HigherSchoolofEngineeringandArchitecture

Zacatenco Unit

Class notes

Systems Engineering

Saldaña García José Luis

Professor: Eng. Luis Medina

Cravioto

6CM8
Basic concepts of engineering.
Engineering is known as the discipline that makes use of a set of
technical, scientific, practical, and empirical knowledge for invention, the
design, development, construction, maintenance, and optimization of everything
type of technologies, machines, structures, systems, tools, materials and
processes.
The objective of engineering is to provide solutions to the practical problems of the
people, both socially and economically and industrially. Hence, engineering
be a discipline that transforms knowledge into something practical for benefit
of humanity.
Civil engineering is a discipline of engineering that applies knowledge of
different areas, such as physics, the
chemistry, geology, calculus, the
mechanics or hydraulics, among others,
for the design, the construction and the
maintenance of infrastructure of
large size and for public use such as
roads, airports, bridges,
railways dams, ports
airports, among other things.
The engineer relies on basic sciences (mathematics, physics, chemistry, biology,
economic and administrative sciences, engineering sciences, engineering
applied) both for the development of technologies and for efficient management and
productive use of resources and forces of nature for the benefit of society. The
Engineering is an activity that transforms knowledge into something practical.

Origins of engineering.
The history of engineering dates back to very ancient times, from the invention
of tools like the lever or the wheel, which facilitated the execution of others
works through basic principles of mechanics.
The first manifestations of engineering occurred in ancient times with the
great constructions like the pyramids, both Egyptian and pre-Columbian.
Likewise, there are the great works of the Greeks and the Romans, who brought
engineering to other aspects of life such as the military.
In the Medieval Era, advances in civil engineering led to the
Gothic architecture in Europe, while in Asia advancements were made
important are the areas of metallurgy and hydrography.

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During the Modern Age, the steam engine inaugurated the Industrial Revolution.
It was then that engineering began to be a formal science. It must be taken
Keep in mind that current engineering is a set of knowledge and
techniques applied to problem solving.
From then on, the areas of specialization began to separate as
they were military engineering, mechanical, civil, and new names were added to that list.

Nature, treatments, and branches of engineering.

The nature of engineering is to plan and build everything that man needs.
necessary, developing technical and technological solutions for society taking
very much in mind the responsibility that one must have.
Some branches of engineering are:
Civil Engineering
Biological Engineering
Electrical Engineering
Medical Engineering
Electronic Engineering
Systems Engineering
Aeronautical Engineering
Chemical Engineering
Agricultural Engineering
Materials Engineering
Mechanical Engineering

Definitions and concepts of systems.

A system is "a complex object whose parts or components are related to
at least some of the other components; whether conceptual or material. All
systems have composition, structure, and environment, but only systems
Materials have mechanisms, and only some material systems have shape.
While each of the elements of a system can operate independently
independent, will always be part of a greater structure. In the same way,
A system can, in turn, be a component of another system.
The word system comes from the Latin systēma, and this from the Greek σύστημα (systema),
identified in Spanish as "union of things in an organized manner". From this
words derive others such as antisystem or ecosystem.
Similarly, there is a philosophical school of thought called systemism,
created by the Argentine epistemologist Mario Bunge, who proposes that everything
it is a system or a component of a more complex system.

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The systemic approach.
The systemic approach represents the linear sequence of events. In the
branches may appear on the path, but it is always a sequence of steps that
we need to carry out.
A very general example is the logical sequence of the execution processes of
a project: We formulated objectives, found requirements, organized
actividades, adquirimos entregables, y al final tenemos productos y luego vemos
What are the results?
The systemic approach has as its main point the concept of the system, which is a
set of interrelated elements with a common goal.
In projects, it is relatively easy to formulate the common objective, which can be
formulated at two levels: The product level that appears at the end of any
project and the level of results we expect when the product starts to
to function.
An important aspect is the system's characteristic, its elements are
interrelated. Any project is a system because we can break it down
in different subsystems and, from a technical and management perspective, it is part
of the highest level system, which is also a subsystem.

Classification and structure of systems.

The systems are classified
Depending on how they are constituted, they can be:
Physical or concrete systems: composed of real things such as equipment,
machinery, objects. Example: The hardware.
Abstract systems: composed of concepts, plans, hypotheses, and ideas.
Many times they only exist in people's thoughts. Example: the
software.
According to its relationship with the environment, this can be:
Open: Systems that exchange matter, energy, or information with the
environment.
Closed: Systems that do not exchange matter, energy, or information with
the environment.

Depending on its nature, it can be:

Concretes: Physical or tangible system.

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 Abstracts: Symbolic or conceptual systems.
Regarding their origin, these can be:
Natural: Systems generated by nature.
Artificial: Systems that are products of human activity, are
designed and built by man.

According to their relationships, they can be:

Simple: Systems with few elements.

Complex: Systems with numerous elements and relationships.
This classification is relative because it depends on the number of elements and their relation.
considered. In practice and based on psychological limits of perception and
human understanding, a system with more or less seven elements and relationships
it can be considered simple.
A system is made up of clearly distinguishable parts, its elements,
related to each other in some particular way, a combination that constitutes their
structure. This structure is an arrangement that is attributed to the elements
through their relationships. The elements can be material objects, such as
metal parts of a bridge, or ideals, like the words of a sentence. It is
To say, structures are real or ideal arrangements of elements.

1.1.1 Concept of systems engineering.

Systems engineering is a discipline of engineering that is responsible for
develop, improve, and implement computer systems. Strongly linked
with mathematics and computer science, this discipline creates networks and systems at service
from the organization that requests it.

Systems engineering works with the aim of contributing to scientific development and
technological through continuous research of new technologies and
procedures. Thanks to its multidisciplinary nature, this career opens the door
to a wide variety of companies or organizations, both public and private,
and especially in those of large size.
What does a Systems Engineer do?
A graduate in Systems Engineering can dedicate themselves to a multitude of tasks, among
they
Create, program, apply and maintain computer systems
Design and maintain websites and web pages

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 Create software and hardware for a company, after carrying out a
research
Optimize the data that those companies handle
Manage information systems and networks

1.1.2 Origin of systems engineering.

The origin of the term systems engineering dates back to Bell Telephone.
Laboratories in the 1940s. The need to identify and manipulate the
properties of a system as a whole, which in complex engineering projects
it can greatly differ from the sum of the properties of the parts, motivated by
various industries, especially those that developed systems for the
United States Army, to enforce discipline.
When it was no longer possible to trust in the evolution of design to improve a system
and the existing tools were not sufficient to meet the growing
demands, new methods began to be developed that addressed the
direct complexity. The continuous evolution of systems engineering
understands the development and identification of new methods and techniques of
modeling. These methods aid in better understanding and control of the design
and development of engineering systems as they become more complex.
During these times, popular tools were developed that are often used.
in the context of systems engineering, including USL, UML, QFD, and IDEF0.

1.2 General Theory of Systems.

The theory of systems or general systems theory is the interdisciplinary study
of systems in general. Its purpose is to study the principles applicable to the
systems at any level in all fields of research.
In 1950, Ludwig von Bertalanffy proposed the general theory of systems as such.
said. Later, in the 1970s, Humberto Maturana developed
the concept of autopoiesis, which accounts for the organization of systems
vivos como redes cerradas de autoproducción de los componentes que las
constitute. W. Ross Ashby and Norbert Wiener developed the mathematical theory of
communication and control of systems through regulation of the
feedback (cybernetics), which is closely related to the
control theory. In the same decade, René Thom and E.C. Zeeman proposed the
catastrophe theory, a branch of mathematics based on bifurcations in

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dynamic systems that classify phenomena characterized by abrupt
displacements in their behavior.
The TGS emerges in the 20th century as a new effort in the search for concepts.
and valid laws for the description and interpretation of all kinds of real systems
to physicists.

1.3.2 Basic cycle of a system.

Inputs are the system's revenues that can be resources.
materials, human resources or information.
The inputs constitute the starting force that supplies the system with its
operational needs.
The entries can be:
In series: it is the result or output of a previous system with which the
The system under study is directly related.
Random: That is, by chance, where the term 'chance' is used in the sense
statistical random entries represent potential entries for a
system.
Retroaction: it is the reintroduction of a part of the system outputs into
himself.
Processes: It is what transforms an input into an output, as such it can be a
machine, an individual, a computer, a chemical product, among others.
The Outputs: The outputs of the systems are the results obtained from the
processes, like inputs, these can take the form of products,
services and information.
The Feedback: It is the one that occurs when the outputs of the system or the
influence of system outputs in the context, they re-enter the system
as a resource or information.
Feedback allows for the control of a system and for it to take measures.
of correction based on the feedback information.

1.3.3 The modern general theory of systems.

The basic assumptions of general system theory are:

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There is a clear trend towards integration in the various natural sciences
social
This integration seems to be oriented towards a theory of systems.
This theory of systems can be a broader way to study the
non-physical fields of scientific knowledge, especially the social sciences.
That systems theory, by developing unifying principles that traverse
vertically the particular universes of the various involved sciences, we
they approximate the object of the unity of science.

This could lead us to an integration in scientific management.

The general theory of systems states that the properties of systems do not
can be significantly described in terms of their separate elements. The
understanding of systems only occurs when they are studied globally,
involving all the interdependencies of its parts.
The concept of system began to dominate the sciences and, in particular, management.
When talking about astronomy, the solar system comes to mind. Sociology speaks of
social system, and so on. Currently, the systematic approach is as
common in management that we do not think we are using it in
every moment.

1.3.4 Interdisciplinary aspects of a system: economic,

administrative, social, technical and technological.
An interdisciplinary field is a field of study that crosses boundaries.
traditional among various academic disciplines. The interdisciplinary nature of the
Systems Engineering can be viewed through three aspects:
The peculiarity of his approach, that is, the systems approach.
The success achieved by Systems Engineering in the analysis and solution of
problems traditionally addressed by other disciplines.
The variety of techniques and instruments that it uses.

An economic system is a structured set of interrelationships that

determinan la forma en la que se organiza la actividad económica de una sociedad,
the production of goods and services and their distribution among its members.

An administrative system is a management software with which all companies

They must account for having greater control over their resources, systems, and operations.
but despite this, companies and businesses must know that there are multiple
Administrative systems options and their scopes are different for each one.

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The social system can be defined as a plurality of individuals interacting.
with each other according to shared cultural norms and meanings. The term is
a key principle in systems theory, which manages the field of sociology.
Sistema técnico es aquel dispositivo, compuesto de entidades físicas y de agentes
humans, whose function is to transform some type of object to obtain
specific characteristic results of the system, as long as it is
beneficial.
Technological systems are techniques or objects aimed at facilitation or
decrease in human work. When we talk about a technological system, we
we will be referring to a set of components and variables that
They will contextualize human technical action.

1.3.5 Apply the concept of systems engineering in a project of

civil engineering.
Systems Engineering is the application of mathematical and physical sciences to
develop systems that economically utilize materials and forces of the
nature for the benefit of humanity.
Civil engineering encompasses various types of projects, each of which
requires extensive knowledge of physics and mathematics, as well as the ability to
solve difficulties creatively. The list of types is constantly
growth and even some of them present subcategories within them.
The experts in civil works construction are involved in the design,
analysis and maintenance of various structures, such as bridges and buildings,
designed to meet various requirements, such as budgetary ones, to the
load factors and resistance capacity of various sources. They have to
consider the conditions that will support the structures, including the loads of
personas y vehículos, y las ambientales, por ejemplo, el viento.

1.3.6 Application cases of systems engineering.

Systems engineers play a very important role within the
organizations. These professionals are responsible for monitoring the
performance of the systems and evaluate the stages of the operations to ensure
that computing problems are resolved. A systems engineer can
to perform in various fields of application and in multiple disciplines,
depending on where one specializes.
Below are the fields in which a systems engineer can
to perform
Software Construction

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Engineers who wish to work in this field must
apply the practice of your knowledge about design and construction of
computer programs.
Technological infrastructure
This is an area of application where Systems Engineers will be
carrying out selection tasks for hardware and software platforms that integrate
a project.
Cybersecurity
The engineer who focuses on this area must ensure the protection of the
computational infrastructure, specifically in information protection.
Information management
A systems engineer can develop in any company and
perform by managing your information appropriately.
Multimedia
One of the fields of application in which an engineer can develop in
systems, is the branch of multimedia.

1.3 Systems engineering and decision making.

Decision making, problem definition, quantification, evaluation,
optimization, suboptimization, hierarchization, control, planning, and regulation
they are common functions for all system designs. Therefore, we have invented a
general theory of system design. Solutions to specific problems
they can evolve as a result of a reorientation of thought, where
all the problems of a class are considered, but not in the development of a
particular method. In the general theory of systems, there are no particular methods.
Therefore, under this assumption we begin the process of decision making, a
common function (that is, general), to any system design.
The systems approach is a decision-making process that is used to
designing systems. It is therefore essential to pause in this process before
to embark on the task of designing systems.
Decision making is a term reserved, at times, for the action of
to choose between several alternatives. This is a very interpretation of the concept.
limited. Decision making is a thinking process that takes up the entire
Activity aimed at solving problems.
Every aspect that reflects human effort involves activities with a purpose.
in which problems must be resolved and decisions made. Decision making

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decisions can be seen as an interactive process, a cycle that includes
several successive circles.

1.4 The systems approach.

It is a methodological framework that serves as a guide for problem-solving.
especially towards those who arise in the direction or management of a
system, when there is a discrepancy between what one has and what one desires, its
problematic, its components and its solution.
The systems approach is the activities that determine an overall objective and the
justification of each of the subsystems, the action measures and standards
in terms of the general objective, the complete set of subsystems and their plans
for a specific problem.
The process of transforming a resource (problematic) into a product (actions
planned) requires the creation of a methodology organized into three
large subsystems:
. Problem formulation
. Identification and design of solutions
. Results control
This indicates that the basic work guidelines are:
The development of concepts and guidelines to study reality as a
system (formulation of the conceptual model).
2. The development of methodological frameworks to guide the problem-solving process
problems in their different phases.
3. The development of techniques and models to support decision-making, as well as
to obtain and analyze the required information.

1.4.1 Comparison between the classical approach and the systems approach.

CLASSIC APPROACH SYSTEMIC APPROACH

All things All phenomenon is

they can be part of a phenomenon
decomposed and mayor.
Reductionism reduced to their Expansionism Theperformanceof
elements asystemdepends on
simple fundamentals how it relates to
the whole greater than it

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 what constitute their contains and of which
indivisible units. is part of.

It consists of The phenomenon that

decompose the whole, tries to explain it
as much as possible, seen as part of a
in simpler parts, major system, and it is
independents and explained in terms
indivisible, that can of the role played
to be resolved or in that system.
explain yourself more
Ease of thought; then, Thought
Analytical you aresolutionso synthetic
partial explanations
they are integrated into a
solution or explanation
completely, which constitutes
the resulting sum of
the solutions or
explanations of the
parts.

It is based on the relationship. Explain

cause-effect. In thebehaviorfor
the phenomenon is the cause that which produces or
of another (its effect), for what is theirs
when this is purpose
necessary and sufficient uobjectiveproduce.
to provoke him. Like
the cause is sufficient EMERGENT
Mechanism to achieve the effect, Teleology
SYSTEMIC: The whole is
only this one will be taken into account
different from each one
it accounts for explaining it.
of its parts. The
system presents
own characteristics
that they can be
absent from their parts
constitutive.

1.4.2 Systems engineering, the environment, and society.

Engineering has contributed to generating many of those changes in nature.
among which are those of great benefit to the population, but

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also those considered unsustainable from an environmental perspective and
social.
Environmental unsustainability, understood as the overflow of limits
taxes by nature, in many cases has its origin in patterns of
production and consumption in themselves. But, as we know, neither the professionals
from engineering that participated in the creation and implementation of technologies
that have been critical in addressing various human needs, neither the
beneficiaries of them, imagined at the time that many of them
they could bring with them the negative consequences that we know today.
A systems engineer, in addition to knowing and mastering current technology, is
able to improve it.
In fact, these graduates use the new systems, software, programs and
applications to meet the diverse needs of the population and, furthermore,
to develop technologies that enhance people's quality of life.
In addition to collaborating with the technology itself, it encourages the development of people.

1.5.3. Interdisciplinary Systems Engineering

Systems engineering is an interdisciplinary branch of engineering that enables
study and understand reality, with the purpose of implementing or optimizing
complex systems. It can also be seen as the technological application of the
systems theory to the efforts of engineering, adopting throughout this work
the systemic paradigm. Systems engineering integrates other disciplines and groups
of specialty in a team effort, forming a development process
centered.
Systems Engineering has, as a field of study, any system.
existing. For example, systems engineering can study the system
digestive or the human immune system, or perhaps, the tax system of a country
specific. In this sense, although in some countries engineering is associated with
systems as only associated with information systems, this is incorrect,
since computer systems are a small part of a huge range of
types and classes of systems.
Systems engineering is the application of mathematical and physical sciences to
develop systems that economically utilize materials and forces of the
nature for the benefit of humanity.

1.5 Planning of media and resources.

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Media planning is the advertising discipline responsible for reaching
the advertising messages to the largest number of people in the target audience. This
It is done through the selection of the most suitable means and supports for
each occasion and always looking for the lowest possible cost.

Media planning is the implementation of different strategies and

tactics to spread an advertising message through the media
communication that we have available with a limited budget. These
strategies require an absolute knowledge of the customer, advertiser, their
products, prices, marketing and sales strategies, as well as their
competitors. Trying to stay ahead of the competition always through the
means.
Resource planning refers to the set of actions and the
methodology that organizations use to allocate efficiently the
resources they have to carry out the work, tasks, or projects, and to
plan the start and end dates, taking into account the availability of
the resources. Depending on the industry, resources can be people (whether they are
employees or independent contractors), equipment and machinery (this is common
in construction, manufacturing, or maintenance businesses) or spaces and
installations.

1.6Problem analysis.
After identifying and validating the central problem, it becomes crucial that, in the
perspective of its solution, it should be understood correctly, which implies the
identification and understanding of its most relevant causes and effects. The analysis of
problems have the fundamental purpose of the correct determination of the
causes that originate a problem, with the understanding that their knowledge is useful
as a guideline for determining the alternative solutions. Although the analysis
problems are addressed qualitatively in the advanced stages of
the project design can be carried out in a quantitative manner, resulting in
result of the construction of the project baseline.
The problems related to the competitiveness of small producers
they can have various causes, depending on the level at which it has been situated
central problem. Thus, for example, if the central problem is defined as 'low level
of competitiveness" the causes are likely to be found throughout the
value chain: poor quality of inputs (supply), process
inadequate production (manufacturing or operations), insufficient articulation to
markets (marketing), weak commercial negotiation capacity (distribution), etc.
If, on the contrary, the central problem is located in a specific aspect of the

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value chain, for example, the weak commercial negotiation capacity or the low
level of productivity, the causes should be sought within the phases of
distribution and production of the value chain, respectively.

1.6.1 The importance of information.

Information is a phenomenon that provides meaning or sense to things.
In general terms, information is an organized set of processed data,
that constitute a message about a certain entity or phenomenon. The data is
they perceive, integrate, and generate the necessary information to produce the
knowledge that is ultimately what allows making decisions to carry out the
daily actions that ensure existence.
Information also processes and generates human knowledge. When
we have to solve a certain problem or we have to make a decision,
we employ various sources of information and build what is generally
denominates knowledge or organized information that allows for the resolution of
problems or decision making.
The generation and acquisition of information fulfills these objectives:

Increase user knowledge.

Provide decision-makers with the fundamental raw material for the
development of solutions and choice.
Provide a set of evaluation rules and decision rules for purposes of
control.

1.6.2 What is a resource, product, variables, criteria, limitations and

restrictions.
The input is everything available for the use and development of human life,
from what we find in nature to what we create ourselves,
that is, the raw material of something.
A product is an eligible, viable, and repeatable option that the offer presents.
disposition of the demand, to satisfy a need or meet a desire to
through its use or consumption. The product is one of the structural components.
from the marketing mix.
A variable is a characteristic that can fluctuate and whose variation is
susceptible to adopting different values, which can be measured or observed.
Variables acquire value when they relate to other variables, that is, if
They are part of a hypothesis or a theory.

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As a criterion, it is called the principle or rule by which one can know the
truth, to make a determination, or to opine or judge about a certain matter. The
criterion, in this sense, is that which allows us to establish the guidelines or
principles from which we can distinguish one thing from another.
Limiting refers to setting boundaries on something, while the notion of limit is linked to
a line that separates two territories, to the extent that a certain time reaches,
to the extreme that can be reached in the emotional and physical or to a restriction

Restriction is a notion with etymological origin in Latin restrictĭo. It is about the

process and the consequence of restricting. This verb, in turn, refers to limiting,
to adjust, narrow or encircle something. The restriction, in general, always marks a
limit.

1.7 Concepts and types of models

It is a representation or abstraction of a real situation or object, that shows the
relationships (direct or indirect) and the interrelations of action and reaction in
terms of cause and effect.
Types of models
• Iconic: It is a physical representation of some objects, either in shape
idealized (sketches) or to a different scale
Analogues: It can represent dynamic or cyclic situations, they are more common.
and can represent the characteristics and properties of the event that is
study.
• Symbolic or Mathematical: They are representations of reality in the form of figures,
mathematical symbols and functions, to represent decision variables and
relationships that allow us to describe and analyze the behavior of the system.

1.7.1 Classification oficonic, analog, symbolic models,

mathematics (quantitative, qualitative, and typical).
A. Iconic Model: It is a physical representation of some objects, whether in form
idealized or on a different scale. We can say, for example, that a car of
the toy is an iconic model of a real car.
In general, these models are especially suitable for representation of
static or dynamic things at a given moment.
B. Analog model: It represents a set of properties of the system.
studied through elements that possess similar properties. For example,
on a map a solid line represents a highway or a dotted line

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representa una carretera en construcción. Estos modelos se utilizan con buenos
results in the representation of dynamic situations, that is, in the
representation of processes.
C. Symbolic or mathematical model: It is a representation of reality through
of symbols, those that generally have a mathematical or logical character. A type
A symbolic model is an equation. An equation is easy to understand and to
manage, also lending itself to computational processes.
Cuantitativos y cualitativos: La mayor parte de los problemas de un negocio u
organization begins with an analysis and definition of a qualitative model and
gradually advances until obtaining a quantitative model. The research of
operations deals with the systematization of qualitative models and their
development up to the point where they can be quantified. When it is possible to build
a mathematical model inserting symbols to represent relationships between
constants and variables we are faced with a quantitative model. An equation is a
model of this type. The formulas, the matrices, the diagrams or series of values
which are obtained through mathematical processes.

Construction of the model.

The objective of building the model is to simulate some phenomenon of the real world.
in which the researcher is interested, with the purpose of creating a model that
is simpler to study than the target itself.
What is desired is that the conclusions obtained from the model are also
applicable to the target, because both are sufficiently similar. Without
embargo, because our modeling skills are limited, the model
it will always be simpler than the target.

The model can be represented as a specification of a mathematical equation.

a logical proposition or a computer program, but to learn something about
this specification, it is necessary to examine how the model's behavior is
develops over time.

Utility of models in engineering.

Currently, systems engineering is shifting its focus to an approach
oriented to models, which describe the system from different points of view
and using various notations.
This approach has the following advantages:

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 . The models are a means of communication with clients, users and
manufacturers.
. They allow maintaining the integrity of the system through coordination of the
design activities.
. They help design by providing templates, and organizing and recording the
decisions.
. They allow exploring and manipulating the parameters and characteristics of the solution.
guiding in the aggregation and decomposition of the functions of the system, their
components and construction elements.

Case studies of large-scale systems.

These systems are characterized by having a large number of components.
who work in a coordinated manner (mostly remotely), distributed in
many occasions throughout a wide area and in which the resources
are limited. As a control objective for these systems, besides ensuring that
each component of the process works properly according to certain conditions
predefined, it is necessary to plan the operational strategy
so that, based on the available resources, certain commitments can be fulfilled
certain demands.

2.1 Definitions.
Process optimization is the discipline of adjusting a process to optimize.
(make the best or the most effective use) of a specific set of parameters without
violate any restriction. The common objectives are to minimize cost and maximize
the performance and/or efficiency. This is one of the main
toolsquantitativein thedecision makingindustrial.
Tooptimizea process, the goal is to maximize one or more of the specifications
of the process, keeping all others within their limitations. This is
can be done using a tool ofprocess miningdiscovering the
critical activities and bottlenecks, and acting only on them.
Areas
There are three parameters that can be adjusted to affect optimal performance:
Equipment optimization
The first step is to verify that the existing equipment is being used to its fullest.
examining the operating data to identify bottlenecks in the equipment.
Operating procedures

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Operational procedures can vary widely from person to person or
from shift to shift. The automation of the plant can help significantly.
But automation will not be effective if the operators take control and execute the
plant manually.
Control optimization
In a typical processing plant, such as achemical plantor arefinery of
oilthere are hundreds or even thousands of control loops. Each control circuit
is responsible for controlling part of the process, such as maintaining the temperature,
the level or the flow.

2.1.2 Nature of the procedures of

optimization: Various cases.
One of the most important tools of optimization is programming.
linear. A linear programming problem is given by a linear function of
various variables that must be optimized (maximized or minimized) fulfilling
with a certain number of linear restrictions.
The mathematician G.B. Dantzig developed an algorithm called the simplex method to
to solve problems of this type. The original simplex method has been modified in order
to obtain an efficient algorithm to solve large problems of
computer linear programming.
Through linear programming, problems can be formulated and solved
a wide variety of fields of human activity, among which one can
mention: resource allocation in government planning, network analysis
for urban and regional planning, production planning in the industry, and
the management of transport and distribution systems. For this reason, programming
Linear is one of the successes of modern optimization theory.

2.2 History of operations research.

The beginnings of what is now known as Operations Research began
it goes back to the year 1759 when the economist Quesnay starts to use
primitive models of mathematical programming. Later, another economist from
Walras, in 1874, makes use of similar techniques. The linear models of
Operations Research has its precursors in Jordan in 1873,
Minkowski in 1896 and Farkas in 1903. The probabilistic dynamic models.
they have their origin with Markov at the end of the last century.

20
The development of inventory models, as well as that of time and motion,
it takes place in the twenties of this century, while the line models
waiting originates from Erlang's studies in the early 20th century. The
assignment problems are studied with mathematical methods by the Hungarians
Konig and Egervary in the second and third decades of this century. The problems of
distribution was studied by the Russian Kantorovich in 1939. Von Neumann lays the foundation in
1937 what years later would culminate as Game Theory and the
Theory of Preferences (the latter developed in conjunction with Morgenstern). There is
to note that the mathematical models of Operations Research
what these precursors used, were based on Differential Calculus and
Integral (Newton, Lagrange, Laplace, Lebesgue, Leibnitz, Riemann, Stieltjes, for
mention some), Probability and Statistics (Bernoulli, Poisson, Gauss,
Bayes, Gosset, Snedecor, etc.).

2.2.1 Essential characteristics of operations research.

Operational research is an advanced analytical method that enables the
problem solving and making better decisions in organizations.
The most commonly used methods include mathematical logic, simulation, analysis of
networks, queueing theory, and game theory.
With the use of operations research, it is possible for managers in the
organizations can build effective systems that are based on data
complete, the consideration of all possible alternatives, to predict
carefully the results and make use of decision tools and techniques.
Characteristics of operations research
Among the main characteristics of operations research are the
following:

. To investigate the problems, use the scientific research method.

. The research process begins with the observation of problems and
data collection.
. The problem presents itself quantitatively, it is only in this way that it is possible.
its analysis and evaluation.
. The objective of this method is to solve organizational problems.
. It is responsible for finding the best alternative for solving the problem.

21
 . For this method to work, it is necessary to do teamwork, the
which must be formed by experts.

2.2.2 Description of convex set theory and its relationship with

linear programming.
The theory of convex sets was primarily developed by the famous
German mathematician H. Minkowski. He introduced and investigated the concepts of
support hyperplane of a convex set and its affine hull, the convex function,
the sum of convex sets (now called Minkowski sum), the spaces
finite dimensional vector spaces with the convex unit ball (now called
Minkowski spaces, the mirtos volumes, the properties of functionals
linear over a convex set, etc. This happened on the border of the centuries.
19th and 20th. Several mathematicians (especially those working in Analysis
Classic) characterized their contribution to geometry as a toy
very beautiful and elegant mathematician, but unfortunately useless for the
applications.
Approximately a century has passed. Now the geometric theory of convexity
It is one of the important tools of modern applied mathematics.
Researchers in functional analysis, mathematical economics, optimization,
game theory and many other branches of modern mathematics, theoretical and
applied, widely use the notions and results of set theory
convex. It is now natural that, before working with formulas, the integrals,
the inequalities, etc. It is necessary to represent a geometric diagram of the
problem that is being investigated.

2.2.3 Progressive approach to mathematical programming.

Optimization, also called mathematical programming, is used to
find the answer that provides the best result, the one that achieves the highest
profits, greater production or happiness or the one that achieves the lowest cost, waste
the discomfort.

To have meaning, this should be written in a mathematical expression that

contains one or more variables, whose values must be determined. The question that
The formula, in general terms, is what values these variables should have.
so that the mathematical expression has the highest possible numerical value
(maximization) or the lowest possible numerical value (minimization). This process
The general process of maximization or minimization is called optimization.

a) Linear models. The term linear model is used in different

ways according to the context. The most common way is in

22
 connection with regression models and the term is often taken
as a synonym for the linear regression model. However, the
term is also used in time series analysis with a
different meaning. In each case, the designation as "linear" is
used to identify a subclass of models for which the
reduction in complexity of the related statistical theory is
possible.
b) Non-linear models. A non-linear regression model can be
define as an adjustment to any model different from the model of a
straight line.

2.2.4 Algorithms to solve optimization models.

Linear programming is often one of the favorite topics for both
teachers as well as students. The ability to introduce the PL using a
graphic approach, the relative ease of the solution method, the great availability
software packages of PL and the wide range of applications make PL
accessible to students with little knowledge of mathematics.
In addition, the PL offers an excellent opportunity to present the idea of analysis.
what-if or hypothesis analysis since powerful tools have been developed
for the post-optimality analysis of the LP model.
The Simplex Method is another algorithm for solving LP problems. Remember that
the algebraic method provides all the vertices including those that are not.
feasible. Therefore, this is not an efficient way to solve PL problems.
with numerous restrictions. The Simplex Method is a modification of the method
algebraic, which overcomes these deficiencies. However, the Simplex Method has
its own deficiencies. For example, this requires that all variables be
non-negative (³ 0); Furthermore, all other constraints must be in the form
£ with a non-negative value LMD.
Just like the Algebraic Method, the simplex method is an algorithmic solution.
tabular. However, each table (of iteration) in the simplex method corresponds to
a movement from a Basic Set of Variables (BSV) (extreme points or
corners) to another, ensuring that the objective function improves in each iteration
until finding the optimal solution.
The Numeric Recipes state that the Simplex algorithm is 'almost always' O (Max
(N, M)), which means that the number of iterations is a factor of the number of
variables or constraints, whichever is larger.

2.3 Linear programming.

23
Linear programming has proven to be an extremely powerful tool,
both in the modeling of real-life problems and in mathematical theory
of wide application. However, many interesting optimization problems
nonlinear sounds. The study of these problems involves a diverse mix of
linear algebra, multivariable calculus, numerical analysis, and computing techniques.
Among the important special areas is algorithm design.
computation (including interior point techniques for linear programming),
geometry and the analysis of convex sets and functions, and the study of
especially structured problems, such as quadratic programming. The
non-linear optimization provides fundamental information for analysis
mathematician, and it is widely used in the applied sciences (in fields such
such as engineering design, regression analysis, inventory control, and in
geophysical exploration.
The problem of solving a system of linear inequalities dates back to
less, to Joseph Fourier, after whom the elimination method is born
Fourier-Motzkin. Linear programming is posed as a mathematical model.
developed during World War II to plan expenses and
returns, in order to reduce costs to the army and increase the enemy's losses.
It was kept secret until 1947. In the post-war period, many industries used it.
in their daily planning.

2.3.1 The linear programming model (Programming terminology

linear)
Linear programming is the field of mathematical programming dedicated to
maximize or minimize (optimize) a linear function, called the objective function,
in such a way that the variables of said function are subject to a series of
restrictions expressed through a system of equations or inequalities
also linear. The traditionally used method to solve problems of
Linear programming is the Simplex Method.
Integer programming models are an extension of linear models in
those that some variables take integer values. Frequently the variables
integers only take values in 0-1, since this type of variable allows
represent logical conditions.
2.3.2 Basic structure of the problem (model explanation).
Specifically, linear programming is a mathematical method that allows for analysis
and choosing the best among many alternatives. In general terms, we can think
in linear programming as a means to determine the best way to
distribute a limited amount of resources in order to achieve a goal
expressible in maximizing or minimizing a certain amount.

24
The general model of a linear programming problem consists of two very parts
important: the objective function and the constraints.
The linear objective function
The mathematical expression of the objective is called the objective function and the goal must be
maximize or minimize that expression.
The linear objective function can be represented in the following ways:
Z = Cl X1 + C2 X2 +...... + Cn Xn
or using summation notation
n
Z = ∑ CjXj
j=1
Where:
Z = Linear objective function.
Cj = Net price or unit cost, depending on the model.
Xj = Activity or process.
The goal may be to maximize certain income variables that can
vary from net or gross income, depending on how it is structured
model. Linear programming can also be applied to problem of
cost minimization and these programs are based on a different set of
criteria for its optimization.
The coefficients C1, C2..., Cn are the cost coefficients (known) or of
income, depending on the type of problem we are solving. On the other hand, X1,
X2, ..., Xn are the decision variables (variables, or activity levels) that
They must be determined in such a way that the objective is achieved within the
restrictions faced by the problem.
A set of linear constraints or inequalities
The constraints, expressed through linear inequalities, are composed of
by the technical coefficients (Aij), the activities or processes (Xn), which
they were also taken into account in the objective function and also the levels or
limitations (Bi). The set of constraints is expressed as follows:
A11 X1 + A12 X2 + … + A1n Xn ≤ B1
A21 X1 + A22 X2 +...+ A2m Xn ≥ B2
...

25
... Am1 X1 + Am2 X2 + ... + Amn Xn = Bm

X1, X2,…,Xn ≥ 0
According to Beneke and Winterboer (1984: 25), there are three basic types of restrictions:
greater than (≥), less than (≤) or equal (=), and these can be
classified according to their nature:
Resource or input constraints: these can include land, capital,
labor and facilities.
External restrictions: this class includes concepts such as assignments
surface land governmental limits of credit assigned to the
legal products or obligations.
Subjective restrictions: these restrictions are imposed by the operator themselves.
limits can be difficult to define, but they are often real and significant
in the planning process. Often the imposed restrictions come from
the personal or business objectives of the planner. Among the limitations
the following can be cited of that type:
Limitations on the level of credit that the planner is willing to use.
many occasions is less than the amount that lenders are willing to
to contribute. The typical motivation for such limitations is the implicit desire
to avoid the hazards of debt.
Restrictions due to the risk level of activities that present aspects
linked to highly variable incomes such as sheep farming or
cattle.
Minimum restrictions regarding what the operator considers desirable
reasons not directly related to income such as keeping cows of
pure breed, dairy cows or crops to maintain the qualities of the land.
2.3.3 Approach of the model on an application to civil engineering.
Optimization models contribute to the professional profile of the Civil Engineer the
basis for the development of the necessary capacities that allow you to influence
the decision-making process from the organizational perspective, with the
purpose of optimizing processes and resources inherent to the field of practice of
civil engineering.
The design of structures subject to external loads requires an assessment.
realistic safety factor regarding the collapse of the structure,
called collapse multiplier. The determination of this multiplier is
a basic requirement for an optimal design. The project requires the designer
establish a design collapse mechanism, a requirement that is not possible
comply a priori. In light of this requirement, the analytical methodologies that allow

26
determine the actual collapse mechanism for a given load state
a fundamental importance.
This research work is framed within the field of seismic design of
structures and is focused on the development of a method for analysis and identification
of the collapse mechanism of a structure associated with a load state
given, through the study and verification of its behavior with techniques
of linear programming. In this sense, a simple method is implemented as the
Simplex to the process of searching for the collapse mechanism of plane frames. The
the framing of this structural problem leads to the standard form of this
linear programming methodology. It is shown that obtaining the multiplier
collapse can be fully automated for flat portals. Starting from a
simple resolution algorithm, based on simple collapse mechanisms,
the mechanism of structural collapse is obtained for the load state
given.
The main objective is the verification and optimization of the design of a structure.
using the real collapse mechanism. This methodology also allows
ensure that all joints are produced simultaneously for the state of
design loads.

2.3.4 Graphic Method.

The Graphical method or Geometric method allows for the resolution of problems.
linear programming problems in an intuitive and visual way. This method is
is limited to problems of two or three decision variables since it is not
it is possible to graphically illustrate more than 3 dimensions.

Although in reality problems rarely arise with only two or three.

decision variables result, however, this methodology is very useful
resolution. When graphically reproducing possible situations such as the
existence of a unique optimal solution, alternative optimal solutions, the non
the existence of a solution and the unboundedness constitute a visual aid for
interpret and understand the algorithm of the Simplex method (quite more sophisticated and
abstracto) y los conceptos que lo rodean.
The phases of the problem-solving procedure using the method
The graph is the following:
1. Draw a Cartesian coordinate system in which each variable of
decision is represented by an axis.
2. Establish a measurement scale for each of the axes appropriate to its
associated variable.
3. Draw the constraints of the problem on the coordinate system,
including those of non-negativity (which will be the axes themselves). Note that

27
 An inequality defines a region that will be the half-plane limited by the line
line that is obtained by considering the constraint as an equality, while
that if an equation defines a region that is the straight line itself.

4. The intersection of all regions determines the feasible region or space.

of solutions (which is a convex set). If this region is non-empty, it
it will continue with the next step. Otherwise, there is no point.
that simultaneously satisfies all the constraints, so that the
the problem will have no solution, being called infeasible.
5. Determine the extreme points or vertices of the polygon or polyhedron that
form the feasible region. These points will be the candidates for the solution.
optimal.
6. Evaluate the objective function at all vertices and the one (or those) that
maximize (or minimize) the resulting value to determine the optimal solution
of the problem.
Examples
A company produces two types of tables: a colonial style and a Nordic style.
The
The utilities obtained from its sale are $2,000 for the colonial and $2,200 for the
Nordic. For this week, there is already an order for 10 Nordic-type tables. The manager
production wants to plan its weekly production knowing that
It only has 450 hours for construction and 200 hours for varnishing them.
The following table shows the hours needed to carry out each of the
tasks and the usefulness for both tables.

Nordic Colonial
Construction 6h 8h
Varnishing 5h 2h
Unit Utility $2000 $2200

28
Definition of decision variables Objective Function

x: Cantidad de mesas de tipo colonial a producir Max. U =2000x + 2200y

y: Number of Nordic-type tables to be produced
Restrictions

Order:y ≥ 10 Nordic tables

Manufacturing:6x + 8y ≤ 450 hours

Operations
Varnishing:5x + 2y ≤ 200 hours
Manufacturing:6x + 8y ≤ 450
, greater than or equal to 0

Clearing x Clearing and

6x ≤ 450-8y 8y ≤ 450- 6x
x ≤ (450- 8y) / 6 y ≤ (450-6x) / 8

Substituting when: Substituting when: Manufacturing

y = 0 x = 0 x y
0 56.25
x ≤ (450- 8(0)) / 6 y ≤ (450– 6(0)) / 8
75 0
x ≤ 75 ≤ 56.25

Varnishing:5x + 2y ≤ 200

Solving for x Clearing and

5x ≤ 200-2y 2y ≤ 200- 5x
x ≤ (200- 2y) / 5 y ≤ (200-5x / 2

Substituting when: Substituting when: Varnishing

y = 0 x = 0 x y
0 100
x ≤ (200- 2(0) / 5 y ≤ (200- 5(0)) / 2
40 0
x ≤ 40 ≤ = 100

29
Order:y ≥ 10 Nordic tables

Manufacturing:6x + 8y ≤ 450 hours

Varnished:5x + 2y ≤ 200 hours

Graphic
60
B=(56.25)
50

40 C=(25,37.5)

30

20

D=(36,10)
10
A=(0,10)
0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40

Objective Function

á . = 2000x + 2200y

= (0,10) = 2 000x + 2 200y = 2000(0) + 2200(10) = 22 000

á = (0, 56.25) = 2 000x + 2200y = 2000(0) + 2200(56.25) = 123 750

á = (25, 37.5) = 2 000x + 2200y = 2000(25) + 2200(37.5) = 132 500

á = (36, 10)= 2 000x + 2200y = 2000(36) + 2200(10) = 94000

It is observed that the optimal solution is to produce 25 colonial tables per week.
37.5 Nordic, achieving the maximum profit equivalent to $132,500 per week.

2.- A company that assembles communication products must schedule its

weekly production. Due to liquidity problems, you are interested in minimizing your
weekly costs, since they pay for the production 20 days after delivery.
He is currently assembling two different items, the T14 and the B2; both items
must be assembled and tested by specialized personnel. The purchasing company
requires no less than 100 devices weekly; for model B2 it must deliver

30
less than a quarter of what I delivered from the T14, but in no case should they
exceed by more than 150 the number of T14 teams. In Table 2.4 it is indicated that
time required by specialists to assemble and test each equipment, expressed
in minutes, as well as the availability of time.
Teams T14 B12 Availability
Armed 10 min 12 min 55 h
Tests 30 min 6 min 100 h
Costs $100 $60

Definition of decision variables

T: number of items T14 to produce

B: number of items B12 to produce

Objective Function

Min. Z= 100 1+ 60 2

Restrictions

Order: T + B ≥ 100 minimum equipment

Minimum of B2: B ≥ ¼ T minimum of B2 equipment

Maximum of B2: B ≤ T + 150 maximum of B2 teams

Assembly: 10 T + 12 B ≤ 55 (60) minutes
Tests: 30 T + 6 B ≤ 100(60) minutes
T, B ≥ 0

Teams T14 B2 Available

Order 1 1 ≥ 100
Minimum of B -1/4 1 greater than or equal to 0

Maximum of B -1 1 <= 150

Armed 10 min 12 min ≤ 3300 min
Tests 30 min 6 min ≤ 6000 min
Costs $100 $60
Operations

1+ 2≥ 100

31
 1
− 1+ 2greater than or equal to zero
4
− 1+ 2≤ 150

10x1+ 12x2≤ 3300

30x1+ 6x2≤ 6000

1greater than or equal to 0

2greater than or equal to 0

Graphic
300
R3

250 R5

200

150

R4
100

R1 R2
50

0
0 50 100 150 200 250

R1: T + B ≥ 100
The graph of the solution set has six vertices.
R2: -¼ T + B ≥ 0 By moving the objective function in the direction of minimization, the
the last point it touches is (0, 100); this indicates that, for
R3: -T + B ≤ 150 satisfy all the constraints, but with the minimum
R4: 10 T + 12 B ≤ 3,300 cost, only 100 items of the type must be produced
B2, so its costs will be $6,000.
R5: 30 T + 6 B ≤ 6,000

T, B ≥ 0

2.3.5 More than two variables simplex method.

The Simplex method is an iterative procedure that allows for the improvement of the solution of
the objective function at each step. The process concludes when it is not possible.
continue improving that value, that is, the optimal solution has been reached (the

32
highest or lowest possible value, depending on the case, for which all the requirements are met.
restrictions).
Starting from the value of the objective function at any point, the procedure
it consists of looking for another point that improves the previous value. As will be seen in the
Graphical method, those points are the vertices of the polygon (or polyhedron or polychoron,
if the number of variables is greater than 2) that constitutes the region determined by
the restrictions to which the problem is subject (called feasible region).
The search is conducted by moving along the edges of the polygon,
from the current vertex to an adjacent one that improves the value of the function
objetivo. Siempre que exista región factible, como su número de vértices y de aristas
It's over, will it be possible to find the solution.

The Simplex method is based on the following property: if the objective function Z does not
it takes its maximum value at vertex A, then there exists an edge that starts from A and to
along which the value of Z increases.
It will be necessary to keep in mind that the Simplex method only works with
restrictions of the problem whose inequalities are of the type "≤" (less than or equal to) and
its independent coefficients should be greater than or equal to 0. Therefore, it will be necessary to
standardize the restrictions to meet these requirements before starting the
Simplex algorithm. In the event that after this process appear
restrictions of the type '≥' (greater than or equal to) or '=' (equality), or cannot be changed,
it will be necessary to employ other resolution methods, the most common being the
Two-Phase Method.

Resolve the following problem using the simplex method:

Maximize Z = f(x,y) = 3x + 2y
subject to: 2x + y ≤ 18
2x + 3y ≤ 42
3x + y ≤ 24
x ≥ 0, y ≥ 0

The following phases are considered:

1. Make a change of variables and normalize the sign of the terms

independent.

A change is made in the nomenclature of the variables. Establishing the

following correspondence:

ox becomes X1

o and becomes X2

33
 Since the constant terms of all the constraints are positive
It is not necessary to do anything. Otherwise, it would be necessary to multiply by "-1" in
both sides of the inequality (considering that this operation also
affects the type of restriction.

2. Normalize the restrictions.

The inequalities are converted into equations by adding variables of

looseness, excess and artificiality according to the following table:

Type of inequality Type of variable that appears

≥ - excess + artificial
= + artificial
≤ + clearance

In this case, a slack variable (X3, X4, and X5) is introduced in each one.
from the restrictions of the type ≤, to convert them into equalities, resulting in the
system of linear equations

2·X1+ X2+ X3= 18

2·X1+ 3·X2+ X4= 42
3·X1+ X2+ X5= 24

3. Set the objective function to zero.

Z - 3·X1- 2·X2- 0·X3- 0·X4- 0·X5= 0

4. Write the initial table of the Simplex method.

The initial table of the Simplex method is composed of all the coefficients of
the decision variables of the original problem and the slack, surplus, and
artificial added in step 2 (in the columns, being P0 the term
independent and the rest of the variables coincide with Xi), and the constraints (in
the rows). Column C contains the coefficients of the variables that
they are found in the database.

The first row consists of the coefficients of the objective function,

while the last row contains the objective function value and the costs
reducedZj- Cj.

The last row is calculated as follows: Zj = Σ(Cbi·Pj) for i = 1..m, where if j =

0, P0= biy C0= 0, y in the opposite case Pj= aij. Although it is the first case
simplex method table and having all the Cbnulos can simplify the calculation,
and for this time set Zj= -Cj.

34
 Table I. Iteration No. 1
3 2 0 0 0
Base Cb P0 P1 P2 P3 P4 P5
P3 0 18 2 1 1 0 0
P4 0 42 2 3 0 1 0
P5 0 24 3 1 0 0 1
Z 0 -3 -2 0 0 0

Stop condition.
If the goal is maximization, when in the last row (indicator row) there is not
there is no negative value among the reduced costs (columns P1)
forward) the stopping condition is reached.

In such a case, the end of the algorithm is reached as there is no possibility of

improvement. The value of Z (column P0) is the optimal solution to the problem.

Another possible case is that in the column of the incoming variable to the database.
all values are negative or null. This indicates that the problem does not
it finds bounded and its solution will always be improvable. In the face of this
it is not necessary to continue iterating indefinitely and it can also be
terminate the algorithm.

If this is not the case, the following steps are executed iteratively.

Selection of the entering and leaving variable of the base.

First, the variable that enters the basis is determined. To do this,
choose the column whose value in row Z is the smallest among all
negatives. In this case, it would be the variable X1(P1) with a coefficient of -3.

If there were two or more equal coefficients that meet the condition
previous (in case of a tie), then the variable that is chosen will be that one which is
basic.

The column of the variable that enters the base is called the pivot column.
green

Once the variable that enters the database is obtained, it proceeds to determine
what will be the variable that comes out of it. The decision is made based on a
simple calculation: divide each independent term (column P0) by the
corresponding element of the pivot column, provided that both elements
must be strictly positive (greater than zero). The row is selected whose
result has yielded a minimum result.

35
 If there is any element less than or equal to zero, that quotient is not performed.
In case all elements of the pivot column were from this
condition would have been met the stop condition and the problem would have a
unbounded solution (seetheory of the Simplex method).

In this example: 18/2 [=9], 42/2 [=21] and 24/3 [=8]

The pivot column term that in the previous division resulted in the smallest
Positive quotient indicates the row of the slack variable that leaves the base. In
this case turns out to be X5(P5), with a coefficient of 3. This row is called the pivot row.
green color)

Si al calcular los cocientes, dos o más resultados cumplen la condición para

choose the outstanding element of the base (in case of a tie), select the one that
no basic variable (as long as it is possible).

The intersection of the pivot row and pivot column marks the pivot element.
in this case the 3.

Update the table.

The new coefficients of the table are calculated as follows:

oIn the row of the pivot element, each new element is calculated as:

New Pivot Row Element = Previous Pivot Row Element / Pivot

oIn the rest of the rows, each element is calculated:

New Row Element = Previous Row Element - (Previous Row Element

in Pivot Column * New Row Pivot Element

With this, the pivot element is normalized and its value becomes 1, while
that the rest of the elements in the pivot column are nullified (analogous to the method
of Gauss-Jordan).

The calculations for row P4 are shown below:

Front row P4 42 2 3 0 1 0
- - - - - -
Previous Row Element in Pivot Column 2 2 2 2 2 2
x x x x x x
New pivot row 8 1 1/3 0 0 1/3
= = = = = =
New row P4 26 0 7/3 0 1 -2/3

36
 The table corresponding to this second iteration is:

Table II. Iteration No. 2

3 2 0 0 0
Base Cb P0 P1 P2 P3 P4 P5
P3 0 2 0 1/3 1 0 -2/3
P4 0 26 0 7/3 0 1 -2/3
P1 3 8 1 1/3 0 0 1/3
Z 24 0 -1 0 0 1

5. Upon checking the stop condition, it is observed that it is not met since between
There is one negative element in the last row, -1. Iteration continues.
again steps 6 and 7.

o6.1. The variable that enters the base is X2(P2), as it is the variable that
it corresponds to the column where the coefficient -1 is found.

o 6.2. To calculate the variable that results, the terms of the

column P0 between the corresponding terms of the new column
pivot: 2 / 1/3 [=6], 26 / 7/3 [=78/7] and 8 / 1/3 [=24]. As the smallest quotient
positive is 6, the variable that comes from the base is X3(P3).

o 6.3. The pivot element is 1/3.

o7. Updating the table values again yields:

Table III. Iteration No. 3

3 2 0 0 0
Base Cb P0 P1 P2 P3 P4 P5
P2 2 6 0 1 3 0 -2
P4 0 12 0 0 -7 1 4
P1 3 6 1 0 -1 0 1
Z 30 0 0 3 0 -1

6. A new check of the stopping condition reveals that among the

elements of the indicator row contains a negative one again, -1. This means that
the optimal solution has not yet been reached and we need to continue iterating (steps 6 and
7):

o6.1. The variable that enters the base is X5(P5), being the variable that
corresponds to the coefficient -1.

37
 o 6.2. The variable is chosen by calculating the quotient between the
terms of the column of independent terms and the terms
corresponding to the new pivot column: 6/(-2) [=-3], 12/4 [=3], and
6/1 [=6]. On this occasion it is X4(P4).

oThe pivot element is 4.

o7. After updating all the rows, the following table is obtained:

Table IV. Iteration no. 4

3 2 0 0 0
Base Cb P0 P1 P2 P3 P4 P5
P2 2 12 0 1 -1/2 1/2 0
P5 0 3 0 0 -7/4 1/4 1
P1 3 3 1 0 3/4 -1/4 0
Z 33 0 0 5/4 1/4 0

7. End of the algorithm.

Se observa que en la última fila todos los coeficientes son positivos cumpliéndose, por
such, the stop condition.

The optimal solution is given by the value of Z in the column of the terms
independents (P0), in this example: 33. In the same column you can see the point.
where it is reached, observing the rows corresponding to the decision variables
that have entered the base: X1= 3 and X2= 12.

Undoing the change of variables yields x = 3 and y = 12.

2.3.6 Duality method.

The dual model of a problem ofLinear Programmingconsists of an instance
an alternative mathematical modeling that allows us to salvage the information
of the original problem commonly known as the primal model.
Consequently, it is sufficient to solve one of them (primal or dual) in order to
obtain the optimal solution and optimal value of the equivalent problem (primal or dual
depending on the case). To do this, conditions can be used, for example,
established in theComplementary Slackness Theorem.
The relationships of duality can be summarized in the following table:

38
 Minimization Problem Maximization Problem

If the restriction is: The associated variable is

>= >=0

<= <=0

= unrestricted

If the variable is: The restriction

corresponding is:

greater than or equal to zero <=

<=0 >=

unrestricted =

The table above can be interpreted both from left to right as

from right to left.

Proposed Exercise: Using duality relationships in Programming

Linear, given a primal problem P, demonstrate that its corresponding
dualDqueda defined according to:

In what follows, we will combine the different constraints of the primal problem.
pondering over the non-negative values y each one, respectively, of
way to obtain the best upper bound of the optimal value of problem P). Okay
to say

39
In order to ensure that the right side of this last inequality is a
the upper bound of the objective function of the primal problem must be satisfied that:

The best choice of this bound would be obtained by solving the following problem of
optimization

This problem is known as the 'Dual' problem associated with the problem.
Primal
It also turns out that when formulating the dual problem of D) the problem is obtained
primalP)(o an equivalent). Any of the two deliveries the same
the information and the optimal value achieved are the same.

2.3.7 Dual simplex.

As we know, the simplex method is an iterative algorithm that starts from a
basic feasible solution but not optimal, generates basic feasible solutions each
see better until finding the optimal solution (if it exists). Note that the base
its logic is to maintain feasibility, while seeking optimality. But it arises
the possibility of using another equally iterative scheme, which, as a counterpart of
simplex starts with an optimal basic solution, but not feasible and maintains the
improvability while seeking feasibility. With this procedure, one arrives.
equally to the optimal solution.

The new algorithm was developed in 1954 by C. E. Lemke and is known as the
name of the Dual-Simplex Method. Below is its structure and a
example to illustrate its application.
First, the model must be expressed in standard form, adding the variables.
of the clearance and excess that are required.

40
Immediately, in the equations that have excess variables (resulting from
type restrictions >), it must be multiplied by (-1) on both sides, to make
positive the coefficient of the excess variable, and thus form a unit vector that
let us take this excess variable as an initial basic variable. without
need to add an artificial variable in that constraint.

1. By doing the above, it is achieved that below the basic variables

an identity matrix appears, which is what the simplex always takes
as an initial basis.
2. We will obtain that the terms on the right side of the equations
multiplied by (-1) remain with a negative sign, which makes that the
initial solution is infeasible.
3. It is important to highlight that this process is very useful since in many
models avoid the inclusion of artificial variables at the time of
transform a model to standard format.

The algorithm for solving a maximization model is as follows:

Step 1: Find an infeasible basic initial solution.

unbeatable
Write the initial tableau taking the slack and surplus variables as
initial basic variables

Step 2: Feasibility Test

If all the basic variables are non-negative, the current solution is the
optimal.
If there is at least one negative basic variable, select as variable
of exit,
let's call it (XB)s), the one with the most negative value. The ties
they can be broken arbitrarily.

Step 3: Improvability Test

Yes, in the row of the basic variable of output (XB) all the coefficients
replacement with the non-basic variables are non-negative, the solution of
the model is optimal limited. The process ends.
If there is at least one in the row of the basic variable of output (XB)s,
negative exchange coefficient, the quotients between the effect are carried out
net of each variable non-basic and its corresponding coefficient of

41
 negative exchange. That is, taking (XB)s as the output variable, calculations are made.
all the quotients.

We take as input variable (Let's call it Xe) that which

correspond to the minimum of the quotients of the previous set
If the input variable is Xe, the pivot element will be the element (Se)s.
The tie can be broken arbitrarily.
Apply the pivot operation to generate the new table, in which
Xe should appear as a basic variable instead of the output variable (XB)s.
Repeat the algorithm from step 2.

Solve the following model using the Dual-Simplex method.

Minimize Z= 2X1 + 2X2

Subject to: 3X1 +X2 > 10
4X1 +3X2 > 12
X1 +2X <
with X1, X2 > 0

Expressing the model in standard format and adjusting it so that the variables
the basic variables of slack are:

Minimize Z= 2X1 + 2X2

Subject to: -3X1 -X2 +IE1 = -3

-4X1 -3X2 +IE2 = -6

X1 +2X +IE3 = 3

Using the Dual Simplex method, we obtain, successively:

Basics X1 X2 E1 E2 H3 Solution
E1 -3 -1 1 0 0 -3

E2 -4 -3 0 1 0 -6

42
 H3 1 2 0 0 1 3

Ej 2 1 0 0 0 0

Sale E2
So the quotients are

Note: It is observed that when the objective is to minimize, the absolute value is taken.
of the quotients.

Basics X1 X2 E1 E2 H3 Solution
E1 - 0 1 - 0 -1
5/3 1/3

E2 4/3 1 0 - 0 2
1/3

H3 - 0 0 2/3 1 -1
5/3

Ej 2 0 0 1/3 0 2

Sale H1

The quotients are:

Basics X1 X2 E1 E2 H3 Solution
E10 1 -3/5 1/5 0 3/5

43
 E2 0 1 4/5 - 0 June 5
3/5

H3 0 0 -1 1 1 0

Ej 0 0 2/5 1/5 0 12/5

La solución óptima es X1 = 3/5, X2 = 6/5 ; Z = 12/5

In the graph, we observe the path that the algorithm actually took to move from
the infeasible solution with value Z= 0 to the optimal feasible solution with value Z = 12/5.

The application of the dual simplex method is especially useful in the analysis of
sensitivity. It is used when after obtaining the optimal solution, you
wants to add a new constraint to the model if the new constraint is not met.

In this case, it is obtained that, for the optimal values of the decision variables,
the solution remains optimal, but becomes infeasible. Then arises the
need to apply the Dual-Simplex algorithm to extract the basic variable that
it has unfeasible value. When we study the topic of sensitivity analysis
we will analyze a case like the one mentioned

2.3.8 Sensitivity analysis.

Sensitivity analysis is a technique that studies the impact that it has
about avariabledependent on a financial model the variations in
one of the independent variables that compose it.

Explicado de forma sencilla, lo que hacemos es observar cómo afecta un aumento

or a decrease in the value of a factor affecting the final result in an analysis
financial. For example, if we are using the net present valueVANwe could
to be interested in what would happen to that value if the initial investment increased
necessary for a project.

Example:

The analysis can be done with a spreadsheet. The investment in the example is
a new machinery. The cash flows represent the two options, the NPV and

44
the NPV. The differences between cash flows arise from variations in the
sales due to two possible scenarios, for example, depending on a
advertising campaign.

We can observe that in the first case, the NPV is 564.29 units.
monetary (u.m.) in the second of 648.61 u.m. Therefore, the sensitivity of NPV
is 14.94% and positive. In light of those changes in sales, there would be a
increase of the NPV of almost 15%. Therefore, it seems that this campaign may
be effective.

2.4 Transportation algorithm.

The transportation algorithm organizes the calculations in a more convenient way.
taking advantage of the special structure of the transport model. Stop
this follows the same steps as the simplex method, however, instead of using
the normal simplex table takes advantage of the special structure of the model
of transport to organize the calculations in a more comfortable way.

It should be added that the special transport algorithm was developed by

the first time when the norm was calculations by hand and it was necessary to
solutions with shortcut method.
Today we have computer programs that support us in solving the
problems that arise in operations research, however, the
algorithm, besides its historical importance, allows for a perspective on its use
from the primal-dual theoretical relationships to arrive at a practical result, to improve
the calculations by hand.

Another important detail is that the transportation algorithm is based on the hypothesis that
the model is balanced and that means the total demand is equal to
total offer. If the model is unbalanced, it can always be increased with a
fictitious source or fictitious destination to restore balance.

45
The steps of the transportation algorithm are exactly the same as those of the algorithm.
simplex.
In the first step, a feasible basic solution is determined that gives us
help to proceed to step two.
In the second step, the optimality condition of the simplex method is used.
to determine the input variable among all the basic variables.
Stop if satisfied.
In the third step, the feasibility condition of the simplex method is used to
determine the output variable and thus obtain the new solution and
subsequently return to step two.

2.4.1 Characteristics of a transportation problem.

In general, transportation problems deal with (in a literal or imaginary way) with
the Distribution from any group of supply centers, called origins,
to any group of reception centers, called destinations, in such a way that it
minimize the total distribution cost.
Assumption of requirements: each source has a fixed supply of units,
where this complete supply has to be distributed among the destinations. In a way
similar, each destination has a fixed demand for units, where this demand
completion must be received from the origins.
Properties of feasible solutions: a transportation problem will have solutions
feasible if and only if the sum of their resources is equal to the sum of their demands
balance between total supply from all sources and total demand from all
the destinations). In some real problems, resources actually represent
maximum amounts (and not fixed amounts) to distribute.
Cost assumption: the cost of distributing units from any source to any
The given destination is directly proportional to the number of units distributed.
Thus, this cost is just the unit distribution cost by the number of
distributed units.
The model: any problem (whether it involves transport or not) fits the model of a
transport problem can be completely described in terms of a table
of parameters (origin-destination: costs, resources, demand) and satisfies both the
assumption of requirements like the cost assumption. The goal is to minimize
the total cost of distributing the units. All the model parameters are
included in the parameter table.
It is only required to fill out a parameter table to formulate the problem of
transport

46
 2.4.2 Methods to determine a feasible solution
basic initial to maximize and minimize.
InLinear Programminga Basic Feasible Solution (BFS) is one that
in addition to belonging to the region or feasible area of the problem, it can be
to represent through a feasible solution in the application ofMethod
Simplexsatisfying the non-negativity conditions.

In this context, a feasible basic solution will correspond to one of the

vertices of the feasibility domain whose coordinate or solution can be
to represent through a set of active constraints for the model.
To develop the previous concept, let us consider the following problem of
mathematical optimization (linear):

The graphical resolution of the previous problem is presented in the following graph:

47
The area of concern corresponds to the feasibility domain of the problem.
identifying in particular 5 vertices that we have called
arbitrarily A, B, C, D and E.
The optimal solution of the linear model is reached at the vertex.
Where X=100 and Y=350 with optimal value V(P)=3,100. Note that this solution
it can be obtained through the resolution of a system of equations with the
restrictions 1 and 3 (R1 and R3) in equality.
Consequently, vertex C, besides being a feasible basic solution, is
a feasible optimal basic solution.
As for the vertices A, B, D, and E, they are basic feasible solutions (not ...
optimal) due to the application of theSimplex Methodat least one
non-basic variable will have reduced negative cost (which will allow for improvement)
actual value of the objective function.
The table below is the one obtained by bringing the problem to its form.
standard, adding S1, S2, and S3 as slack variables for the constraints 1,
2 and 3, respectively (R1, R2 and R3).

48
Both non-basic variables (initial) X and Y have negative reduced cost (-3 and -
8) therefore X=0 and Y=0 which although it is a feasible basic solution (vertex A) is not
it is the optimal solution.

To continue the demonstration we will perform an iteration of the Method

Simplexm incorporating the variable Already the base (reduced cost criterion "more
negative") and where the minimum quotient Min {1.600/4; 1.700/2; 350/1}=350 =>
Leave the base:

The basic feasible solution now is X=0 and Y=350 (vertex B), however, the
the reduced cost of the variable X is still negative and therefore we still do not
we find at the optimum. Consequently, Xentra enters the base and we obtain the
mínimo cociente:Min {200/2; 1.000/6}=100 ==> S1deja la base:

Finally, the optimal solution (optimal basic feasible solution) is reached.

conX=100eY=350(vertex C) where all non-basic variables (S1 and S3)
they have reduced costs greater than or equal to zero, meeting the criterion of
optimality.
What happens with vertices D and E? They are also basic feasible solutions.
(not optimal) that could be found for example by incorporating in first
instance (initial table) to variable X to the database. In this way, it should be achieved
the vertex After an iteration and the vertex In a second iteration.
Note that there are also other feasible solutions (non-basic) such as,
example, X=100 e Y=100 that belong to the domain of feasible solutions, but
it cannot be represented through the resolution of a system of equations.

49
 2.4.3 Types of problems: balanced and
unbalanced.
It is quite common for the total number of units that the origins
they can send and the quantity of units that the destinations require can be different.
This means that total capacity and total demand are different. It is, then,
that we are facing an unbalanced transportation problem.
To resolve this difficulty, fictitious sources or fictitious destinations are introduced.
as the case may be. The purpose is to balance the demand and the capacity to apply
some method that provides a feasible initial solution.

First case: Total capacity > Total demand → Fictitious destination

A fictitious destination is added when the total capacity is greater than the demand.
The fictitious destination is assigned a demand equal to the excess capacity.
The unit transport costs associated with the routes created by adding the
fictional destination is zero, in reality no shipments are made to the fictional destination.

The demand for the fictitious destination represents the surplus capacity, that is, the
demand of the fictional destination is calculated by subtracting the total demand from the capacity
total.
That the total capacity is greater than the total demand means that the sources
they can send more units than the destinations require. The units
required in a fictional destination represent unused capacity in one of
the origins.
A fictional destination adds an additional column to the problem table of
transport

For example, let's consider three plants A, B, and C that make shipments to five
Warehouses D, E, F, G, and H. The transportation table is as follows:

50
By adding the capacities of the plants, we have a total of 2,100 units.
(1,000+600+500=2,100) and, when calculating the total demand, we have 1,700 units.
(500+100+600+300+200=1,700), therefore, there is a transportation problem.
not balanced and the total capacity is greater than the total demand, it is necessary
add a fictional destination to balance the issue.

In the following table, a fictional destination has been added as an additional column.
in the transportation problem table, its associated unit transportation costs
is zero since no shipment is made. Furthermore, the demand placed on it
The assignment is 400 units and results from subtracting the total demand from the capacity.
total (2,100-1,700=400).

Second case: Total demand > Total capacity → Fictitious origin

A fictitious source is added when the total demand is greater than the capacity.
To the fictitious origin, a capacity equal to the excess demand is assigned.
Similarly to the first case, the associated unit transportation costs
the routes that are created when adding the fictitious origin are zero, since they never
They embark units from the fictitious origin.

The capacity of the fictitious origin represents the excess demand, that is, the
the capacity of the fictitious origin is calculated by subtracting the total capacity of the demand
total.
That the total demand is higher means that the destinations require more.
units from which the origins can send. The units sent from a
fictitious origin represents an unmet demand in some of the destinations.
A fictitious origin adds an additional row to the transportation problem table.
Let's consider the same example as in the previous case, but establishing the
capacity of plant A is 100 units. The transportation problem table is
the following:

51
We sum the capacities of the plants and obtain a total of 1,200 units.
(100+600+500=1,200) and, when calculating the total demand, we have 1,700 units.
(500+100+600+300+200=1,700). It is a transportation problem
unbalanced, total demand is greater than total capacity, it is necessary
add a fictitious source to balance the issue.

So, we added a fictitious plant which translates to an additional row in

the table, the unit transportation costs in that row are zero since none
The shipment leaves from the fictitious plant. The capacity assigned to the fictitious plant.
it corresponds to the difference between total demand (1,700 units) and capacity
total (1,200 units).

52
 2.4.4 Degenerate transportation problems.
For a balanced transportation problem with m origins and n destinations, a
solution with less than m + n - 1 variables greater than zero is degenerate.
degeneration can occur in the following cases:
In the calculation of an initial basic feasible solution: when they are satisfied
simultaneously origin and destination in a step that is not the last of the method of
Bird or the northwest corner method.
In any iteration of the transportation algorithm, when there is a tie in the
criteria of the variable that comes from the database.

When a solution is degenerate, it is necessary to distinguish between zero flows that

correspond to basic variables and those that correspond to non-variables
basics.

2.4.5 Optimality test.

To determine if the current basic solution is optimal, equation (0) is used to
Rewrite the objective function in terms of only the non-basic variables.
current.

Z = 30 + 3x1 - 5x4/2

Increasing the value of any of these non-basic variables (with the adjustment of the
basic variable values so that they still meet the system of
(equations) means to move to one of the two basic feasible solutions.
adjacent. Since x1 has a positive coefficient, increasing it leads to a solution
basic feasible adjacent that is better than the current solution, so this is not
optimal.

In general terms, the current feasible basic solution is optimal if and only if all
the non-basic variables have non-positive coefficients (≤ 0) in the current form of
the objective function. This current form is obtained by moving the variables xj to the side
right of the current equation (0) after having converted all the equations
the appropriate form of Gaussian elimination [which eliminates the basic variables of
this equation]. Equivalently, the variables can be left on the side
left and then the optimality test consists of all the variables
non-basic variables have non-negative coefficients (≥ 0) in the current equation (0).

2.5 Allocation algorithm.

53
The Assignment Algorithm is used in the classic problem of Research.
of Operations (Assignment Problems).
The Assignment Problem includes applications such as assigning people to
tasks. Although their applications seem to differ from the transportation problem, it will be seen
that this problem is a special case of the transportation problem.
It has a limitation, which is that only one resource can be assigned to each task.
There may be excess resources or there may be excess tasks, but two cannot be assigned.
resources to the same task, or three.
The Assignment Problem is based on comparative information to make
the decision of whom to assign to a resource.
Its origin lies in the industrial revolution, due to the emergence of the
machines made it necessary to assign a task to a worker.
Thomas Jefferson suggested in 1792 to assign a representative to each state,
but this problem formally appeared in 1941, when F.L. Hitchcook published
an analytical solution to the problem, but it is not until 1955 when Harold W. Kuhn
proposes the Hungarian Method, which was later revised by James Munkres in
1957.
Steps for the application of the Hungarian Method are:

1. To solve an assignment problem in which the goal is to maximize the

objective function, the profit matrix must be multiplied by negative one (-1) and
solve the problem as a minimization one.
2. If the number of rows and columns in the cost matrix are different, the
The assignment problem is unbalanced. The Hungarian method can
provide an incorrect solution if the problem is unbalanced; due to that
previously, any allocation issues must be balanced first (adding
fictitious rows or columns) before solving it using the Hungarian method.
In a large problem, it can be difficult to obtain the minimum number of rows.
necessary to cover all the zeros in the current cost matrix. It can be
to demonstrate that, if j lines are needed to cover all zeros, then it
they can only assign j jobs at a zero cost in the current matrix; this explains
Why does it end when m lines are needed.

2.5.1 Mathematical terminology of assignment method.

The assignment model is a special type of linear programming problem in

those assigned are resources that are allocated for the completion of tasks. For

54
For example, the assigned can be employees to whom work must be given.

The assignment of people to jobs is a common application of the problem of

assignment. However, the assigned do not have to be people. Also

they can be machines, vehicles or plants, or even periods to which they are assigned

tasks.

"The best person for the job" is a good description of the model of

assignment.

The objective of the model is to determine the optimal (minimum cost) allocation of

workers to positions.

The general assignment model with n workers and n jobs is represented in

the following table:

In order to fit the definition of an assignment problem, it is necessary that

this type of applications are formulated in such a way that the following are met

assumptions:

1. The number of assignments is equal to the number of tasks. (This number is

denoted by n.)
Each assigned person is assigned only one task.
3. Each task must be performed by only one assignee.

55
 4. There is a cost cij associated with the assigned i (i = 1, 2, ..., n) that performs the
task j ( j 1, 2, ... , n).
5. The objective is to determine how the n assignments should be made to
minimize total costs.

The assignment model can be solved directly as a normal model.

of transport. However, the fact that all offers and demands are

equal to 1, led to the development of a simple solution algorithm

called Hungarian method.

2.5.2 Initial feasible basic solution.
In Linear Programming, a Basic Feasible Solution (BFS) is one that also
of belonging to the feasible region or area of the problem can be represented through
of a feasible solution in the application of the Simplex Method satisfying the
non-negativity conditions.
In this context, a feasible basic solution will correspond to one of the vertices.
of the feasibility domain whose coordinate or solution can be represented as
through a set of active constraints for the model.
A feasible basic solution is a basic solution with all variables non-negative
equal to 0. Graphically, it is referring to the extreme points of the region.
Feasible It will have at least n-m variables equal to zero and all will be greater than or equal to.
to zero

2.5.3 Optimality test.

To determine if the current basic solution is optimal, equation (0) is used to
rewrite the objective function in terms only of the non-basic variables
current.

Z = 30 + 3x1 - 5x4/2

Increasing the value of any of these non-basic variables (with the adjustment of the
values of the basic variables so that they still comply with the system of
(equations) means moving to one of the two feasible basic solutions.
adjacent. Since x1 has a positive coefficient, increasing it leads to a solution
feasible adjacent basic that is better than the current solution, so this is not
optimal.

56
In general terms, the current basic feasible solution is optimal if and only if all
the non-basic variables have non-positive coefficients (≤ 0) in the current form of
the objective function. This current form is obtained by changing the variables xj to the other side
right of the equation (0) currently after having converted all the equations
to the appropriate form of Gauss elimination [which eliminates the basic variables of
this equation]. Equivalently, the variables can be left on the side
left and then the optimality test consists of all the variables
non-basic variables have non-negative coefficients (≥ 0) in the current equation (0).

2.6 Inventory models.

Inventory models are methods that help reduce or minimize the
required inventory levels in production. There are several methods that provide us
they help achieve this objective, below are some of them.

ABC CLASSIFICATION It is a method for grouping items into 3 classes regarding

al valor total monetario, con el fin de identificar aquellos artículos que tienen el mayor
impact on inventory costs. Resolve, which item from a large
How many different items need to be checked more closely? In the
In reality, it is common to request hundreds and thousands of different items, such as, for example:
Medicines for a pharmacy, supplies for a university, etc. In such cases, the
Tracking thousands of items can often require excessive resources.
of time and work. The ABC classification is suitable in such situations since
allows to identify which of the various articles are the most important; according to
the costs involved.
Just In Time (JIT) model The objective, in this case, is to reduce or eliminate to a great extent
measure the inventory required in a production process. It is a system in which
that inventories are available only when they are needed.
Inventory models help us reduce the costs generated by having materials.
raw materials or articles that serve to carry out some process. They help us determine the
moment when an order should be placed and the quantity of product that should be
to ask

2.6.1 Concepts, terminology, and classification of the

inventories.

57
They are all the goods or tangible materials that are held for sale or to be
used in the production and sales process, at some moment or in the future of the
organization.
Classification of inventory models.
Independent demand:
Dependent demand:
Deterministic demand:
Probabilistic demand:
deficit
Time leader:
Discount
Nomenclature.
The cost of the order or organization: (K)
The purchase cost: (C)
The cost of conservation: (H)
Transfer rate: (I)
Cost of deficit:: (B)

EOQ Model (without stockouts). The Economic Order Quantity or Economic Order
Quantity, It is applicable when the demand for a product is constant throughout
the year and that each new order is delivered in full when the inventory arrives
at zero. The Economic Order Quantity basically seeks to find
the order amount that minimizes the total inventory cost of the
company.
EOQ model (with stockouts). This model is used when customers accept
delays, that is, when there are shortages, the affected customers expect that the
product is available again. Orders are fulfilled once they are
restock the inventory.
EOQ model with quantity discounts. Basically, this model is a
application of the general model (EOQ) without shortages, only that in this case, when
they acquire larger quantities of a good, suppliers offer discounts on
the value of the purchased unit.
LEP model (without gaps). The LEP model (economic production lot) is for
companies that are dedicated to producing their products and not just buying and
sell. That is why this model considers a production rate, which is
denoted by the letter R. It should be clarified that this production rate must be higher.
to the demand (R greater than d).

58
LEP model (with missing values). The LEP model with missing values (Economic Lot of
Production that allows for shortages) proposes that a maximum level is reached of
maximum production or inventory, then the inventory is consumed and once
Once the stock is depleted, production starts again. This model
suppose that the customer is willing to wait for a time during which the manufacturer
respond to your request and that a certain amount of missing items is accepted.

2.6.2 Classic model of the economic quantity of

order.
The EOQ model (Economic Order Quantity) consists of finding the point in
that the ordering costs and the holding costs are equal, so that
determine the inventory level and the optimal quantity to place an order.
It is based on 3 key assumptions: 1. That demand is constant and known.
priori; 2. That the frequency of inventory use is constant over time; 3. That
Orders are received at the exact moment when inventories run out.
With the EOQ model (Economic Order Quantity), the goal is to avoid
scarcity of stock and that the optimal order quantity is constant.

2.6.3 Deficit-free purchasing model.

To work on this model, a continuous production rate is assumed, which
allows for a constant replenishment of inventory over time
production. In this particular model, being a purchase, it is deduced that the
The article will not be produced but purchased or that an auxiliary material is needed.
used in production, but this element is purchased.

This model is also known as the economic order quantity model.

the economic order quantity (EOQ); it is one of the oldest inventory models and
known; it is based on hypotheses.

It is based on the following hypotheses:

The demand is constant and known.

The delivery time is constant and known.
The order arrives in a single batch and all at once.

59
 The costs of placing an order and the holding costs are
Constants and knowns.
Quantity discounts are not possible.
Inventory breakages are avoided.
It is not allowed to defer demand to the future.
With these hypotheses about the use of inventory over time, the graph
it has a sawtooth shape.

To work on this model, it is necessary to know some variables such as:

Q = Optimal quantity to purchase per order (EOQ).
D = Demand per unit of time.
Co = Cost per order the request.
Cm = Cost of maintaining one unit per year.
CTO = Total cost to place an order.
CTM = Total maintenance cost.
CT = Total cost of inventory.

The optimal order quantity will occur at the point where the cost per order a
order and storage costs are equal.

Cost total for (Annual demand / Optimal quantity) * Cost per

to arrange order
CTO = (D / Q) * Co
Cost total of
(Optimal quantity / 2) * Maintenance cost
maintenance
CTM = (Q/2) * Cm

Then the equalization process is carried out:

CTO=CTM
(D/Q)*Co=(Q/2)*Cm
2(D*Co)=Q(Q*Cm)
2DCo=Q^2 CM
Q^2=2DCMo/cM
Q = √(2DCo/Cm)

2.6.4 Purchase with deficit.

The following assumptions are required to work with this model:
Demand is constant and known.
The production rate is constant and known.

60
The order arrives in a single batch and all at once.
• The costs of placing an order, the holding costs, and the costs of
penalties and fixed costs are constants and known.
Quantity discounts are not possible.
It is allowed to defer demand to the future.

The inventory replenishment is done instantly.

It is necessary to know the following variables to work with:

Q = Cantidad óptima a comprar por pedido.

D = Demand per unit of time.
Co = Cost per ordering the order.
Cm = Cost of maintaining one unit per year.
CTO = Total cost to place an order.
CTM = Total maintenance cost.
Cv = Variable cost per unit.
Cp = Unit penalty cost per unit time.
d = Daily demand rate.
p = Daily production indicator.
Ct = Average total cost per unit of time.
CT = Total cost per unit of time.
The optimal quantity to order is obtained from the following formula:

Q = (2DCo Cp + Cm )/(CmCp)

Bibliography
TELLO, E. A. R. (2012). Conceptos básicos de Ingenierí[Link], México.
Pressman, R. S., & Troya, J. M. (1988). Software Engineering.

Von Bertalanffy, L. (1968). General Theory of Systems. New York, 3(1), 1.

Cathalifaud, M. A., & Osorio, F. (1998). Introduction to the basic concepts of the
general theory of systems. Möbius strip, (3).

Jarne, J. I. J., & Gadea, J. A. L. (1997). Classification and international evolution of

the systems. Madrid: AECA.

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Hernández Gaviño, R. (2010). Introduction to systems: concepts and
applications. Pearson Education.

QUIROZ, G. G. C., CEDEÑO, I., & DEL TRABAJO, F. D. E. CAREER OF

SYSTEMS ENGINEERING.

Carmona, D. H. (2011). General Theory of Systems: an approach to engineering

of systems 2nd Ed. [Link].

Castrillón, E. P. (2010). Las ciencias básicas en ingeniería de sistemas:Revista

education in Engineering,5(10), 74-84.

SAN CRISTÓBAL, D. H. SYSTEMS ENGINEERING.

Blanchard, B. S. (1995).Ingeniería de sistemas. Isdefe.

Pérez de Tudela, C. (1993). Importance of information. In Mapfre Seguridad (pp. 45-

52).

Felicísimo, A. M. (2000). Basic concepts, models, and simulation. Available at

Email address: www. etsimo. uniovi. es/~ feli/, visited on,5(20), 09.

Perugachi, M. L. (2004).Optimización de procesos(Vol. 48). Editorial Abya Yala.

Carmona, F. (2005). Modelos [Link]. Univ. de Barcelona, Barcelona.

Krick, Edward V. Introduction to Engineering and Engineering Design 2nd.

Edition, Limusa Publishing, Mexico, 1998, 240 pages.

Cárdenas, Miguel Ángel. The Systems Approach - Strategies for its

Implementation, 1st Edition, Limusa Editorial, Mexico, 1991, 165 pages.

Cárdenas, Miguel Ángel. Systems Engineering, Philosophy and Techniques

Ingeniería de Sistemas, 1a. Edición, Editorial Limusa, S. A. México, 1974, 293 págs.

Hall, A. Systems Engineering, 1st Edition, Continental Editorial Company, S.A., Mexico,
1983, 580 págs.

62
Gerez Víctor: El Enfoque de Sistemas, 1a. edición, Editorial Limusa, México, 1976,
580 pages.

Corzo, Miguel Ángel Introducción a la Ingeniería de Proyectos, 1a Edición, 6a.

Reprint, Limusa Publishing, 1982, 225 pages.

Jaufred M. Francisco, Optimization Methods, 1st Edition, Representations and

Engineering Services S. A. Mexico. 1975, 720 pages.

Thierauf, Robert. Decision Making Through Research

Operaciones, 1a. Edición, Editorial Limusa. México, 1972., 558 págs.

Shamblim, James. Investigación de Operaciones, un Enfoque Fundamental, 1a

Edition, Editorial Mc. Graw Hill, Colombia 1978, 422 pages.

Rios Insua, Sixto Linear Programming and Applications, Alfa Omega Publishing, Mexico,
1998, 418 pages.

Wayne L. Winston, Investigación de Operaciones, 4ª Edición, Editorial Thompon,

Mexico, 2005, 1418 pages.

Mokhtar, Bazaraa, and others, Linear Programming and Network Flow, Noriega Publishing.
Mexico, 2003, 879 pages.

Graphic Method (task).

The graphic method is a problem-solving technique.
linear programming that is mainly used for cases with two
variables. Although it is not very practical for a large number of variables,
it is very useful for interpreting and analyzing the results and sensitivity of
problem. However, in cases where a greater number is required
variables, it is possible to use other techniques such as projection in a
plan.
The graphical method is based on the graphical representation of the constraints.
of the linear programming model, which allows determining the polygon
solution or feasible region. According to the fundamental theorem of the

63
linear programming, if there is a solution that satisfies the constraints
of the model, it will be found at one of the vertices of the feasible region.

64
 Exercise 2.

. = 180x1+ 250x2
S.a. 1+ 150x2≤ 3500(1) For (4):
20x2≤ 1800(2)
0.5x2= 120
50x1-120x2greater than or equal to -190(3)
2= 240
0.5x2= 120(4)
1, 2greater than or equal to zero 1= 0

For (1): Graphing:

1+ 150x2≤ 3500

1= 0
150 x2 = 3500
223.33

2= 0

1 = 3500

For (2):
20x2≤ 1800 There is no point or feasible area.

2= 90

1= 0

For (3):
50x1-120x2greater than or equal to -190

1= 0
-120x2equal to negative one hundred ninety

21.58

2= 0
50x1= -190

1= 3.8

65
 Exercise 1.

. = 300x1+ 150x2 Graphing:

S.a. 2x1+ 3x2≤ 150 (1)

2x1+ 0.5x2greater than or equal to -50(2)
2x2<= 250 (3)
1, 2≥ 0

For (1):
2x1+ 3x2≤ 150

1= 0
3x2= 150

2= 50

2= 0 The point E(-112.5,125) represents the

2x1= 150 maximum, then:

1= 75 Z = 300x1+ 150x2
(
= 300-112.5 )
( =) -150000
+ 150125
For (2):
2x1+ 0.5x2greater than or equal to -50

1= 0
0.5x2= -50

2-100

2= 0
2x1= -50

1= -25

For (3):
2x2≤ 250

2= 125

1= 0

5
 Exercise 3.
1= 11.67
. = 450x1-300x2
S.a. 150x1− 160x2≥ 280(1) For (4):
−120x1= 290 (2)
-25x2= 180
30x1+ 120x2≤ 350(3)
2= 7.2
-25x2= 180(4)
1, 2≥ 0 1= 0
For (1): Graphing:

150x1-160x2≥ 280

1= 0
-160 x2 = 280
2= -1.75

2= 0
150 x1= 280

11.87

For (2): There is no point or feasible area.

−120x1290

2= 0

1equals negative two point four two

For (3):
30x1+ 120x2<= 350

1= 0
120x2= 350

2= 2.92

2= 0
30x1= 350

6
 Exercise 4.
2= -1.5
. = 30x1- 25x2 2= 0
S.a. 20x1-35x2greater than or equal to 65(1) 125x1= -300
−35x1+ 12x2≤ 180(2)
1-2.4
125x1+ 200x2-300(3)
180x2≤ 350(4)
1, 2>= 0 For (4):

For (1): 180x2≤ 350

20x1− 35x2≥ 65 21.94

1= 0 1= 0

-35 x265 Graphing:

2= -1.86

2= 0
20 x1= 65

1= 3.25

For (2):
-35x1+ 12x2≤ 180
There is no feasible point or area.
1= 0
12 x2= 180
2= 15

2= 0
−35 x1= 180

1= -5.14
For (3):
125x1+ 200x2-300

1= 0
200x2= -300

7
 Exercise 5.

. = 25x1+ 30x2 For (4):

S.a. -15x1+ 35x2<= 150(1) 20x2less than or equal to -35

20x2<= 200(2)
2-1.75
2x1-3x2greater than or equal to -180(3)
1= 0
20x2less than or equal to -354
1, 2greater than or equal to 0
Graphing:

For (1):
-15x1+ 35x2≤ 150

1= 0
35 x2= 150
24.29

2= 0
−15 x1= 150

1= -10 There is no point or feasible area:

For (2):
20x2<= 200

2= 10

1= 0
For (3):
2x1-3x2greater than or equal to -180

1= 0
-3x2equals negative one hundred eighty

2= 60

2= 0
2x1= -180

1= -90

8
 Exercise 6.
0.5x2= 4
. = 3x1+ 2x2 2= 8

S.a. -3x1+ 2x2≤ 12(1) 2= 0

-4x1≥ 10(2)
1= 4
3x2= 8(3)
Graphing:
1+ 0.5x2greater than or equal to 4(4)
1, 2greater than or equal to 0

For (1):
-3x1+ 2x2<= 12

1= 0
2 x212
2= 6

2= 0
-3x1= 12

1= -4

For (2): There is no point or feasible area:

-4x1greater than or equal to 10

2= 0

1-2.5

For (3):
3x2= 8

2 2.67

1= 0

For (4):

1+ 0.5x2greater than or equal to 4

1= 0

9
 Exercise 7.
2= 0
. = -0.5x1+ 2x2 3x1= 10
S.a.4x1+ 2greater than or equal to 8(1) 1= 3.33
0.5x1+ 2x2<= 6(2)
Graphing:
3x1+ 4x2= 10(3)
1, 2greater than or equal to 0

Paragraph (1):

4x1+ 2≥ 8

1= 0

2= 8

2= 0
4 x1= 8

1 =2
Feasible point: (1.69,1.23)

For (2): Z = -0.5x1+ 2x2

( 2 1.23
-0.5 1.69+ ) ( )
0.5x1+ 2x2≤ 6 1.615

1= 0
2x2= 6

2= 3

2= 0
0.5x1= 6

1= 12
For (3):
3x1+ 4x2= 10

1= 0
4x2= 10
22.5

10
 Exercise 8.
Graphing:

. = 2x1+ 4x2
S.a. 1+ 2x2≤ 8(1)
3x1+ 2<= 6(2)
3x2≥ 3(3)
− 1less than or equal to 3(4)
1, 2greater than or equal to 0

For (1):

1+ 2x2<= 8

1= 0

2= 4
There is no feasible area.
2= 0

1= 8

For (2):
3x1+ 2≤ 6

1= 0

2= 6

2= 0
3x1= 6

1= 2
For (3):
3x2greater than or equal to 3

2= 1

1= 0

11
 Exercise 9.
2= 8
. = -3x1+ 2x2 2= 0
S.a. -3x1+ 2x2<= 8(1) 1= 4
-4x1less than or equal to 10(2)
Graphing:
3x2= 8(3)

1+ 0.5x2≤ 4(4)
1, 2greater than or equal to 0

For (1):
-3x1+ 2x2≤ 8

1= 0

2= 4

2= 0
-3x1= 8
There is no feasible area.
1= -2.67

For (2):
-4x1<= 10

2= 0

1-2.5

For (3):
3x2= 8

2= 2.67

1= 0

For (4):

1+ 0.5x2≤ 4

10

12