Certificate
This is to certify that
YOUR NAME
has successfully completed his/her
Physics project titled
To study the variations in current flowing in a
circuit containing an LDR because of a variation in -
the power of the incandescent lamp, used to
'illuminate' the LDR (keeping all the lamps at a
fixed distance)
Under the supervision and guidance of;
Ma’am Vaishali
In the partial fulfillment of the Physics practical
Assessment conducted during the academic year
2025-2026
ACKNOWLEDGEME
NT
I would like to express my immense gratitude to
my Physics Teacher Vaishali Tandon for the help
and guidance she provided for completing this
project.
I also thank my parents who gave me their ideas
and input in making this project. Most of all I thank
our school management, for providing us the
facilities and opportunity to do this project
Lastly, I would like to thanks my classmates who
have done this project along with me. Their support
made this project fruitful.
External Examiner
Teacher in charge
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Index
Introduction 01
Applications 02
Aim and Apparatus 03
Theory 04
Procedure 09
Observations 10
Conclusion and result 11
Source of error 12
Bibliography 13
INTRODUCTION
The general purpose photoconductive cell is also
known as LDR- light dependent resistor. It is a type
of semiconductor and its conductivity changes with
proportional change in the intensity of light.
There are two common types of materials used to
the photoconductive cells. They are Cadmium
Sulphide (CdS) and Cadmium Selenide (CdSe).
Extrinsic devices have impurities added, which
have a ground state energy closer to the
conduction band - since the electrons don't have as
far to jump, lower energy photons (i.e. longer
wavelengths and lower frequencies) are sufficient
to trigger the device. Two of its earliest
applications were as part of smoke and fire
detection systems and camera light meters. The
structure is covered with glass sheet to protect it
from moisture and dust and allows only light to fall
on it.
Applications
Lead sulfide (PbS) and indium antimonide (InSb)
LDRs are used for the mid-infrared spectral region.
GeCu photoconductors are among the best far-
infrared detectors available, and are used for
infrared astronomy and infrared spectroscopy.
Analog Applications
· Camera Exposure Control
· Auto Slide Focus – dual cell
· Photocopy Machines – density of toner
· Colorimetric Test Equipment
· Densitometer
· Electronic Scales – dual cell
· Automatic Gain Control – modulated light source
· Automated Rear View Mirror
Digital Applications
· Automatic Headlight Dimmer
· Night Light Control
· Oil Burner Flame Out
· Street Light Control
· Position Sensor
LDR has a disadvantage that when its temperature
changes, its resistance changes drastically for a particular
light intensity.
Aim and Apparatus
AIM :
To study the variations, in current flowing in a
circuit containing a LDR, because of a variation:–
(a) In the power of the incandescent lamp, used to
‘illuminate’ the LDR (Keeping all the lamps at a
fixed distance).
(b) In the distance of an incandescent lamp, (of
fixed power), used to ‘illuminate’ the LDR.
APPARATUS :
Light Dependent Resistor (LDR)
Connecting Wires
Source of different power rating (bulbs)
Metre scale
Multi Meter
Battery
Theory
1.) LDR and its characteristics
When light is incident on it, a photon is absorbed
and thereby it excites an electron from valence
band into conduction band. Due to such new
electrons coming up in conduction band area, the
electrical resistance of the device decreases. Thus
the LDR or photo-conductive transducer has the
resistance which is the inverse function of radiation
intensity.
λ₀ = threshold wavelength, in meters
e = charge on one electron, in Coulombs
Ew = work function of the metal used, in eV
Here we must note that any radiation with
wavelength greater than the value obtained in
above equation CANNOT PRODUCE any change in
the resistance of this device.
The band gap energy of Cadmium Sulphide is 2.42
eV and for Cadmium Selenide it is 1.74 eV. Due to
such large energy gaps, both the materials have
extremely high resistivity at room temperature.
Characteristics of photoconductive
cells
Now when the device is kept in darkness, its
resistance is called as dark resistance. This
resistance is typically of the order of 10¹³ ohms.
When light falls on it, its resistance decreases up to
several kilo ohms or even hundreds of ohms,
depending on the intensity of light falling on it.
The spectral response characteristics of two
commercial cells were compared in our laboratory.
And we found that there is almost no response to
the radiation of a wavelength which was shorter
than 300 nm. It was very interesting to note that
the Cadmium Sulphide cell has a peak response
nearer or within the green color of the spectrum
within a range of 520 nm. Thus it can be used
nearer to the infra-red region up to 750 nm. It was
found that the maximum response of Cadmium
Sulphoselenide is in the yellow-orange range at
615 nm and also it can be used in the infra-red
region up to about 970 nm.
Sensitivity
The sensitivity of a photo detector is the
relationship between the light falling on the device
and the resulting output signal. In the case of a
photocell, one is dealing with the relationship
between the incident light and the corresponding
resistance of the cell.
Spectral Response
Like the human eye, the relative sensitivity of a
photoconductive cell is dependent on the
wavelength (color) of the incident light. Each
photoconductor material type has its own unique
spectral response curve or plot of the relative
response of the photocell versus wavelength of
light.
2) Luminous Flux Variation
Considering the source to be a point radiating in all
directions; consider a steradian (or even a simple
sphere), take a small element dA on the steradian
at a distance 'r' from the source. It comprises a
small part of the energy radiated (dEr).
Now, go further to a distance 'R' (R>r) from the
source, consider the same area element dA, it
comprises a much smaller part of energy radiated
(dEr).
[dEr>dER].
It varies inversely as the square of the distance.
PROCEDURE
. Choose a specific position for the source and
mount it using a holder, make sure it is stable.
. Select the bulb with the lowest power rating and
connect it to the holder as shown in the figure.
. Connect the LDR, battery (6V) and the multimeter
in series.
. Set the multimeter to ohm section and select
suitable range and measure the resistance with a
bulb on.
. Similarly switch to current section and move to
micro ampere in the multimeter. This gives the
value of the current.
. Repeat these steps with different power sources
at different distances and note down observations.
OBSERVATIONS
The experiment has been conducted by using
various sources with different power ratings.
Voltage of the battery = 6
CONCLUSION &
RESULT
. The LDR resistance decreases with increase in
intensity of light and hence there is an increase in
the flow of current.
. There is an increase in the current as the distance
from the source decreases.
. The intensity decreases as the distance from the
source increases
. The error lies within the experimental limit.
SOURCES OF
ERROR
. The LDR may not be perpendicular to the source.
. Connections may be faulty.
. The experiment should be conducted in a dark
room.
. Measurements should be taken accurately.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
. NCERT physics class XII
. Art of Electronics by Paul Worowitz
. [Link]/
. [Link]/
. Laboratory manual in physics
. Practical physics