What is a Microprocessor?
Computer's Central Processing Unit (CPU) built on a single Integrated Circuit (IC) is
called a microprocessor.
A digital computer with one microprocessor which acts as a CPU is called microcomputer.
It is a programmable, multipurpose, clock -driven, register-based electronic device that
reads binary instructions from a storage device called memory, accepts binary data as
input and processes data according to those instructions and provides results as output.
The microprocessor contains millions of tiny components like transistors, registers, and
diodes that work together.
Block Diagram of a Microcomputer
A microprocessor consists of an ALU, control unit and register array. Where ALU performs
arithmetic and logical operations on the data received from an input device or memory.
Control unit controls the instructions and flow of data within the computer. And, register
array consists of registers identified by letters like B, C, D, E, H, L, and accumulator.
Central Processing Unit (CPU)
A Central Processing Unit is also called a processor, central processor, or microprocessor.
It carries out all the important functions of a computer. It receives instructions from both
the hardware and active software and produces output accordingly. It stores all important
programs like operating systems and application software. CPU also helps Input and
output devices to communicate with each other. Owing to these features of CPU, it is
often referred to as the brain of the computer.
CPU is installed or inserted into a CPU socket located on the motherboard. Furthermore,
it is provided with a heat sink to absorb and dissipate heat to keep the CPU cool and
functioning smoothly.
Generally, a CPU has three components:
o ALU (Arithmetic Logic Unit)
o Control Unit
o Memory or Storage Unit
Control Unit: It is the circuitry in the control unit, which makes use of electrical signals to
instruct the computer system for executing already stored instructions. It takes
instructions from memory and then decodes and executes these instructions. So, it
controls and coordinates the functioning of all parts of the computer. The Control Unit's
main task is to maintain and regulate the flow of information across the processor. It does
not take part in processing and storing data.
ALU: It is the arithmetic logic unit, which performs arithmetic and logical functions.
Arithmetic functions include addition, subtraction, multiplication division, and
comparisons. Logical functions mainly include selecting, comparing, and merging the
data. A CPU may contain more than one ALU. Furthermore, ALUs can be used for
maintaining timers that help run the computer.
Memory or Storage Unit/ Registers: It is called Random access memory (RAM). It
temporarily stores data, programs, and intermediate and final results of processing. So, it
acts as a temporary storage area that holds the data temporarily, which is used to run the
computer.
A brief description of most important CPU Registers and their functions are
given below:
1. Memory Address Register (MAR): This register holds the address of memory where
CPU wants to read or write data. When CPU wants to store some data in the memory or
reads the data from the memory, it places the address of the required memory location
in the MAR.
2. Memory Buffer Register (MBR): This register holds the contents of data or
instruction read from, or written in memory. The contents of instruction placed in this
register are transferred to the Instruction Register, while the contents of data are
transferred to the accumulator or I/O register. In other words you can say that this
register is used to store data/instruction coming from the memory or going to the
memory.
3. I/O Address Register (I/O AR): I/O Address register is used to specify the address
of a particular I/O device.
4. I/O Buffer Register (I/O BR): I/O Buffer Register is used for exchanging data
between the I/O module and the processor.
5. Program Counter (PC): Program Counter register is also known as Instruction
Pointer Register. This register is used to store the address of the next instruction to be
fetched for execution. When the instruction is fetched, the value of IP is incremented.
Thus this register always points or holds the address of next instruction to be fetched.
6. Instruction Register (IR): Once an instruction is fetched from main memory, it is
stored in the Instruction Register. The control unit takes instruction from this register,
decodes and executes it by sending signals to the appropriate component of computer to
carry out the task.
7. Accumulator Register (AC): The accumulator register is located inside the ALU, It
is used during arithmetic & logical operations of ALU. The control unit stores data values
fetched from main memory in the accumulator for arithmetic or logical operation. This
register holds the initial data to be operated upon, the intermediate results, and the final
result of operation. The final result is transferred to main memory through MBR.
8. Stack Control Register (SCR): A stack represents a set of memory blocks; the data
is stored in and retrieved from these blocks in an order, i.e. First In and Last Out (FILO).
The Stack Control Register is used to manage the stacks in memory. The size of this
register is 2 or 4 bytes.
9. Flag Register (FR): The Flag register is used to indicate occurrence of a certain
condition during an operation of the CPU. It is a special purpose register with size one
byte or two bytes. Each bit of the flag register constitutes a flag (or alarm), such that the
bit value indicates if a specified condition was encountered while executing an instruction.
For example, if zero value is put into an arithmetic register (accumulator) as a result of
an arithmetic operation or a comparison, then the zero flag will be raised by the CPU.
Thus, the subsequent instruction can check this flag and when a zero flag is "ON" it can
take, an appropriate route in the algorithm.
10. Data Register (DR): A register used in microcomputers to temporarily store data
being transmitted to or from a peripheral device.
What is CPU Clock Speed?
The clock speed of a CPU or a processor refers to the number of instructions it can process
in a second. It is measured in gigahertz. For example, a CPU with a clock speed of 4.0 GHz
means it can process 4 billion instructions in a second.
Types of CPU:
CPUs are mostly manufactured by Intel and AMD, each of which manufactures its own
types of CPUs. In modern times, there are lots of CPU types in the market. Some of the
basic types of CPUs are described below:
Single Core CPU: Single Core is the oldest type of computer CPU, which was used in the
1970s. It has only one core to process different operations. It can start only one operation
at a time; the CPU switches back and forth between different sets of data streams when
more than one program runs. So, it is not suitable for multitasking as the performance
will be reduced if more than one application runs. The performance of these CPUs is
mainly dependent on the clock speed. It is still used in various devices, such as
smartphones.
Dual Core CPU: As the name suggests, Dual Core CPU contains two cores in a single
Integrated Circuit (IC). Although each core has its own controller and cache, they are
linked together to work as a single unit and thus can perform faster than the single-core
processors and can handle multitasking more efficiently than Single Core processors.
Quad Core CPU: This type of CPU comes with two dual-core processors in one integrated
circuit (IC) or chip. So, a quad-core processor is a chip that contains four independent
units called cores. These cores read and execute instructions of CPU. The cores can run
multiple instructions simultaneously, thereby increases the overall speed for programs
that are compatible with parallel processing.
Quad Core CPU uses a technology that allows four independent processing units (cores)
to run in parallel on a single chip. Thus by integrating multiple cores in a single CPU,
higher performance can be generated without boosting the clock speed. However, the
performance increases only when the computer's software supports multiprocessing. The
software which supports multiprocessing divides the processing load between multiple
processors instead of using one processor at a time.
Evolution of Microprocessors
We can categorize the microprocessor according to the generations or according to the
size of the microprocessor:
First Generation (4 - bit Microprocessors)
The first generation microprocessors were introduced in the year 1971-1972 by Intel
Corporation. It was named Intel 4004 since it was a 4-bit processor.
It was a processor on a single chip. It could perform simple arithmetic and logical
operations such as addition, subtraction, Boolean OR and Boolean AND.
I had a control unit capable of performing control functions like fetching an instruction
from storage memory, decoding it, and then generating control pulses to execute it.
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Second Generation (8 - bit Microprocessor)
The second generation microprocessors were introduced in 1973 again by Intel. It was a
first 8 - bit microprocessor which could perform arithmetic and logic operations on 8-bit
words. It was Intel 8008, and another improved version was Intel 8088.
Third Generation (16 - bit Microprocessor)
The third generation microprocessors, introduced in 1978 were represented by Intel's
8086, Zilog Z800 and 80286, which were 16 - bit processors with a performance like
minicomputers.
Fourth Generation (32 - bit Microprocessors)
Several different companies introduced the 32-bit microprocessors, but the most popular
one is the Intel 80386.
Fifth Generation (64 - bit Microprocessors)
From 1995 to now we are in the fifth generation. After 80856, Intel came out with a new
processor namely Pentium processor followed by Pentium Pro CPU, which allows
multiple CPUs in a single system to achieve multiprocessing.
Other improved 64-bit processors are Celeron, Dual, Quad, Octa Core processors.
Table: Important Intel Microprocessors
Micro Year of Word Memory Pins Cloc Remarks
proces Inventi Length addressing k
sor on Capacity
4004 1971 4-bit 1 KB 16 750 First
KHz Microprocess
or
8085 1976 8-bit 64 KB 40 3-6 Popular 8-bit
MHz Microprocess
or
8086 1978 16-bit 1MB 40 5-8 Widely used
MHz in PC/XT
80286 1982 16-bit 16MB real, 4 GB 68 6-12.5 Widely used
virtual MHz in PC/AT
80386 1985 32-bit 4GB real, 64TB 132 20-33 Contains
virtual 14X1 MHz MMU on chip
4
PGA
80486 1989 32-bit 4GB real, 64TB 168 25- Contains
virtual 17X1 100 MMU, cache
7 MHz and FPU, 1.2
PGA million
transistors
Pentium 1993 32-bit 4GB real,32-bit 237 60- Contains 2
address,64-bit PGA 200 ALUs,2
data bus Caches, FPU,
3.3 Million
transistors,
3.3 V, 7.5
million
transistors
Pentium 1995 32-bit 64GB real, 36-bit 387 150- It is a data
Pro address bus PGA 200 flow
MHz processor. It
contains
second level
cache also,3.3
V
Pentium 1997 32-bit - - 233- All features
II 400 Pentium pro
MHz plus MMX
technology,3.
3 V, 7.5
million
transistors
Pentium 1999 32-bit 64GB 370 600- Improved
III PGA 1.3 version of
MHz Pentium II; 70
new SIMD
instructions
Pentium 2000 32-bit 64GB 423 600- Improved
4 PGA 1.3 version of
GHz Pentium III
Itanium 2001 64-bit 64 address lines 423 733 64-bit EPIC
PGA MHz- Processor
1.3
GHz
Where,
o PGA - Pin Grid Array
o MMX - MultiMedia eXtensions
o EPIC - Explicitly Parallel Instruction Computing
o SIMD - Single Instruction Multiple Data
o ALU - Arithmetic and Logic Unit
o MMU - Memory Management Unit
o FPU - Floating Point Unit
Basic Terms used in Microprocessor
Here is a list of some basic terms used in microprocessor:
Instruction Set - The group of commands that the microprocessor can understand is
called Instruction set. It is an interface between hardware and software.
Bus - Set of conductors intended to transmit data, address or control information to
different elements in a microprocessor. A microprocessor will have three types of buses,
i.e., data bus, address bus, and control bus.
IPC (Instructions Per Cycle) - It is a measure of how many instructions a CPU is capable
of executing in a single clock.
Clock Speed - It is the number of operations per second the processor can perform. It
can be expressed in megahertz (MHz) or gigahertz (GHz). It is also called the Clock Rate.
Bandwidth - The number of bits processed in a single instruction is called Bandwidth.
Word Length - The number of bits the processor can process at a time is called the word
length of the processor. 8-bit Microprocessor may process 8 -bit data at a time. The range
of word length is from 4 bits to 64 bits depending upon the type of the microcomputer.
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Data Types - The microprocessor supports multiple data type formats like binary, ASCII,
signed and unsigned numbers.
Working of Microprocessor
The microprocessor follows a sequence to execute the instruction: Fetch, Decode, and
then Execute.
Initially, the instructions are stored in the storage memory of the computer in sequential
order. The microprocessor fetches those instructions from the stored area (memory), then
decodes it and executes those instructions till STOP instruction is met. Then, it sends the
result in binary form to the output port. Between these processes, the register stores the
temporary data and ALU (Arithmetic and Logic Unit) performs the computing functions.
Features of Microprocessor
o Low Cost - Due to integrated circuit technology microprocessors are available at
very low cost. It will reduce the cost of a computer system.
o High Speed - Due to the technology involved in it, the microprocessor can work
at very high speed. It can execute millions of instructions per second.
o Small Size - A microprocessor is fabricated in a very less footprint due to very large
scale and ultra large scale integration technology. Because of this, the size of the
computer system is reduced.
o Versatile - The same chip can be used for several applications, therefore,
microprocessors are versatile.
o Low Power Consumption - Microprocessors are using metal oxide semiconductor
technology, which consumes less power.
o Less Heat Generation - Microprocessors uses semiconductor technology which
will not emit much heat as compared to vacuum tube devices.
o Reliable - Since microprocessors use semiconductor technology, therefore, the
failure rate is very less. Hence it is very reliable.
o Portable - Due to the small size and low power consumption microprocessors are
portable.