Control Unit
Chapter – 3
Q1. Define control unit .
The Control Unit (CU) is an important part of the CPU that controls the entire operation of the computer. It
reads the instructions stored in memory, decodes those instructions , and then sends the proper control
signals to other components like the ALU, memory, and input/output devices. In this way, the control unit
does not perform calculations itself but acts like a supervisor, guiding all parts of the computer to work
together in the correct sequence.
Q2. Define Microprogram and control memory.
Microprogram : A microprogram is a set of microinstructions stored in the control memory of the
CPU that tells the CPU how to execute each instruction step by step.
Control Memory: Control memory is a special memory inside the control unit that stores the
microprogram (a sequence of micro-instructions). It is used to generate the control signals needed to
execute machine instructions.
Q3. Define Microinstruction .
A microinstruction is the smallest instruction stored in the control memory.
It tells the CPU what signals to send to its parts (like ALU, registers, memory) in one step.
Many microinstructions together form a microprogram that runs a machine instruction.
A microinstruction = one small step that controls the CPU’s hardware during instruction execution.
Q4. Define dynamic Microprogramming .
Dynamic microprogramming is a method where the control memory of the CPU is made using RAM
(instead of ROM). This allows the microprograms (set of microinstructions) to be changed or updated
when needed.
Main Points:
Microinstructions are stored in RAM.
They can be changed or updated anytime.
This makes the CPU flexible (new instructions can be added).
Needs extra hardware, so it is more complex than static microprogramming.
Q5. Define pipeline register .
A pipeline register is a small storage inside the control unit.
It is used to hold the control signals (control word) while the CPU is executing one step.
At the same time, the next microinstruction is fetched from control memory.
This way, execution and fetching happen together, which makes the CPU faster.
To do this properly, the system usually needs a two-phase clock (one phase for execution, one for
fetching).
Q6. Define hardwired control unit and microprogrammed control unit
Hardwired Control Unit
A hardwired control unit is a control unit where the control signals are generated using combinational
logic circuits such as gates, decoders, and flip-flops. The sequence of operations is fixed in the hardware
design. It is very fast, but if we want to change the instruction set, the hardware itself must be redesigned,
which makes it less flexible.
Microprogrammed Control Unit
A microprogrammed control unit is a control unit where the control signals are stored in a special
memory called control memory in the form of microinstructions. Each instruction in the CPU is executed
by running a sequence of these microinstructions (a microprogram). It is slower than hardwired control but
more flexible, because new instructions can be added or modified by changing the microprogram without
altering the hardware.
Q7. Compare hardwared control unit and micro-programmed control unit.
What are the advantages and disadvantages of each method ?
Feature Hardwired Control Unit Microprogrammed Control Unit
Control signals are generated using logic Control signals are stored in control memory
Definition
circuits (gates, flip-flops, decoders). as microinstructions.
Slower (needs to fetch microinstructions from
Speed Very fast (no memory access needed).
memory).
Inflexible – hardware must be redesigned to Flexible – instruction set can be changed by
Flexibility
change instructions. updating microprogram.
Complexity Complex design for large instruction sets. Easier to design and maintain.
Use Mostly used in RISC processors. Mostly used in CISC processors.
Cheaper for complex systems (software-like
Cost Can be more costly due to complex hardware.
modification).
Advantages & Disadvantages Of Each Method
Hardwired Control Unit
✅ Advantages:
Very fast operation.
Good for simple, reduced instruction sets (RISC).
❌ Disadvantages:
Difficult to design and test.
Inflexible – changing the instruction set requires hardware changes.
Microprogrammed Control Unit
✅ Advantages:
Easy to design and maintain.
Flexible – instruction set can be modified by changing microprogram.
Supports complex instructions.
❌ Disadvantages:
Slower execution (extra memory access needed).
Needs more control memory.
Q8. Discuss design methods of Hardwired control unit.
Design Methods:
1. State Table Method
All possible states of instruction execution are listed in a table.
Each state shows:
What control signals are active.
What the next state will be.
Hardware is then built to move between these states.
2. Delay Element Method
Uses timing signals from delay elements, counters, or shift registers.
Each clock pulse moves the unit to the next step.
At each step, the required control signals are produce
3. Sequence Counter Method
A counter is used to keep track of steps in an instruction.
For each clock pulse, the counter increases by 1 → moves to the next step.
The decoder changes the counter value into the required control signals.
If we need a jump or branch, we load a new value into the counter (instead of just increasing it).
Q9. Explain basic concepts of micro-programmed control unit. What is
multiplier control unit?
The control unit controls how the CPU works. It gives control signals to registers, ALU, and buses.
In a microprogrammed control unit, these control signals are not made by hardware directly but
are stored in a memory called control memory.
This memory has microinstructions. Each microinstruction tells the CPU what small step (micro-
operation) to do, like:
move data between registers
perform add/subtract
read/write memory
A group of microinstructions is called a microprogram. One microprogram = one CPU instruction
(like ADD or SUB).
The control address register (CAR) points to control memory. The control data register (CDR)
gives the microinstruction to execute.
After one microinstruction, the sequencer decides which one to do next (next, branch, or
subroutine).
👉 So, the microprogrammed control unit is flexible and easy to change, because only the memory content
changes, not the hardware.
Multiplier Control Unit :
A multiplier control unit is an advanced form of a microprogrammed control unit designed to increase
speed. While a normal microprogrammed control unit executes only one microinstruction at a time, the
multiplier control unit can execute multiple microinstructions in parallel. This parallel execution reduces the
overall time required and makes the CPU work faster and more efficient.
Q10. Describe different types of micro-programmed control unit.
There are two main types of microprogrammed control units:
1. Horizontal Microprogrammed Control Unit
In this type, the microinstruction word is wide. Each bit in the word directly represents a control signal.
Since many bits can be active at the same time, multiple control signals can be turned on together. This
allows several micro-operations to run in parallel, making it very fast and efficient.
Advantages: High speed, more parallelism, flexible control.
Disadvantages: Needs large control memory because the instructions are very long, which makes
it costly.
2. Vertical Microprogrammed Control Unit
Here, the microinstruction word is narrow (short). Instead of giving signals directly, it uses encoded
fields (small codes). These codes are then sent to a decoder, which generates the actual control signals. This
reduces the size of the microinstruction and saves memory. However, because signals need decoding and
fewer signals can be active at once, it is slower than horizontal.
Advantages: Saves memory space, cheaper, simpler.
Disadvantages: Slower speed, less parallelism, extra decoding needed.
Q11. Define control word and micro-instruction. Write the control word for
the following micro Instructions .
i) R1 ← R1-R2 ii) R6 ← input iii) R3 ← shr R2
Control Word: A control word is a binary or symbolic representation that contains all the control signals
required to perform a micro-operation in one clock cycle.
Micro-instruction: A micro-instruction is an instruction stored in the control memory of the control
unit. It specifies one or more micro-operations to be carried out by the CPU.
Control Words for Given Micro-operations
i) R1 ← R1 – R2
Meaning: Subtract R2 from R1 and store the result in R1.
Control Word: R1 ← R1 – R2
ii) R6 ← input
Meaning: Transfer data from input register to R6.
Control Word: R6 ← INPR
iii) R3 ← shr R2
Meaning: Shift right the contents of R2 and place result in R3.
Control Word: R3 ← SHR R2
Q12. Describe the interaction between data and control unit and the signals
used for their interaction.
Interaction between Data Unit and Control Unit
The Control Unit (CU) directs how data moves inside the CPU.
The Data Unit (mainly ALU, registers, memory) actually stores and processes the data.
The CU fetches instructions from memory, decodes them, and sends control signals to the data unit
to perform operations.
The data unit, in turn, sends back status signals (like zero, carry, overflow) to the CU so it knows
what to do next.
Signals Used
1. Control Signals – sent by CU to data unit
o e.g., Read, Write, Load, Shift, Add, Increment, Store
2. Status / Feedback Signals – sent by data unit to CU
o e.g., Zero flag, Carry flag, Sign flag, Overflow flag, Busy/Ready signal
3. Timing / Clock Signals – to synchronize all operations.
Q13. What is pipeline processor? Explain the operation of pipeline
microprogram control unit. Discuss the merits and demerits of pipeline
processor.
1. Pipeline Processor
A pipeline processor divides the execution of an instruction into several steps (stages).
A pipeline processor breaks the work of an instruction into small steps called stages.
Each stage does one part of the job.
Many instructions are handled at the same time, each in a different stage.
It works like a factory assembly line – while one instruction is being executed, the next one is
decoded, and another is fetched.
👉 Common stages:
Fetch → Decode → Execute → Memory → Write-back
2. Operation of Pipeline Microprogram Control Unit
The microprogram control unit is like the manager of the pipeline.
It sends signals to each stage to tell it what to do.
It keeps track of which instruction is in which stage.
At every clock cycle:
o The first instruction moves to the next stage.
o A new instruction enters the first stage.
This overlapping work makes the CPU faster.
3. Merits (Advantages)
Faster execution: more instructions completed in less time.
Better CPU use: all stages stay busy.
High performance: no need to increase clock speed.
Works well for large programs.
4. Demerits (Disadvantages)
Hazards:
o Data hazard: when next instruction needs result of the previous one.
o Control hazard: caused by jumps or branches.
Pipeline stalls: sometimes the pipeline must stop and wait.
Complex design: harder to build and control.
Not all instructions work well in a pipeline.
Q14. What steps involved in designing hardware controlled system?
Steps in Designing a Hardware Controlled System
1. Study the Instructions
o Look at all the CPU instructions (like ADD, SUB, LOAD, STORE).
o Find out what actions the control unit needs to perform.
2. Find the Control Signals
o Decide which signals are needed to control each part of the CPU
(like ALU, memory, registers, buses).
3. Make the Control Circuits
o Build circuits (using gates, flip-flops, decoders, etc.)
to create the control signals for each step.
4. Set the Timing and Order
o Use a clock to send the signals in the right order at the right time.
5. Test and Improve
o Check if everything works correctly.
o Fix mistakes and make the system better.
Q15. Define microinstruction format .
Microinstruction Format
A microinstruction format is the way a microinstruction is written or arranged.
It shows how the bits are divided into parts so the CPU knows:
What action to do
Where to go for the next step