Dalit, OBCs and Women

UNIT 13 LINGUISTIC AND ETHNIC

GROUPS*

Structure
13.0 Objectives
13.1 Introduction
13.2 What are the Linguistic and Ethnic Groups?
13.3 Linguistic Groups
13.3.1 Linguistic Groups in India
13.3.2 Three Language-Formula
13.3.2 Linguistic Groups and Politics
13.4 Ethnic Groups
13.4.1 Ethnic Groups in India
13.4.2 Ethnic Groups and Politics
13.5 Let Us Sum Up
13.6 References
13.7 Answers to Check Your Exercise

13.0 OBJECTIVES
This unit aims to acquaint the students with the linguistic and ethnic groups in
the state politics in India. After reading this unit, you will be to;
Explain to meaning of linguistic and ethnic groups;
Underline differences between them; and
Discuss politics of linguistic and ethnic groups.

13.1 INTRODUCTION
The linguistic and ethnic groups occupy a significant place in a democracy. Their
empowerment in terms of participation in political processes, ability to avail of
the distributive justice, security, freedom, equality, etc. is indicative of level of
success of a democracy. In a multicultural and diverse society like India, the
multiple identities based on the diverse factors - caste, language, religion, race,
culture, traditions, customs, etc., play a significant role in impacting their place
in democracy. Mobilisation, patronage and discrimination in society and politics
based on these markers form a significant aspect of a democratic system.

13.2 WHAT ARE THE LINGUISTIC AND ETHNIC

GROUPS?
Before proceeding further, let us understand what a linguistic and an ethnic group
mean. Both are group identities. A linguistic group is a group of people who feel

*
Jagpal Singh, Faculty of Political Science, School of Social Sciences, IGNOU, Maidan Garhi,
New Delhi-110068. This unit is adapted form of MPSE-008 (unit 16), and from MPSE-007
(unit 9). 147
Identity Politics that they share a common language. Similarly, an ethnic group is a group of people
who think that they share similarities in several aspects of life such as religion, language,
culture, customs, traditions, caste, race, economy, etc. We can thus see linguistic group
is formed on the basis of single factor or marker, i.e., language, and an ethnic group is
formed on the basis multiple factors or markers. It is important to note that some
scholars consider both kinds of groups – those based on single marker as well as those
based on multiple markers as ethnic groups. Generally, Indian scholars based in Indian
institutions and the scholars based in American and European institutions allude to
group identity from single and multiple factors in slightly different ways. The scholars
based in Indian institutions identify a group formed on the basis of a single factor as
single-factor group; for example, a linguistic group - the Tamil, the Telugu, and the
Hindi or Maithili formed on the basis of language as a single marker, or caste/caste
group-based identity such as Dalits, OBCs, high castes, or Brahmin or Rajput identity
formed on the basis of caste or caste group as a single factor. And they refer to ethnic
group to the group which formed based on multiple factors. For example, Naga or
Mizo group identity formed on the basis of several markers – culture, language, customs,
history, geography, clan, etc. denote ethnic identity of Nagas or Mizos. Unlike them,
the scholars based in American and European institutions do not distinguish between
groups formed on single and multiple factors. For them, both groups formed from
single marker as well as multiple markers are ethnic groups. In this unit, you will read
about the linguistic group as an identity based on a single marker and ethnic group as
an identity formed on multiple markers.

13.3 LINGUISTIC GROUPS

There could be two levels of identification of the linguistic groups- national and state/
Union Territories. At all India level the linguistic majority consists of Hindi speakers,
and other linguistic groups are linguistic minorities. But several linguistic groups
which are minority linguistic groups at the all-India level are linguistic majorities in
various states or in the regions within the states. The groups within the states which
do not speak the language of the majority are linguistic minorities. All states of India
have more than one linguistic group.

13.3.1 Linguistic Groups in India

In India, languages can be classified into different categories: mother tongues,
dialects, and official languages. Mother tongue is the language which a person
learns from his or her childhood. Dialect denotes mother tongue spoken by a
particular community or groups of communities generally living in a particular
geographical area. Official languages are those mother tongues or dialects which
have got official recognition for official works and medium of instruction in
educational institutions. There are different official languages in different states.
The groups identified based on languages spoken by them are known as linguistic
groups, for instance, Telugu, Punjabi, or Kannada speaking people. At all India
level, Hindi is the official language. It means that all official work pertaining to
the central government offices is transacted in Hindi as an official language.
Similarly, the official work in a state is carried out in its official language. Some
states have more than one official language. Asha Sarangi in the book edited by
her Language and Politics in India (2009) discusses the relationship between
language and politics. She highlights that the first survey to identify and classify
148
languages was done by Geogre Grierson during colonial India between 1903 Linguistic and Ethenic
Groups
and 1923. The reports of the survey were published in twelve volumes entitled
Linguistic Survey of India (LSI). The LSI identified179 languages and 544 dialects
in India. According to Asha Sarangi Grierson’s survey was used by census
commissioners to compile data in the subsequent linguistic surveys. Since 1881,
the number of mother tongues in India has been varying. In the 1991census,
there were 1,652 languages which were grouped into 114 mother tongues. In
1951 census, several dialects were referred as dialects of Hindi – Maithili,
Bhojpuri, Magadhi. Even Maithili was included in Hindi in 1961 and 1971
censuses (Asha Sarangi 2009; pp.14-15). Official languages in India are placed
in the VIII Schedule of the Constitution. There are 22 languages in India which
are recognized as official languages are placed in the VIII Schedule. These are
languages are as follows: Assamese, Bengali, Bodo, Dogri, Gujarati, Hindi,
Kannada, Kashmiri, Konkani, Malayalam, Marathi, Manipuri, Maithili, Nepali,
Odia, Punjabi, Sanskrit, Santhali, Sindhi, Tamil, Telugu and Urdu. From these
languages Hindi is expected to “draw” its vocabulary wherever necessary and
primarily on Sanskrit and secondarily on other languages. Many communities in
India demand inclusion of their dialects and languages in the VIII Schedule of
the Constitution. Their inclusion in VIII Schedule depends on the political factors.
There are safeguards (Arts. 29-30) in Indian Constitution to protect the linguistic
and cultural interests of the linguistic groups.

13.3.2 Three-language Formula

As each state in India has multiple languages, the main challenge in the country
has been as to how to enable school children to interact with each other across
diverse linguistic groups across states. Introduction of three-language formula is
such a device conceived by policy makers associated with education in India.
The three-language formula suggests that in states children should be made to
learn three languages upto (VI-VIII) standard: apart from Hindi and English, a
modern Indian language be taught; the modern Indian language in the Hindi
speaking-speaking states could preferably be a language spoken in south India.
In non-Hindi speaking states, (except in Tamul Nadu that followed two-language
formula), three-languages to be taught include – English and Hindi along with a
regional language. Since language is a state subject, which languages to be
included in three-language formula fall under the jurisdiction of states. The
suggestion to introduce three-language formula first made in the meeting of the
Central Board of Education (CABE) the 1950s. Following the recommendations
of the National Commission on Education (1964-66) known as Kothari
Commission, three-language formula was included in national education policy
in 1968. The New Education Policy 2020 suggested that at least upto grade 5 the
medium of instruction should be mothor tounge, and wherever possible it should
be any of the following - mother tongue, home language, local language or regional
language upto grade 8.

13.3.3 Linguistic Groups and Politics in India

The significance of language as the basis of identity in India was recognised in
the early twentieth century when Congress had organised itself on the linguistic
lines. But after independence, the Congress had shown its reluctance to organise
states on the linguistic basis till the State Reorganisation Commission made its
recommendation for linguistic organisation of states. This happened in the wake
149
Identity Politics of the death of a Gandhian, P. Sriramulu, in 1953 following his hunger strike
demanding a Telugu state out of then Madras state. In several states, there are
sections who speak languages which are different from the languages spoken by
majority of people in such states. They are known as linguistic minorities. The
reorganisation of the states on the linguistic basis in 1956, however, did not
resolve the language question. This gave rise to the language- based conflicts
within the states. In India, on several occasions language has become an issue of
political contest This demand has impacted the politics of several linguistic groups
in India. Such politics or the linguistic politics has been impacted by the following
factors: perception of linguistic of themselves and of the linguistic majorities;
the linguistic majorities’ perception of the linguistic minorities; and the attitude
of the linguistic majorities towards linguistic minorities. The linguistic majorities
in several states demand that the other linguistic groups accept the language of
the majorities as medium of instruction in educational institutions, and as the
official language. Several linguistic groups demand for recognition of language
as an official language or its inclusion in the VIII Schedule and their recognition
as official language. Such demand is generally made by the linguistic groups
along with other demands relating to them such economic development,
employment, protection of their cultural identities and political autonomy. In
this respect the demands of the linguistic groups are also their demands as those
of ethnic groups. You will read about the ethnic group in section 13.4 of this unit.
The linguistic minorities demand protection of their own languages by asking
for opening the educational institutions where the medium of instruction could
be their mother tongue rather than that of the linguistic majority. The differences
between linguistic groups in a state often lead to linguistic conflicts. There are
innumerable examples of linguistic conflicts in states in India. This section
discusses some cases concerning relationships between the linguistic groups and
politics.

Let us start with the northeast India. There are many linguistic groups in state of
the northeast India. The linguistic groups in these states can generally be linked
to the ethnic groups. The latter belong to two groups of ethnic communities – the
indigenous groups that have not migrated from outside a state and have been
living in their areas for generations, and those who have migrated from other
regions in search of employment or any other purpose and settled there over the
years. Both the indigenous and migrant groups also consist of several linguistic
groups each. Assam is among the northeastern states where the linguistic
minorities groups resisted the attempts of the linguistic majority to make its
language, the Assamese, as official and court language of all. In Assam, the
principal linguistic conflict has been between the Assamese and the non-Assamese
languages. When Assam was a composite state, i.e., before other states were
carved of Assam, the Assamese and the non-Assamese languages were sources
of linguistic conflict. The latter included the Bengali, tribal languages, etc. The
Assamese-Bengali linguistic conflict in Assam can be traced back to the colonial
policies. Within a few years of the occupation of Assam, the British made the
Bengali as the official language. The Assamese had alleged that the British did
so under the pressure of the Bengalis and it was discriminatory to them. They
demanded that the Assamese be declared as an official and court language in
Assam. This gave birth to a debate between the intellectuals of two linguistic
groups. The Bengalis argued that there was no need for a separate court language
for Assam, as Assamese was a dialect of the Assamese. The Assamese intellectuals
on the other hand argued that Assamese was not a dialect of Bengali; it was an
150
independent language with its own script and history. The Bengalis should be Linguistic and Ethenic
Groups
replaced with the Assamese as an official language. The British in fact declared
Assamese as official language of Assam in 1873. Since then, the conflict between
the two linguistic groups continued in one or the other form. Bengalis are a
minority linguistic group in Brahmputra Valley and while the Assamese are a
minority linguistic group in Barak Valley. In the 1960s, the Assamese government
attempted to make Assamese compulsory as medium of instructions in the
institutions in the areas where non-Assamese were spoken by most people. This
was resisted in these areas resulting in violent clashes in the Hills and Barak
valley. Bengalis feared that introduction of Assamese as the official language
would hamper the progress of Bengalis in Brahmputra Valley. It also resulted in
demand for a tribal state in the Khasi dominated part of Assam. All non-Assamese
communities including Bengalis, other non- tribals and tribal groups launched
an agitation in the Khasi, Jaintia , and Garo hills for the formation of a separate
state. The new state of Meghalaya was formed in 1972. In another example, as
discussed by Sanjib Baruha in India Against Itself, after the signing of the Assam
Accord in 1986, the Bodos underlined that their identity was different from
Assamese, and Bodo was their language. They demanded recognition of Bodo
as an official language, which was later given this status by its inclusion in the
VIII Schedule.

Linguistic groups in two south Indian states- Tamil Nadu and Karnataka were
involved in fierce language-based riott in 1992. The riot was not directly related
to language. It was a fall out of the conflict which took place between the two
states over sharing of Cauvery water. The Tamil speaking community was targeted
by the Kannada speakers in Karnataka causing damage to their property and
lives. The minority Tamil linguistic groups in Karnataka demanded the
introduction of special measures for the protection of their language and property.
Paul R Brass argues that the state governments introduced discriminatory policies
against the minority languages and the central government did not provide
protection to them. The central government’s attitude towards Urdu and Mithila
spoken in north Bihar is among such examples. Besides, Urdu which is spoken
several parts of the country, and is the single largest minority language in U P,
has been subject to controversy by the communal forces. Any attempt to give
Urdu as a status of official language is met with the criticism by certain groups
and is viewed as appeasement of Muslims. But the Urdu speaking section of
society consider the opposition to Urdu as an attempt to discriminate against the
linguistic minorities. In Punjab, the linguistic issue got linked with the communal
divide between Hindus and Sikhs during the Punjabi Suba movement of the
1960s. The Arya Samaj impacted the vision of non-Sikh Punjabis, who declared
as Hindi their language in the census enumeration, though in practice it was
Punjabi. Hindus in Punjab apprehended that creation of separate states of Punjab
would reduce the Hindus to a minority community in Punjab. Among the most
crucial example of language politics is the case of Hindi language in South India,
especially Tamil Nadu. In the 1960s, there was an agitation against adoption of
Hindi as an official language following the decision. Hindi was adopted as an
official language in the Constituent Assembly in the light of an official resolution
which was passed by the Congress legislative party. After Independence, Hindi
was adopted as an official language with English as a shared language for a
transition period of fifteen years. The decision to introduce Hindi as an official
language was opposed in south India. This resulted in protest in Madras Province
(Tamil Nadu). The protest was led by Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam (DMK),
151
Identity Politics which was earlier known as Munnetra Kazhagam (DK). The DMK argued that
introduction of Hindi as an official language was an attempt to impose Hindi on
non-Hindi speaking people.

Check Your Progress 1

Note: i) Use the Space given below for your answer.
ii) Check your answers with the model answers given at the end of the
unit.
1) What are the linguistic and ethnic groups?
.......................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................
2) What is Three –Language Formula according to 1968 education policy?
.......................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................

13.4 ETHNIC GROUPS

13.4.1 Ethnic Groups in India
As explained earlier, ethnic groups can be identified by certain markers. As to
which markers, and how many markers form an ethnic identity depends on an
analysis of ethnic politics. For instance, as mentioned earlier, some scholars
consider groups form on single marker such as language, caste, or religion as
ethnic groups. But the other scholars consider an ethnic group which is formed
on the basis of multiple factors – language, caste, race, culture, custom, religion,
etc. It is difficult to ascertain the exact number of ethnic groups in India. However,
we can identify them according to different criterion – social, linguistic, cultural,
etc. Politics of ethnic groups revolves around issues of social and cultural
identities, political representation and autonomy and economic opportunities or
development. The extent of the roles of these issues varies from case to case.
Sometimes one or two issues such as language, religion or regional autonomy or
development affect the politics of ethnic groups; at another time, the demand for
getting political autonomy within a state or formation of a state or Union territory
out of one or more states becomes political issue. The relative impact of these
factors in politics depends on the political context and mobilization by political
leaders or non-party organisations. As ethnic politics involves different ethnic
groups which have conflicting claims and interests, it sometimes results in ethnic
violence between ethnic groups or between ethnic groups and state machinery
152
such as police or government. In literature on identity formation, one question is Linguistic and Ethenic
Groups
relevant, i.e., are ethnic identities constructed or natural, given or inherited? One
approach argues that ethnic identities are artificial or constructed by elite. This is
known as instrumentalist approach. It means that the political elite construct
ethnic identities and use them in politics to fulfil their goals. Another approach
argues that ethnic identities are natural or primordial. It means differences between
different ethnic groups are natural. They are not constructed.

Region-wise principal ethnic groups in India are as follows:

13.4.2 Ethnic Groups and Politics

As mentioned earlier, in the Indian context, the ethnic identity is based on multiple
factors - customs. culture, language, religion, hisrtory, etc., unlike the linguistic
identity, caste or communal identity which is based on a single attribute. Since
ethnic identity is about relationships, the politics of one ethnic group is formed
in the light of the politics of another ethnic group. Again, ethnic politics to a
large extent depends on the real and imagined factors. All states of India have
several ethnic groups whose numbers vary. But it is generally in the states which
have witnessed the political movements for self-determination movements,
autonomy movements, secessionist movements, insurgencies, that their ethnic
politics assumes special significance. Several states have witnessed such
movements from time to time. Sometimes ethnic politics leads to violence between
different ethnic groups. In India, among other regions, the northeast India, Punjab
and Jammu and Kashmir (which was converted from a state into two Union
Territories – Jammu and Kashmir and Ladakh on August 5, 2019) provide
examples of ethnic politics. Atul Kohli argues (Chapter 2, Democracy and
Development: From Socialism to Pro-Business) ethnic mobilsation, which include
self-determination movements, is expected in multicultural democracies. Giving
examples of three ethnic movements in India, i.e., those of Tamils in Tamil Nadu
in the 1950s-1960s; of Sikhs in Punjab during the 1980s, of Muslims in Kashmir
in the 1990s, Kohli argues that self-determination movements follow the following
trajectory: they first start and reach their peak in due course; then they continue
in the position of peak for sometimes; and finally, they decline. This journey of
self-determination movements or ethnic mobilization been described by Kohli
as “an inverse ‘U’ curve”. This section deals with the relationship between politics
and ethnic groups in some regions of India.

In the northeast Indian states, there are two types of ethnic groups: one, those
who have been living there since centuries known as indigenous people; two,
those who have settled there because of migration from different parts of the
country from the nineteenth century, and who continue to immigrate into the
region. In several instances, there exist differences within indigenous and migrant
groups each. It means that there exist several indigenous groups and migrant
groups within a single state. Each of the ethnic group has distinct characteristics
in terms of culture, language, customs, history, etc. These characterizes could be
real or imagines or both. The immigrant settlers are be identified based on states
from where they migrated. It is possible that in times of conflict the internal
differences within the indigenous ethnic groups and within the migrant ethnic
groups get blurred, and they tend to behave two opposite blocks of ethnic groups.
Sometime even the groups which have ethnic similarities get divided in the times
of conflict and competition between them. Some examples of ethnic groups in
153
Identity Politics northeast India are as follows: Kukis and Nagas in Nagaland and Manipur, Meities
in Manipur, and tribes such as Bodos, Santhals, Karbis and non-tribals in Assam,
and the non-tribals – Bengalis, Nepalese, and tribes such as Khasis, Jaintias and
Garos in Meghalaya. Sometime, ethnic groups which generally have conflictual
relationships ally with each other in a common goal. But after achievement of
such goal, differences emerge within them. The smaller ethnic group allege that
dominant ethnic groups do not give fair recognition to their concern after the
achievement of goal which they achieved by allying with each other. This gives
them a feeling of neglect and discrimination. As a result, they also demand
autonomy for their ethnic group. The example of Bodos tribe of Assam is relevant
in this context. The Bodos participated in the six years agitation against the
foreigners in Assam led by the All Assam Students Union (AASU). But when
the Asom Gana Parisad (AGP) formed the government, the Bodos underlined
that their problems were neglected by the AGP government which was dominated
by the larger ethnic groups of Assam. As a result, the Bodo started an agitation
demanding creation of a Bodoland.

The politics of ethnic groups is decided by the course of the politics of ethnic
majorities. Let us take the example of the ethnic majorities in case of Meghalaya.
The ethnic groups there are three local tribes Khasis, Garos and Jaintias. The
principal ethnic majorities are Bengalis, Nepalis, Biharis and Rajasthanis/
Marwaris. Both groups of these ethnic communities joined together to demand a
separate state of Meghalaya to be carved out of the then Assam in the 1960s.
One of the principal reasons of their demand for a separate was their common
grievance against making Assamese an official language, which they resisted as
the ethnic majorities in Assam. The relations between them at that time were
marked by ethnic harmony. But in the wake of formation of Meghalaya in 1972,
the relations between ethnic groups and majorities were characterised by ethnic
conflict. The conflict revolved around the issues such as protection of identity,
traditions, and culture of the indigenous communities, and of their economic
opportunities and property rights. The indigenous ethnic communities defend
special measures given by the state for them as special right as enshrined in the
VI Schedule of the Constitution. The indigenous ethnic groups argue that if special
measures are not introduced for them, the migrant ethnic would encroach upon
their rights. This will result in extinction of their identity. The claims of indigenous
communities are often disputed the non-indigenous communities. In certain
politics context – competition among politician, political parties or elections the
claims and counter-claims of ethnic communities result in ethnic violence.

Jammu and Kashmir had existed as a state till August 5, 2019 when it was divided
in two Union Territories following the annulment of special status to it under
Article 370. Until Jammu and Kashmir had existed as state, there were three
regions in it – Jammu, Kashmir and Ladakh. After the division of the state of
Jammu and Kashmir into two Union Territories – Jammu and Kashmir, and
Ladakh, Jammu and Kashmir regions consist of Hindus and Muslims as majority
communities respectively, and Ladakh has majority of Buddhist community with
smaller number of Muslims. Even though these ethnic groups play significant
role in Jammu and Kashmir and Ladakh as Union Territories, the patterns of
ethnic politics of these groups can adequately be seen in a period when Jammu
and Kashmir had existed as a state. The foundation of ethnic in Jammu and
Kashmir before it was converted into two union territories was lay in factors of
religion, region and region. Repercussion of ethnic politics could be seen in the
154
demand for the status of Union Territory to the Ladakh region and for a separate Linguistic and Ethenic
Groups
state for the Jammu region in Jammu and Kashmir prior to its division into two
union territories.

Check Your Progress 2

Note: i) Use the Space given below for your answer.
ii) Check your answers with the model answers given at the end of the
unit.
1) What do mean by ethnic politics?
.......................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................
2) What are the features of ethnic politics in North-east India?
.......................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................

13.5 LET US SUM UP

Different markers of identity such as caste, language, region, customs, tradition,
economy, etc. play important role in politics of democratic country. Realisation
in a group of people that they share common characteristics is indication of group
identity formation. Group identity formation can take place on the basis of multiple
factors. It can also take place on the basis single factor. When a group is formed
on the basis of language, it is called linguistic group. But when a group is formed
on the basis of multiple factors, it is known as an ethnic group. Some scholars
consider a group as ethnic group even if is formed on the basis of single marker.
Politics of linguistic and ethnic groups revolves around the protection of social
and cultural identities, political representation and empowerment, and economic
opportunities and development. On several occasions, ethnic politics result in
violence between different ethnic groups or ethnic groups and the state institutions.
Different states in India are witness to ethnic politics.

13.6 REFERENCES
Baruah, Sanjib (1999), India Against Itself: Assam and the Politics of Nationality,
University of Pennsylvania Press.
Brass, Paul, R. (1974), Language, Religion and Politics in North India, Cambridge
University Press, Cambridge.
155
Identity Politics Nag, Sajal (1990), Roots of Ethnic Conflict in Assam: Nationality Question in
North-east India, Manohar, New Delhi.
Kohli, Atul (2009), Democracy and Development in India: From Socialism to
Pro-Business, Cambridge University Press, New Delhi.
Sarangi, Asha (ed.) (2009), Language and Politics in India, Oxford University
Press, New Delhi.

13.7 ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR EXERCISE

Check Your Exercise 1

1) Linguistic groups are those groups which are formed on the basis of language.
Members of a linguistic group speak a common language. Ethnic groups
are those groups whose group formation takes place because of realisation
that its members share multiple features – culture, race, religion, custom,
etc. Some scholars do not differentiate between the groups formed on the
basis of single marker such as language, and the groups formed on the basis
of multiple markers. For them, all kinds of group formations are ethnic
groups.

2) According to national education policy of 1968, three-language formula

suggests that children in school from VI-VIII grade in Indian states will be
taught three languages – Hindi, English and a modern Indian language. In
the Hindi-speaking states, modern Indian language would include a language
spoken in south India. In the non-Hindi Indian states (except Tamil Nadu
that followed two-language formula), a modern Indian language could be
any regional labguage.

Check Your Exercise 2

1) Ethnic politics is about political mobilization of ethnic groups on issues

concerning them. These issues are related to cultural and social identities,
political representation and empowerment, and economic opportunities.

2) All states of North-east India have multiple ethnic groups. They can be
broadly categorised into two groups – indigenous and migrants people.
Ethnic politics in North-east India is related to the protection of identities
of ethnic groups, autonomy movements, and economic opportunities. On
several occasions, ethnic politics culminated into ethnic conflict and
violence. The violence can occur between ethnic groups or between ethnic
groups and the state agencies such as police.

156