work the detonating cord.

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Once ignited, it transmits to the explosive and acts as a detonator.

It consists of a sealed, flexible tube of small diameter filled with a sensitive explosive.
such as TNT placed inside a jute or cotton sheath. The detonator is put in
fire, the explosion that follows propagates along the detonating cord at a speed of 8000
m/s and the shock wave created is sufficient to explode a cartridge in
contact with the other end of the cord. In fact, the entire length of the cord seems
explode instantly. Its speed is therefore suitable for synchronizing loads
multiples by exploding them almost simultaneously, even if the charges are placed
at different distances from the firing point The detonating cord cannot
exploser par lui-même, son emploi est plus sécurisant. Pour le chargement des mines
deep verticals, he avoids placing primed cartridges in the drilling.

Penthrite cord Gain in chloride of

polyvinyl

Cotton or textile sheath

Cellophane envelope

Figure 43:
Skin: Simplified diagram of a detonating cord
Right: detonating cord

When several charges need to be detonated simultaneously and the explosion cannot be
to be transmitted by a single detonating cord, a master cord is used
and derived cords:
The master cord is the one that is started
The derived cord is connected to the master cord which transmits the explosion.

Figure 44: master cord and derived cord

Once placed with their charge in the boreholes, the fuses are ignited using a
fuse or electric detonator.

detonator
Charge explosive

Detonating cord

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Figure 45: Staging at

detonating cord (at the top
simplified diagram

CISALEX

Figure 46: Detonating cord initiation: Here, the cord

wrapped and taped around the CISALEX load for
then to be threaded into the formation.

The Nonel system: This system is equipped with a transparent plastic tube whose face
the interior is covered by a thin layer of explosive.
Explosive powder

Detonating cord

b. The electrical systems (or accessories, or devices)

These are devices that are activated by a current or an electric discharge.

system has allowed a high degree of security for blasting operations. Since then, the
The dynamiter can take cover and control the moment of ignition. The risk of failure.
is reduced.

Figure 47: electric detonator.

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Electric detonators (instantaneous): It is an ordinary detonator to which we have

added an electric ignition head that serves the same purpose as the slow wick of the
ordinary detonator. It consists of a igniter and an initiator containing a filament
very thin metal welded to both ends of the detonator's conductors. These
conductors are insulated by a plastic sheath.
Plastic
Explosive primer

Electric wire
Charge explosive

Igniting powder Filament

Filament
Copper tube or Closure mouth
in aluminum

Insulated conductors
Figure 48: electric detonator (snapshot)

Charges
Inflammatory
Operculum

The electric delay detonators: they are equipped, between the explosive charge and the
ignition head, of a cord of delay powder that burns at a speed well
determined. There are two series of delay detonators:
The ordinary delay detonators for which the offset between two numbers
consecutive is half a second and range from detonator number 0 to number 12
The micro-delay detonators for which the offset between two numbers
The consecutive intervals are 25 milliseconds and range from detonator number 0 to number 20.

Delay powder
Plastic
Explosive initiator

Electric wire
Charge explosive

Igniting powder Filament

Figure 47: electric delay detonator.

5. Priming

It is the operation that involves connecting the explosive to the firing device. It is referred to as
ignition cartridge, the explosive cartridge to which the ignition device is attached. It is
so the part of the explosive in which we put the detonator or igniting device.

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Figure 48: Priming (from left to right): preparation of the primer cartridge, lowering of the primer cartridge,
loading the hole with bulk explosive

Figure 49: preparation for blasting. Holes

of my loaded in a shallow open-pit mine

Detonation with a regular detonator

The slow fuse is connected to the detonator which is inserted into the explosive cartridge.
(that is to say the primer cartridge). It is prepared in the last position.
This operation is carried out using a special bronze piece. It must never be
make using a steel piece or with the teeth. The front priming is distinguished.
in which the primer cartridge is above the explosive cartridges and the priming
rear or the primer cartridge is at the bottom of the bore.
There is also intermediate priming, which involves placing the primer cartridge...
the middle of the charge. However, this method is prohibited because the detonator explodes in
a clearly defined meaning. There is therefore a risk that only part of the charge is
reached because the shock wave will propagate only in one part of the charge
and it is this only part that will explode.
Slow wick
Slow wick

Detonator
Cartouches
explosives Primer cartridge

Detonator
Cartouches
explosives
Primer cartridge

Figure 50: Ignition mode with a regular detonator: rear ignition (g) and front ignition (d).

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Initiation with an electric detonator

The procedure is the same as with a regular detonator. The wires of the detonator are
bonded with the primer cartridge by means of a ligature with a band of
chatterton.

Detonating cord initiation

The end of the detonating cord must be securely attached along the cartridge.
starter using a tie with duct tape. At its free end, outside the drilling,
A detonating cord is ignited using a regular detonator and a slow fuse or
by means of an electric detonator.
Electric wire

Ordinary or electric detonator

Charges
explosive Detonating cord
Figure 51: Detonating cord initiation

Primer cartridge

6. Firing (shooting)

The ignition of any firing circuit is preceded by a visual check of its continuity and
the correct execution of all the connections it must have.
The explosives are loaded at the bottom of the mine hole and initiated using detonators or
of detonating cord, it is now necessary to
to provoke the explosion.
The set of explosive mines is called the
flight. We also talk about all the holes
operations carried out to fell the bench of
rock.
The jump of the volley is called the shot or the set.
on fire. This involves blowing up the flock and
to do this, you need to bring the detonators to a
temperature that triggers the explosion.
This system is triggered using explosive devices.
These are portable devices to provide the
current necessary for the explosion of detonators.
Battery or accumulator-powered detonators: The power source is a battery that
charges a capacitor. When the charging voltage of the capacitor reaches a value
sufficiently high, an automatic device sends current into the firing line. These
devices being much heavier than magneto detonators, they are often
mounted on a wheeled cart. These are the only ones that can be used to blow up the
high-intensity detonators.

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Dynamo or magneto igniters: They consist of a magneto operated

for a very short time (usually 1 to 2 seconds) by the release of a spring
spiral. The whole is housed in a portable box. The assembly and the triggering of the
Springs can only be made using a special key that the dynamiter must keep.
about him. There are models to fire 25 to 100 mines with detonators.
low intensities. They are poorly suited for firing high-intensity detonators.

Figure 52: Sequential exploder REO BM20F-PT

Figure 53: planchette and the control switch.
It is on the board that the lines connect.

7. Design and execution of shots

After choosing the explosive, a firing plan must be prepared in order to:
Determine the diameters, meshes, and depths of the holes
Calculate the quantities of explosives to be used
Determine the direction of the shot.
Drilling operation.

The holes will be drilled according to a pre-established shooting plan. Precautions will be taken to ensure that
During drilling, one hole does not encounter another. Currently, there are ...
materials that allow for knowing the exact geometry of mine holes. This
Knowledge allows for the optimization of each explosive charge.

Figure 54: Design of a shooting plan (entrance of a gallery)

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a. Factors affecting shot design

B D

Packing

Cutting edge B0
your free face

L Charge explosive

H
HC

Foot charge
Su

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The jumping parameters

These parameters are:

The distance from the drill hole to the free face or the thickness of rock between line (B),
is called the bench or the burden of the cut face.

The stuffing (material or inert matter that is placed above the load to better ...
the confine)B0The stuffing is used to maintain pressure in the cavity and to
reduce the projection of stones into the air. The stuffing is made of non-substances
susceptible to producing sparks from friction or shock, nor to remain incandescent
after the shot; it is put in place while avoiding violent shocks.

The diameter of the drilling hole (D)

The height of the bench (H)
The total depth of the borehole (L)

The height of surforation or surforation height or height of the base load (Su)

The charge height (HcThe staggered loads are called column load Qc.
discrete column charge distribution is used to increase efficiency as well
to reduce vibration, when the length is small, the distribution is continuous.
The charge concentration (in Kg/m)
Spacing between two (2) neighboring holes in the same row (E)

The two dimensions E and B constitute the formation mesh. The formation mesh at
several rows represent the shooting plan. The value of the spacing is governed by the
the spacing ratio of the bench (E/B) which typically ranges between 1 and 2.
Depending on the starting sequence, the bench and the effective spacing between holes
can vary significantly. The E/Best mesh ratio is one of the characteristics of
this shooting plan. In the case of blasting, the drilling grid is generally regular, in
subterranean, it is more irregular and complex. This mesh strongly influences the order
and the shooting deadlines
b. The choice of the boss

Le patronest la disposition géométrique des trous. Patron de sautage : forme

predetermined location of the holes that will receive explosives. There are three
main types of patterns:
Square template B: the distance between the holes is equal to that between the rows.
Rectangular patron B≠E
Lepatron quinconce: the holes are arranged in groups of five (four in a square and one
in the middle
Note: there are also parallelogram patterns (B≠E) and rhombus (B=E)

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Figure 55: main types of mesh used for open sky shots

c. Ignition techniques

The techniques depend on how we want the fragmented rock to be.

projected. It can be projected in a linear way.

d. Shooting evaluation

Evaluation of the tonnage of rock to be blasted

Evaluation of the quantity of explosive charge to achieve the flight (Qflight)

Some definitions:
Explosive product: explosive material or an object containing it;
charge: a set of explosive products intended to be detonated by the same
pyrotechnic shooting accessory;
bottom of the hole: what remains of the rear end of a mine hole after detonation;
surface charge: charge placed outside a mine hole in contact with the material;
primary shot, any shot made in the rock at the original site;
mass shooting, any primary shooting containing at least one row of blast holes
parallel to a free face of the rock in order to bring down a significant amount
quantity of rock (the primary shot that does not involve is not considered as mass firing
that some mines or charges in a particular place on a front);
secondary shot, any fragmentation shot of blocks previously felled from their
original rock formation;
firing site, the area of the mining site or quarry where the shooting takes place;
incomplete explosion, the failure of a part of the charge to explode;
Mine hole: hole obtained by drilling intended to receive a charge. (Vertical,
horizontal, slanting, not necessarily in a mine
Bousteur: powerful explosive specially packaged to create a charge.
ignite and protect the detonator in the case of free-fall loading of cartridges
intended to initiate low-sensitive explosives.
Culott: the bottom of a hole that contains or does not contain explosive material after the volley is fired.
Failed: absence of explosion or presence of one or more unexploded ordnance afterwards
the volley shot.

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ANNEX 1

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ANNEX 2
Priming sequence.

The use of delays between holes and lines allows for the successive cutting of portions of a
shooting plan. The rock knocked down by the first holes must have already started its movement.
when the holes in its immediate vicinity detonate, to enhance the quality of the shot and
shot down. On the other hand, the introduction of a delay in firing is imperative
unavoidable environmental, since the vibrations produced in the far field by
detonating charges within the same time frame are cumulative.

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