Methods of teaching and learning English

The questions to be discussed:

4.1. Distinction between the main categories of methodology.

4.2. Communicative language teaching and learning.
4.3. Linguo-cultural teaching and learning.
4.4. Methods of FL teaching and learning.
4.5. Age groups for choice of methods in teaching process.

Key terms: methodical categories, approach, method, technique,

technology as a procedure, instruction, principle, communicative
language teaching and learning, co-teaching and co-learning, linguo-
cultural teaching and learning, thesaurus, the second language
personality, linguo-cultural competence, interactive learning, learner-
centered learning, cooperative learning, content-based learning, task-
based learning, accuracy, fluency, age groups.

Distinction between the main categories of

methodology

In determination of methods, the distinction between «philosophy

of language teaching at the level of theory and principles and a set of
derived procedures for teaching a language, is central»1. Although
these categories of methodology is often mixed.
E.Antony2 identified three levels of conceptualization and
organization, which he named approach, method and technique.
According to his model: approach is the level at which assumptions
and beliefs about language and language learning are specified;
method is the level at which theory is put into practice and at which
choices are made about particular skills to be taught, the content to be
taught, and the order in which the content will be presented; technique
is a level at which classroom procedures are described.

1
Richards J.C., Rodgers Th. S. Approaches and Methods in Language Teaching. Second ed. -Cambridge:
CUP, 2002. -P.19.
2
Antony (1963:63-67), cited in the book: Richards J.C., Rodgers Th. S. Approaches and Methods in
Language Teaching. Second ed. -Cambridge: CUP, 2002.
 Approach is considered to be the theory about the feature of
language and language learning that stands as the source of practices
and principles in language teaching. [Link] and [Link]
present linguistic and psycholinguistic aspects of approach, as
follows:
a) theory of language which has three different theoretical views
of language and nature of language proficiency: the structural,
functional and interactional view;
b) theory of language learning which associates with a method at
the level of approach emphasizing either one or both of these
dimensions: process oriented and condition oriented theories3.

The second level at which approaches and methods are treated is

a design and it is a dimension specially developed for an instructional
system which leads an approach to a method.

At this level of method analysis objectives, language content,

learning tasks and teaching activities, role of students, role of teachers
and role of instructional materials are designated.

And the third level of approach and methods analysis as procedure

is concerned with how the tasks and activities are integrated into
lessons and used as a basis for teaching and learning.

Thus, methods are held to be fixed in teaching systems with

prescribed techniques and practices, whereas approaches represent
language teaching philosophies that can be interpreted and applied in
a variety of different ways in the classroom.
Method can be distinguished according to the teaching and
learning context and it is used in wide context (Communicative
language teaching) and narrow context (project work, problem-
solving, brainstorming).

3
Richards J.C., Rodgers Th. S. Approaches and Methods in Language Teaching. Second ed. -Cambridge:
CUP, 2002. -P.19.
 Approach and method are based on the principles as initial
theoretical points.
Procedure itself includes task, techniques and activities. Tasks and
activities can be considered as exercises.

Technique is a way for a teacher to organize a learner’s activity.

Through techniques we develop in learners productive, receptive and
interactive skills that are necessary for effective communication.

Technology is meant as a procedure of teaching and learning FL

in the classrooms. By technology of teaching we understand the
complex or system including algorithm of operations and actions and
ways of acquiring the content of FLT for achievement the result of
FLT/ FLL as a certain level of communicative competence.

Pedagogical technology is the systematic method of creation,

application and determination of the FLT process and acquiring the
knowledge with the help of technical and human resources and their
interaction for the goals of optimizing the forms of education.
Technology can be manifested also at the level of operations and
actions in the teaching and learning process.
In methodology the following technologies are distinguished:
- illustrative;
- dialogic;
- playing;
- problem-solving;
- project;
- case study;
- information-communication.
But we can meet and other classifications in methodology of FLT.

Communicative language teaching and learning

Communicative language teaching/learning (CLT/ CLL) can be
interpreted in many different ways and used to describe a wide variety
of classroom procedures, because it refers to a diverse set of rather
general and uncontroversial principles. We sum principles pointed by
J.C. Richards4 and basic characteristics of this approach in the Table
4. It is worth to compare their correspondence between two columns.

Table 4. Principles and basic characteristics of CLT/CLL

Principles of CLT/CLL Basic characteristics of CLT/CLL

1. The general goal of 1. An emphasis on learning to
language learning is communicate through interaction in the
communicative competence. target language.
2. Learners learn a language 2. The introduction of authentic texts
through using it to into learning situation.
communicate. 3. The provision of opportunities for
3. Authentic and meaningful learners focus, not only on the language
communication should be the but also on the learning process itself.
goal of classroom activities. 4. An enhancement of the learner’s own
4. Fluency and accuracy are personal experiences as an important
both important dimensions of contributing element to classroom
communication. learning.
5. Communication involves 5. An attempt to link classroom
the integration of different language learning with language
language skills. activation outside the classroom.
6. Learning is a gradual 6. Contextualization as a basic premise
process that involves trial and and linguistic variation is a central
errors. concept in materials and methods.
7. Fluency as acceptable language is a
primary goal: accuracy is judged not in
the abstract but in context5.

Communicative approach is dominant one in teaching L2 and FL

instruction and it emphasizes that language is best learned by using the
communicative meaning, rather than focusing on explicit learning
grammar and vocabulary, especially at schools.
The concept of communicativeness meets the needs of students
and presents objectives, content and methods as a prevalent basis of
the CEFR, being the accepted framework in the field of language

4
Richards J.C. (n.d.) 30 years of TEFL/TESL: A Personal reflection. - Singapore: SEAMEO Regional
Language Centre.
5
English4room/info/.
teaching and learning; makes it possible to facilitate communication
and interaction among students in order to promote students’ mobility.
The following types of learning are associated with the
Communicative Approach:
1. Interactive Learning: This concept goes right to the heart of
communication itself, stressing the dual roles of «receiver» and
«sender» in any communicative situation. Learning through
interaction is proposed as alternative to learning through repetition and
habit formation. Interaction and negotiation of meaning are seen as
central of learning through tasks that require attention to meaning,
transfer of information, and pushed output. The concept of interactive
learning entails to be a lot of pair and group work in the classroom, as
well as genuine language input from the «real world» for meaningful
communication.
2. Learner-centered Learning: This kind of instruction involves
the giving over of some «power» in the language learning process to
the learners themselves. It also strives to allow for personal creativity
and input from the learners, as well as taking into account their
learning needs and objectives. Learner-centered curricula are designed
by considering the needs and interests of students, and process-
oriented syllabuses which center on procedures, tasks and content.
3. Cooperative/Collaborative Learning essentially involves
students learning from each other in groups. It has been comprised as
a way of encouraging communicative instruction in the classroom and
is seen as a stretch of the procedures of CLT. It is viewed as a learner-
centered approach offering the advantages over teacher-fronted
classroom methods, fostered competition rather than cooperation and
favored majority of students. The concept of this type of learning
stresses the «team» like nature of the classroom and emphasizes
cooperation as opposed to competition. Learners share information
and try to achieve their learning goals in a group. Within this approach
teachers teach students collaborative or social skills so that they can
work together more effectively.
4. Content-based Learning as an instruction in which teaching is
arranged around the content of information that students will acquire.
It joins language learning to content/subject matter and engages them
both concurrently. Special information provides natural content for
language instruction. Language is seen as a tool or medium for
acquiring knowledge about other things, instantly proving its
usefulness. An important factor in this kind of learning is that the
content itself determines what language items need to be mastered, not
the other way around. When learners study math or science using
English as the medium, they are more intrinsically motivated to learn
more of the language.
5. Task-based Learning: This type of learning proposes tasks as
useful vehicles and instruction in FLT. This concept equates the idea
of a «learning task» to a language learning technique in itself. This
could be a problem solving activity or a project, but the task should
have a clear objective, appropriate content, a working/application
procedure, and a set range of outcomes. As learners work to complete
a task, they have abundant opportunity to interact. During interaction
they facilitate language acquisition, they get to listen to the language
which may be beyond their present ability, but which may be
assimilated into their knowledge of the target language for use at a
later time.
As with content-based instruction, a task-based approach aims to
provide learners with a natural context for language use. One way of
attaining the focus on meaning is through content- or theme-based
instruction, and contemporary teaching approaches such as content-
based and task-based ones which are all applications of the
communicative approach at vocational colleges.
Content and language integrated learning presupposes to enhance
learners’ linguistic competence thanks to a higher amount of a target
language exposure. Among most favorably influenced by this kind of
learning is the learner’s lexicon. Through receiving FL input in
different content subjects learners acquire more profound knowledge
and specialized terminology for their future profession. But we should
take into consideration that at vocational colleges we teach 1) general
English and 2) specialized English. At the same time content-based
instruction is aimed to use of socially oriented themes, represents an
effort to link students with the world in which students live. That’s
why this instruction can also be used in teaching/learning English at
academic lyceums too.
 Linguo-cultural teaching and learning

For the effective intercultural communication learners should

know both the language and culture. Lack of knowledge of cultural
specifics has a negative impact on understanding between the
representatives of different cultures. That’s why, in ELT the co-
teaching and co-learning the language and culture is implemented.
Co-teaching/co-learning language and culture focus on values and
beliefs, on one hand, and attitudes and behaviors, on the other. In fact
a social or cultural blunder can be far more serious than a linguistic
error when one is engaged in oral communication. Even when good
cultural descriptions are available, it is hard to get learners to change
their native verbal behavior based on a new set of assumptions.
There are social contextual factors, stylistic appropriateness and
cultural factors6 which influence the norms and conventions of
intercultural communication: 1) social contextual factors: the
participants’ age, gender, status, social distance and their relations to
each other (e.g. Distance of power and affect); 2) stylistic
appropriateness: politeness strategies, a sense of genres and registers;
3) cultural factors: background knowledge of the target language
group, major dialects/regional differences, and cross cultural
awareness.
Nowadays, the most accepted instructional framework in the co-
teaching and learning programms is communicative approach, whose
main goal is to increase learners’ communicative competence. This
theoretical term means being able to use the linguistic system
effectively and appropriately in the target language and culture.
However, it is also demands integrating culture-oriented instruction.
One of the variants of culture-oriented approaches is linguo-cultural
teaching and learning.
A language is a means of communication and a form of culture.
That’s why linguo-cultural approach matches many of the goals of
Communicative Language Teaching by seeking: 1) an integration of
linguistic and cultural learning to facilitate communication and
interaction; 2) the potential co-teaching/co-learning language and
6
Celce-Murcia M. Rethinking the Role of Communicative Competence in Language Teaching/ Soler
E.A., Safond Jorda M.P. (eds). Intercultural Language Use and Language Learning. -Springer, 2007. -P.46.
culture to prepare learners to communicate with the representatives of
the native speakers and non-native speakers in English in an
appropriate way. English has become an international language or a
lingua franca (language-mediator), that’s why the bounds of usage the
EL have been extended.
From the position of linguists the linguo-cultural approach is
directed to study the current condition and functioning of a language
and culture in the close interrelation in the different types of
discourse7. This approach to FLT gives an opportunity to interpret the
language meaning as a result of cultural experience or as units of
cultural memory of people8.
Linguo-cultural teaching and learning is based on the formula
«from language facts to culture facts; from culture facts to language
facts» and directed at developing the «second language personality»
and the certain communicative skills which are necessary for
undertaking the intercultural interaction. This approach presupposes to
study the national-cultural features and differences between the target
and native languages and aims for developing an intercultural/cross-
cultural competence where the thesaurus of lexicon and thesaurus of
conceptual world picture of the native speakers are to develop. So,
teaching EL integrates itself teaching culture as a set of beliefs, values
and norms shared by community members, serving their self-identity
with this social group. This competence related to cultural awareness
and influenced the productivity of intercultural communication. The
result of developing the «second language personality» is a set of
knowledge, abilities and skills for productive undertaking of
intercultural communication.
Under the linguo-cultural approach the culture becomes the means
of cognitive activity and language itself is a means of receiving new
information about world picture of the English language speakers.
Linguo-cultural teaching and learning is implemented through
content-based and context-based language instruction. Content-based
teaching of culture focuses on culture-related information, while
context-based instruction emphasizes real-world situations where

7
Воробьев В.В. Лингвокультурология. – М.: РУДН, 2008; Маслова В.А. Лингвокультурология. -
М.: Академия, 2007.
8
Красных В.В. Этнопсихолингвистика и лингвокультурология. - М.: Гносис, 2002. -C. 36.
people need to behave in culturally appropriate way. Content-based
teaching is knowledge-oriented and context-based instruction is skill-
oriented.
The linguo-cultural aspect runs through all components of
communicative competence, which includes: 1) cultural knowledge
and its representations in language units’ meaning and texts; 2) skills
for comprehension of linguo-cultural information within the language
units and texts; 3) skills to produce texts taking into consideration the
linguo-cultural features.
Within integrating communicative and linguo-cultural teaching
and learning (taking the linguo-cultural component as a point of
departure) a variety of activities in the four language skills are
presented for teaching intercultural communication.
No doubt, that an extended living experience among members of
the target language group is probably the best experience for language
acquisition if the learner has adequate basic preparation in both
linguistic and socio-cultural competence coupled with good power of
observation9. In this case the native speaker may become as a model
that is implicit in both the linguistic and sociolinguistic competences.

4.4. Methods of FL teaching

In methodology of FLT the different approaches are used to

distinguish methods. They can be classified according to different
criteria.
1. According to the sources of information (sources transmission
and acquiring the knowledge): 1) verbal methods – lecture,
conversation, explanation; 2) method of working with a book –
working on textbook, reading additional literature, preparation of
messages, abstracts; 3) method of observation, experiment; 4)
methods of exercises and practice – practical experience of learners.
2. According to the quality parameters, as particular features of
cognitive process, they are: 1) explanative-illustrative method; 2)
reproductive method; 3) problem-recount method; 4) partly-searching
method; 5) research.
9
Celce-Murcia M. Rethinking the role of Communicative Competence in language Teaching/ Soler E.A.,
Safond Jorda M.P. (eds). Intercultural language Use and Language Learning. -Springer, 2007. -P.46.
 3. In agreement with specifics of FLT and its action-oriented
character there are methods of teaching: 1) demonstration
(presentation); 2) explanation; 3) practice (training); 4) feedback and
self-control.
4. The methods of interaction between a teacher and learners
oriented to the FLT in the aspect of organization are: 1) familiarization
of the teaching material on the basis of visual-sensory perception; 2)
independent comprehension of teaching material and operations with
it; 3) practice for production of speech; 4) practice for reception of
speech; 5) motivational production of oral and written speech; 6)
motivational reception of oral and written speech; 7) control,
correction and evaluation of speech acts in a productive aspect; 8)
control, correction, evaluation of speech acts in a receptive aspect.
These methods demonstrate the interaction between a teacher and
learners: a teacher (or textbook) organizes the algorithm of operations
and actions, and learners implement them. These methods related to
the general didactic methods reflect the specificity of EL as a subject
and levels of FL acquisition. But at the same time they bring the
dominant idea, for instance, method of observation or explanative-
illustrative method. They are tools which can be used consecutively
while working on the new material. If we use visual aids, motivational
strategies, various situational contexts, during the presentation of new
material, then learners will better percept, comprehend and remember
the new material.
These methods put together a hierarchical system; they are in
collateral subordination; a learner moves from step of familiarization
to comprehension, then to training and to using, i.e. to communication.
As well as in teaching process it is necessary to undertake an
assessment for effective gaining accuracy and fluency by learners. For
this aims various ways (methods) are used.

4.5. Age groups for choice of methods in teaching process

It is important for teachers to get acquainted with current

instructional methods and their underlying principles as well as
effective classroom techniques, materials, and assessment strategies
appropriate to a certain stage depending on the learners’ age group.
 «Age» can be seen as a learner variable, a contextual
consideration that can be rated alongside knowing «who» exactly your
students are, and «where» and «why» they are learning English as
foreign language. While it would perhaps be rash to say that this or
that specific method matches this or that specific age group of learners,
there are definitely general considerations for various age groups that
ought to encourage teachers to be mindful/selective of the kinds of
teaching methods and techniques they use according to the age of their
students. Features of age groups and stages of education are presented
in the Table 5.
We need to compare them in the aspect of opportunities for the
ELT intellectual development.
Each approach and method put into practice will be shaped at least
by the teacher, the students, the conditions of instruction, and the
broader socio-cultural context. A particular method cannot be
participation for success for everyone.

Table 5. Age group of learners

Stage of
Age groups of learners
education
1. Young Learners: It is well-known that children (ages
5-12) are very much orientated in their minds around the
«here and now» and directly visible/perceivable
environment. Grammatical rules/explanations are usually
lost on them, as are somewhat «adult» notions of what is
correct and what isn't. They develop well when given Pre-school
plenty of examples and patterns to follow. They tend to and primary
have a much shorter attention span and need activities that education.
capture their immediate interest. They also need much in 1-6 forms.
the way of «sensory input» - that is, they need to have
many or all of their five senses stimulated at once. While
generally less inhibited than adults in terms of
experimenting with new language, they tend to have more
fragile egos and can be very sensitive to their peers.
2. Teenagers: The ages 12-18 coincide with a time of Secondary
rapid transition and change, both mentally and physically. education.
As teenagers begin to develop more cognitive ability, they 7-9 forms.
 can be exposed to language learning techniques that Special
require more logical and/or abstract thinking. Attention secondary
span begins to lengthen, but there are also more education -
distractions of an emotional nature. Probably the most academic
important considerations for these learners are «affective» lyceum and
ones. Issues to do with ego and self-esteem are at their vocational
height, and teenagers can be incredibly sensitive to the college
ways others see their physical, mental and emotional students.
development. Real or perceived errors can shatter
confidence and detract from risk-taking. Teachers of
teenagers need to be able to find ways to draw on and
develop cognitive, analytical and logic skills, whilst being
constantly mindful of feedback techniques and confidence
building strategies.
3. Adults: Teachers of adults need to bear in mind that
these learners have longer attention spans and can handle
learning that requires more cognition and abstract
Higher
thinking. They tend to respond well to the teaching of
education.
grammatical rules. They may not be as willing to be «risk-
takers», and generally need to feel respected and that they
have a «choice-making» role in the classroom.

First of all, choosing the method depends on the goal,

characteristic, age, and contents of the lesson. The English teacher may
choose from a wide range of methods such as conversation,
presentation, re-telling, translation, etc. An EL teacher might also
consider selecting from this range of methods.
For the 1-2 class learners at school the EL is presented, practiced
and learned through speaking and listening. For these learners
effective classroom strategies are traditionally involved as using plays,
songs, rhymes and stories with repeated language structures. One way
to capture young children under 7-8 years attention and keep them
engaged in activities is to supplement the activities with lots of brightly
colored visuals, toys, puppets, or objects to match the stories that a
teacher tells or songs that a teacher sings. These can also help make
the language comprehensible and can be used for follow-up activities,
such as retelling stories or guessing games. Listening and drawing the
pictures (animals) is a very effective method for teaching young
children in the English classrooms. It is successful to move smoothly
from one activity to another; one activity can be only for 5-10 minutes.
The goal of all early language education (1-4 forms) should be to
hook pupils when they are young and keep them interested in learning
English for the rest of their lives. So, the goals of English instruction
for young learners should be to: 1) make children feel competent and
confident while learning English; 2) provide a safe, entertaining, and
educational environment: 3) create basis for life-long learning English.
ELT at colleges is organized within content-based and task-based
instructions. The methods which are used at college: analysis and
reading the specialized texts, working with terms, problem-solving,
clustering, grouping, matching, etc. Word- problem activity can be
built around almost any theme.
The audio/video means can be used in teenager groups at schools,
academic lyceums and colleges. Diligently used, they help teachers
assure themselves that their students perceive intonation and
pronunciation easier, and understand English leisurely by hearing it.
Students’ reading may be corrected handier. Explanations may be
offered to learners while they are watching a certain video material on
the topic. While watching a film or a documentary they have the
chance to hear native speakers talking. Students can also write a
dictation (recorded on tape). Literary passages may be recorded and
after the learners have heard them, they comment or analyze them, etc.
When it comes strictly to video materials, we can distinguish between
before-watching activities, while-watching activities, and after-
watching activities. Including all these in a lesson, working with the
video images becomes really productive and offers learners the
possibility to broaden both their cultural horizon and their knowledge.

Questions:

1. What differences can be pointed out between approach and

method?
2. Can we say that technology is the same as method or not?
3. What principles of FLT do you know?
4. Why is CLT a dominant and effective approach in FLT? How
is language viewed?
 5. Can you interpret Linguo-cultural teaching and learning?
6. What criteria are used for distinguishing methods?
7. What kind of methods are used for organization of the new
material?
8. Can we use the same methods in all stages of education?

Tasks:

1. Think of types of EL learning. What difference between them

have you found out?
2. Tell about factors connected with communicate adequately
norms and convention of intercultural communication?
3. Discussion on the topic: «Communication is a process». Explain
the notion «to negotiate meaning».
4. Work in the small groups on the topic: «Instructions are suitable
to ELT at school/lyceum/college».

Independent work:

1. Read the text and think of the issues connected with the
communicative approach.
Communicative teaching language is widely used all over the
world. A brief description of CLT is value-laden and direct
transposition of this method and its principles carry the ideological
value about choice, freedom, and equality that are not universal.
According to P.N. Sullivan, Western values are reflected not only in
principles of CLT but also in common CLT classroom activities and
practices10, such as pair and group work, and information gap
activities. For mentality of learners from Eastern and Asian countries
freedom of choice and equality and others in the EL classrooms are
not appropriate. Effective classroom activities are not necessarily pair
and group work in information gap activities, but activities that fit the
students’ discourse styles. Depending on the cultural, or even the
physical setting, a teacher can use tasks, pair and small group learning

10
Sullivan P.N. Playfulness as mediation in communicative language teaching in a Vietnamese
classroom/ In: Socio-cultural theory and second language learning. Eds. J.R. Lantolf . -Oxford: OUP, 2000.
-P.115-132.
or the whole class format. Often a combination of the three or two is
appropriate.
«Communicative language teaching methods designed to enhance
the interpretation, expression, and negotiation of meaning continue to
be explored and adapted»11. That’s why, the CLT needs to be adapted
to fit local context, local teachers in many EL settings may also need
reexamine some of their traditional beliefs and assumptions about
language teaching and learning. Embedded in communicative
approach to teaching is a belief in humanistic and communicative
nature of language, which is not always in accordance with traditional
views.
2. Read and compare cognitive-acting approach with linguo-
cultural teaching and learning. Think about the levels of the cognitive
process.

Cognitive-action approach

Cognitive-action approach presupposes the language as a means

of cognitive activity which is functioning at two levels: 1) cognitive
level connected with the thinking (intellectual) operations; 2) action-
oriented level connected with the process of production and
comprehension of various discourses. That’s why cognitive level is the
library of meanings and the action is the library of texts. From the
methodical point of view by the cognitive aspect we understand the
level of acquiring foreign codes, and action is the level of
communicative culture development.
Cognitive level includes thesaurus-1 related to the associative-
verbal net of the language that forms the language picture of the world,
the thesaurus-2 forms the conceptual (global) picture of the world
(EL native speakers).
Taking into consideration cognitive process in EL acquisition we
can point out the following levels: 1) the level of rules – realization of
the speech action in accordance with the rules; 2) the level of meaning
– understanding the meaning; 3) the level of speech activity – scheme
of production of the utterances; 4) cultural level – understanding the
11
Savignon S.J. Communicative Curriculum Design for the 21-st Century// J. English Teaching Forum.
2002, 40 (1). -P 2.
social and cultural context; 5) cognitive level – understanding the
cognitive strategies for the speech production and having opportunity
to evaluate the language and speech levels himself/herself.

THEME 12. ERROR CORRECTION AND FEEDBACK

The questions to be discussed:

1. Mistakes, errors, and feedback

2. Error correction in foreign language teaching.
3. Error corrections and feedbacking
4. The role does feedback and correction play in language teaching
5. Types of feedback for correcting errors?
-- Mistakes --------- are slips which students can correct themselves once
the mistake has pointed out them. They are not common among most
students.

-- Errors -------- mistakes which students can not correct themselves and
which need explanation.
-- When responding to errors teachers should be seen as providing
feedback, helping students to reshape their knowledge rather than telling
students off because they are wrong.
--- Teachers’ reactions towards their students’ errors (You are not a bad
teacher)
An 'error', however, is more formal and it happens when that person does not
have the proper knowledge do something. So, they cannot correct it. They need
guidance. Check out the following examples:
I think everyone has seen the 'error 404' when using the internet.
Grammatical errors are ones that students don't know how to correct.
 Similarities
Both refer to doing something the wrong way. For instance:
With all my past mistakes, I'm still a respectable human being.
It is ok if you have grammatical errors.

Are They Interchangeable?

Although they both refer to doing something the wrong way, it is recommended
that you do not use them interchangeably because the listener will get confused. Look:
✓ When you go back to someone toxic and you know how toxic they are, you
no longer made a mistake, you made a choice.
X When you go back to someone toxic and you know how toxic they are, you
no longer made an error, you made a choice.

Correction

As mentioned previously, research has shown that correcting students’

grammar errors when they speak does not often result in improvement in their
grammatical accuracy.
Also, correction can disrupt communication and discourage learners. However,
error correction probably helps learners at least a little, not only because many
learners want and expect it but also because “negotiation for meaning, including the
repair of communication breakdown, plays a formative role in language acquisition.
. . . To achieve autonomy in a skill such as speaking, the learner first needs to
experience the mediation of a ‘better other,’ whether parent, peer, or teacher”. The
question thus becomes when and how to correct.
Correction is most called for when errors interfere with communication —
when you can’t understand what a student is trying to say. The disadvantages of
interrupting here are minimal because communication has already broken down, and
the student needs to know that the message is not getting through. Other kinds of
errors that are good candidates for correction include
1. Errors that are highly stigmatized and that might result in a student seeming
rude, offensive, or ignorant.
2. Frequent or patterned errors. For example, correcting occasional confusion
between countable and uncountable nouns is less important than correcting a
consistent, patterned failure to use plural forms.
3. Errors that reflect misunderstanding of a point that you have recently taught.
For example, the –s added to verbs used in conjunction with the third-person singular
pronoun (I go/you go/she goes) deserves more attention if you taught the point this
week than it might at other times.
FROM DON: I’m reminded of a young official at a bicycle registration station
in Guangzhou who led me into his office, filled out a form for me, then turned around
and, with a smile, said “Get out!” Sensing miscommunication, I suggested gently in
Chinese that get out was not entirely polite. He took this news in, pondered a minute,
brightened up, and said, “Get out, please!” ome students are put off less by correction
and learn more from it than other students, so part of the art of knowing when to
correct is being sensitive to how much intrusion the students can bear.
One form of correction you can use in class is the one used most often by native
speakers in natural conversation: a corrected repetition of the learner’s faulty
utterance (e.g., Student: “I like to listen radio.” Teacher: “Ah, you like to listen to the
radio.”). This kind of subtle correction disrupts communication less than directly
pointing out errors does, and students will eventually learn to listen for it; however,
unless you explicitly point out this habit to students as a form of correction, many
may miss these repetitions. A more direct approach to correction is to pinpoint the
error by interrupting and repeating the few words right before the mistake (e.g.,
Student: “And then I eated the food.” eacher: “And then I . . .”), giving the student a
chance to self-correct. This approach is appropriate for errors that are easy to correct
quickly.
 For either of the approaches mentioned above to work, your feedback needs to
come as soon as possible after the erroneous statement. If you restate an utterance or
call attention to an error immediately after it has been made, students are more likely
to be able to find the problem.
Delayed correction is often more obtrusive because when you remind students
of what they said wrong, they may mistake your reminder for the correction itself,
thus creating confusion and necessitating further explanation. Here’s an example:
Teacher: A minute ago you said “I like to listen radio.”
Student: I like to listen radio.
Teacher: No, no, you said “I like to listen radio,” but you should say “I like to
listen to the radio.”
Student: Pardon?
All too often in such cases, you can begin correcting the error only after the
student has been publicly convicted of making it, so it is usually better to let the error
go or make a note of it for later.
A final note on error correction: Many students have the mistaken
impression that all native speakers of English should and will correct mistakes;
in fact, we have heard students complain quite bitterly about native speakers
who fail to live up to this assumed obligation. You should let students know that
this is an unreasonable expectation for native speakers of any language. Most
people are not language teachers and do not engage in conversation for the
purpose of teaching language. Additionally, in many cultures, correcting other
people’s mistakes is considered rude. As noted, native speakers sometimes repeat
corrected versions of flawed utterances, but they generally correct or teach
overtly only when asked or when communication breaks down completely.
Students need to understand this because many believe that being surrounded
by native speakers who will overtly correct mistakes is the only way they can achieve
English-speaking success. Of course, being immersed in an English language
environment is very helpful to a learner, but not because of correction. The main
advantage of having such an environment is that it provides more opportunities for
practice and extensive English language input.
However, whether students are in an English-speaking environment or
not, they will only benefit from English input if they learn to attend to it and then
correct their own mistakes.
Error correction is a way to develop competence of language learners in a
second or foreign language. It can be used in order to attain conscious knowledge of
a second or foreign language, and in learning the language's rules.
Providing feedback and correcting errors to learners on their performance
is an important aspect of teaching. In the traditional educational environment
the errors made by the students are frequently corrected and given feedback
because the focus of classroom instruction is on accuracy.
Oral feedback often has the purpose of increasing the accuracy of learners'
utterances, whereas written feedback focuses on not only the accuracy of language
forms but also the overall quality of writing, including content, ideas, and
organization. There are different ways of providing corrective feedback.
Two types of feedback for correcting errors are feedback, implicit CF just gives
the learner a hint that his/her utterance contained an error, usually restating the
utterance with rising/falling intonation (e.g. recast), whereas in explicit CF, the
learner is made aware of the exact error he/she has made, usually with the correct
form being provided.
Evaluation
When considering evaluation of spoken skills, you should keep two goals in
mind. Obviously, one goal is to find out how well the students can speak. The second,
and perhaps more important goal, is the backwash that oral testing creates: Students
are most likely to practice speaking if you test oral skills. With speaking skills,
backwash is especially important to consider; because speaking skills are more
difficult to test than other language skills, many teachers neglect them.
 Interviewing is generally the best way to evaluate spoken skills, so we focus on
interviews here. However, complete reliance on interviewing may be impractical in
many situations, so we also briefly discuss other approaches to evaluation.
Interviews
Interviewing is the form of evaluation closest to actual conversation and has
excellent backwash on students. It also allows you a rare opportunity to focus on
individual students’ speaking skills in a situation where you can determine their level
of speaking skill relatively accurately. The main drawback of interviewing is that it is
very time-consuming, sometimes prohibitively so for large classes. Interviews are
often used as a pretest (and a chance to get to know the students at the beginning of a
course) and as a final examination.
Preparing for the Interview
The first step in preparation is deciding what exactly you are looking for.
Grammatical accuracy? Use of material taught in your course? Pronunciation?
Overall communicative skill? Your choices should flow naturally from the goals you
set for your course and the kinds of practice activities you have given your students.
The backwash will be stronger if you let students know well before the final exam
how they will be evaluated and how they should prepare.
Secondly, draw up a list of topics or questions, giving yourself an adequate
supply so that you need not use exactly the same ones with each student. Questions
should reflect
a range of difficulty so that you have easier questions for students at lower levels and
more challenging ones for those with more advanced skills. Open-ended questions are
best (e.g., “What do you think about. . . ?” “Tell me about. . . ?”) because they don’t
result in dead-end, yes/no answers; they also allow you to see how much students can
elaborate on a point, which is one indication of their level of speaking ability. Natural
questions for a pretest interview with students you don’t know would be questions
about their backgrounds, families, interests, and professions. For a final interview,
you might discuss issues raised during the course, other courses the student is taking,
or future plans.
 Many teachers draw up a marking chart to help them grade during the
interview. A simple chart consists of a list of the items you are looking for with a
point scale for each. Consider the following simple example below for a course in
which communicative effectiveness was stressed:

Sample Scoring Chart

Ability to express ideas 1 2 3 4 5
Range of topics 1 2 3 4 5
Listening comprehension 1 2 3 4 5
Intelligibility 1 2 3 4 5
In designing such a scale, make sure it clearly reflects the goals of the course
so that students are rewarded for doing what you have asked them to do. Though this
point may seem obvious, it is worth emphasizing because sometimes the skills you
have emphasized in your course are difficult to assess — and you may be tempted to
place more emphasis.

Questions:
1. What is error correction in foreign language teaching?

2. What is error corrections and feedbacking?

3. What role does feedback and correction play in language teaching?

4. What is error correction in teaching and learning process?

5. Why is error correction important in foreign language learning?

6. What are the types of error correction in teaching?

7. What are the two types of feedback for correcting errors?

8. What are the different types of error feedback?

Content of teaching
English
subject: TOM va TT
Students: Xoshimova Gulnoza, Muhammadjonova Gulrux
Content

• Content comes in all forms, whether it’s to inspire, entertain, ask

questions, state an opinion or tell a story. There’s more
to educational content strategy than handouts, books and
presentations — all in all, content can be a powerful educational
tool. There is a large online market catered toward English
learners, and you can benefit from providing customizable,
student-friendly materials that engage and help develop important
skills.
What is Educational Content?

• Education-focused content is content that is created by educators to engage,

inspire and inform their students. Gone are the days when students learned
from only a textbook and a lecture. Educational content is something that can
be creative and personalized to each learner’s needs.
As a whole, educational content is versatile, accessible, informational, and
should be created in a manner that helps you achieve your student’s learning
goals.
For example, educational content can be helpful for teaching students of all
ages the same topic and story. Say a mother and a son are learning English for
the first time, and you want to teach them about English sentence structure and
grammar phrases. You can easily modify your lesson plan for the young son to
learn your lesson by creating an interactive game. And to keep the messaging
consistent, the same lesson can be applied to the adult by showing them
examples of social media posts, text messages and even news articles.
•
Why is Teaching Content Important in
Education?

• The type of content you choose to introduce while educating

students is incredibly important; it can be the catalyst for growth
in a student's journey. Content in education adds more context to
lesson plans while showcasing various viewpoints and ideas.

Only the best structured content and information will turn the
novice learner into an expert, and the pressure relies on the
teachers to put their best foot forward when it comes to
developing the best lessons.
Why Should Teachers Present Students With
Different Content Methods?

• 1. To Cater to Different Student Learning Styles

• Students all have different styles of learning. This can mean that different students
likely learn in a multitude of ways. The different types of students may include:
• Visual learners: Those who learn by seeing the material.
• Auditory learners: Those who learn by hearing the material.
• Read-and-write learners: Those who learn by the repetition of reading and writing
the material.
• Kinesthetic learners: Those who learn by doing exercises to retain and understand
information.

The goal of teaching is ultimately for students to learn the material and retain it, so
teachers must present content in different ways in order to achieve this.
6 Types of Educational Content to Explore

• 1. Puzzles
• Puzzles are an entertaining way for kids to learn new concepts,
gain visual perception and develop confidence. Learning through
play is not only beneficial for academic achievement, but
it improves memory and stimulates brain growth. Plus, children
who are given options to play in between their academic studies
are more likely to pay attention and retain more information than
kids who don’t.
For English as a second language learners, puzzles are a fantastic
way to introduce vocabulary words and grammatical concepts.
• 2. Kid-Friendly News Articles
• It’s important to share the news with your children, no matter
their age! Some publications, like The New York Times, offer a kid-
friendly version of their paper that breaks down intricate concepts
in a way that children can grasp. This print-only option helps your
kids understand the world and is targeted toward readers ages 8-
13 years old.
• 3. Infographics
• Humans are visual learners. In fact, studies show that after three
days, a person will retain 65% of all visual information they have
seen, compared to only 10-20% of written or spoken information.
With this in mind, infographics can be the best of both worlds for
educational purposes, as they present information in a more visual
way. Plus, their creative nature makes it easy for brands to have
fun presenting data.