High Volta!
Engnee"ng
In modern times high voltages are used for a wide variety of applications, such as in
1. Power system : for transmission of large bulks of owner,
2. Industry: x ray equipment for medical and industrial purposes.
3. Research laboratories: eg in nuclear research, in particle accelerator, van de graaff generators,
modern high voltage test laboratories.
Some basic foundations required :
Conduction of current: it refers to the flow of electric charge through a material like a
metal wire.
Breakdown of insulator: it is the situation of the insulator where the insulating material
suddenly becomes conductive and allows electric current to flow through it.
> the breakdown usually overuse when the electric field across the insulator becomes
strong enough to strip electrons away from atoms, creating a path for the current to travel. This
phenomena is known as dielectric breakdown.
Dielectric: dielectric are insulators which supports electric field. Eg : ceramic, mica ,
paper, mineral oil, PVC, air, SF6 , etc.
Electric field: an electric field is a region around an electrically charged object where
other charged particles (like electrons or ions) experience a force.
Electric field stresses: in high voltage application, the dielectric strength of insulating
materials and electric field stress developed in them when subjected to high voltages are the
important factors.
Conduction and breakdo# in gas$
Collision process:
Collision are of two types:
1. Elastic collision: no change take place in the internal energy of the system but
only kinetic energy gets redistributed.
2. Inelastic collisions: internal energy changes takes place within an atom or
molecule at the expense of the total kinetic energy of the colliding particle.
When an electric field is applied to a gas, charged particles experience a force due to the
field. As these charged particles move through the gas, they can collide with neutral gas
molecules. These collisions can lead to various effects, such as ionisation (where neutral
atoms or molecules lose or gain electrons), excitations (where electrons in atoms or
molecule move to higher energy levels) and recombination ( where ions capture electrons
to become neutral again).
Ionisation process
The processes that are primarily responsible for the breakdown of a gase are ionisation by
collision , photo - ionisation, and the secondary ionisation process.
Ionisation by collision: the process of liberating an electron from a gas molecule
with the simultaneous production of a positive ion is called ionisation. In the process of
ionisation of collision, a free electron collides with a neutral gas molecule and give rise to
a new electron and positive ion.
Photo- ionisation: the phenomena associated with ionisation by radiation , or photo-
ionisation, involves the interaction of radiation with matter. Photo- ionisation occurs when
the amount of radiation energy absorbed by an atom or molecule exceeds its ionisation
potential.
Secondary ionisation process: secondary ionisation processes by which
secondary electrons are produced are the one which sustain a discharge after it is
established due to ionisation by collision and photo-ionisation.
(i) Electron Emission due to Positive Ion Impact:
Positive ions are formed due to ionisation by cathode or by photo-ionisation, and being
positively charged, they travel towards the cathode.
A positive ion approaching a metallic cathode can cause emission of electron from the
cathode by giving up its kinetic energy on impact.
(ii) Electron Emission due to Photons:
To cause an electron to escape from a metal, it should be given enough energy to
overcome the surface potential barrier. The energy can also be supplied in the form of a
photon of ultraviolet light of suitable frequency.
(iii) Electron Emission due to Metastable and Neutral Atoms:
A metastable atom or molecule is excited particle whose lifetime is very large (10 -3s)
compared to the lifetime of an ordinary particle (10 -8 s) electrons can be ejected from
the metal surface by the impact of excited metastable (atoms )provided that their total
energy is sufficient to overcome the work function.
TOWNSEND’S CURRENT GROWTH EQUATION
Current grow% in & pr$ence of secondary proc$s
When a gas between two electrodes is subjected to a high electric field, it can undergo a
breakdown, which means it starts conducting electricity. Streamer theory is a way to understand
and describe how this breakdown happens.
Imagine the gas as a collection of atoms and molecules. When the electric field becomes strong
enough, it can ionize some of these atoms and molecules, creating charged particles called ions
and electrons. These charged particles can then move within the gas under the influence of the
electric field.
Streamer theory focuses on the formation and propagation of "streamers." Streamers are thin,
ionized channels within the gas that act like pathways for the electric discharge to follow. They
form when a localized region of the gas becomes ionized, and the electric field is enhanced in
that area. This enhanced electric field further ionizes more gas molecules along the pathway,
creating a growing streamer.
As these streamers propagate through the gas, they can branch out and connect with other
streamers, creating a network of conducting paths. Eventually, if the ionization process
continues, these paths can lead to a complete breakdown of the gas, turning it into a
conducting plasma that allows electric current to flow through it.
Understanding streamer theory helps researchers and engineers predict and control how gases
break down under high electric fields. This knowledge is crucial in various applications, from
high-voltage equipment to lightning protection systems.
Paschen's Law is a principle that describes the breakdown voltage of a gas at a
certain pressure and gap distance between two electrodes. It helps us understand the
conditions under which a gas will start conducting electricity, or in other words,
undergo electrical breakdown.
The law states that the breakdown voltage of a gas is proportional to the product of
pressure and the gap distance, and it inversely depends on the product of the gas's
pressure and the distance between the electrodes. Mathematically, it can be expressed
as:
Paschen's Law is especially important for designing electrical insulation systems and
understanding the behavior of gases in high-voltage applications. It helps engineers
determine the optimal spacing between electrodes to prevent electrical breakdown and
sparks.
The law also provides insights into why, at low pressures, gases might require higher
voltages to break down due to the scarcity of particles to initiate the breakdown
process. However, at very high pressures, the breakdown voltage can increase again
due to increased collision rates of ions and electrons, hindering the formation of a
stable electric discharge.
*** Paschen's Law is a key principle in high-voltage engineering that guides the design
and operation of devices where electrical breakdown in gases needs to be controlled
or avoided.
Some impo'ant qu$tions:
Q1. Derive Townsend current growth equation? IGU 2021
Q2. What do you mean by dielectric strength? IGU 2021
Q3. Explain Townsend current growth equation? IGU 2022
Q4. Explain collision process in gases in brief? IGU 2022
Q5. List few gases used as insulation medium. IGU 2022
Q6. What are the physical conditions governing ionisation mechanism in gases dielectrics?
Q7. Define the corona loss. IGU 2021
Q8. Explain the physical and chemical characteristic of insulators in brief.
Q9. Discuss the ionisation process in detail and derive Townsend current growth equation.
IGU 2021
Q10. Explain the corona loss in detail . IGU 2022
Q11. What is Paschen law?IGuU 2022
Q12. Explain Streamer’s Theory of breakdown in gases. IGU 2022
Q13. Discuss the different dielectric material.
Conduction and breakdo# in liquids
Liquids are often preferred as dielectric materials over gases for several reasons:
1. Dielectric Strength: Liquids typically have higher dielectric strength compared to gases. Dielectric
strength is the maximum electric field that a dielectric material can withstand without breaking down
and conducting electricity. Liquids can generally withstand higher electric fields before breakdown
occurs, making them more suitable for many high-voltage applications.
2. Improved Heat Dissipation: Liquids are better at dissipating heat compared to gases. This is
important in applications where electrical components generate heat during operation. Liquid dielectrics
can help cool these components, preventing overheating and ensuring stable performance.
3. Reduced Size: Liquid dielectrics allow for more compact designs in some applications, as they can
provide the same dielectric properties as gases but at higher densities. This can lead to smaller and
more efficient electrical equipment.
4. Containment: Liquids are easier to contain within sealed systems compared to gases. This is
particularly important in high-voltage and high-pressure applications, where preventing leaks or
discharges is critical.
5. Immersion Cooling: In some situations, immersion cooling using dielectric liquids is used to directly
submerge electrical components in a dielectric fluid. This method offers excellent cooling and electrical
insulation, which can be advantageous in various applications.
However, it's worth noting that the choice between a liquid and a gas as a dielectric depends on the
specific requirements of the application. Gases like sulfur hexafluoride (SF6) are still used in some high-
voltage applications because of their unique properties. Ultimately, the choice of dielectric depends on
factors such as voltage requirements, size constraints, cooling needs, and safety considerations.
Pure liquids and commercial liquids
Pure liquids are those which are chemically pure and do not contain any
other impurity even in traces of 1 in 10 ^9 ,and are structurally simple. Ex:
n-hexane (C 6 H 14) , n-heptane (C 7 H 16) and other paraffin
hydrocarbons.
Commercial liquids are those which are not chemically pure , normally
consist of mixtures of complex organic molecules which cannot be easily
specified or reproduces in a series of experiments.
Conduction and breakdo! in commercial liquids:
The breakdown mechanism in commercial liquids is dependent on
several factors, such as the nature and condition of the electrodes, the
physical properties of the liquid, the impurities and gases present in the
liquid. Several theories have been proposed to explain the breakdown in
liquids, and they are classified as follows:
1. Suspended particle mechanism
2. Cavitation and bubble mechanism
3. Stressed oil volume mechanism
Suspended Particle Mechanism:
In Breakdown in Commercial Liquids, the presence of solid impurities cannot be avoided. These impurities will be present as fibres or
as dispersed solid particles. The permittivity of these particles (ε2) will be different from the pennittivity of the liquid (ε1). If we consider
these impurities to be spherical particles of radius r, and if the applied field is E, then the particles experience a force F, where
This force is directed towards areas of maximum stress, if ε2 > ε1, for example, in the case of the presence of solid particles like
paper in the liquid. On the other hand, if only gas bubbles are present in the liquid. i.e. ε2 > ε1, the force will be in the direction of areas
of lower stress. If the voltage is continuously applied (d.c.) or the duration of the voltage is long (a.c.), then this force drives the
particles towards the areas of maximum stress. If the number of particles present are large, they become aligned due to these forces,
and thus form a stable chain bridging the electrode gap causing a breakdown between the electrodes.
If there is only a single conducting particle between the electrodes, it will give rise to local field enhancement depending on its shape. If
this field exceeds the breakdown strength of the liquid, local breakdown will occur near the particle, and this will result in the formation
of gas bubbles which may lead to the breakdown of the liquid.
The values of the Breakdown in Commercial Liquids containing solid impurities was found to be much less than the values for pure
liquids. The impurity particles reduce the breakdown strength, and it was also observed that the larger the size of the particles the
lower were the breakdown strengths.
Cultivation and the Bubble Theory: It was experimentally observed that in many liquids, the breakdown
strength depends strongly on the applied hydrostatic pressure, suggesting that a change of phase of the medium is
involved in the breakdown process, which in other words means that a kind of vapour bubble formed is responsible for
breakdown. The following processes have been suggested to be responsible for the formation of the vapour bubbles:
•gas pockets at the surfaces of the electrodes;
•electrostatic repulsive forces between space charges which may be sufficient to overcome the surface tension;
•gaseous products due to the dissociation of liquid molecules by electron collisions; and
•vapourization of the liquid by corona type discharge from sharp points and irregularities on the electrode surfaces.
Once a bubble is formed it will elongate in the direction of the electric field under the influence of electrostatic forces.
The volume of the bubble remains constant during elongation. Breakdown occurs when the voltage drop along the length
of the bubble becomes equal to the minimum value on the Paschen’s curve for the gas in the bubble. The breakdown
field is given as
where σ is the surface tension of the liquid, ε1 is the permittivity of the liquid, ε2 is the permittivity of the gas bubble, r
is the initial radius of the bubble assumed as a sphere and Vb is the voltage drop in the bubble (corresponding to
minimum on the Paschen’s curve). From this equation, it can be seen that the breakdown strength depends on the initial
size of the bubble which in turn is influenced by the hydrostatic pressure and temperature of the liquid.
Thermal Mechanism of Breakdown
Another mechanism proposed to explain breakdown under pulse conditions is thermal
breakdown. This mechanism is based on the experimental observations of extremely large
currents just before breakdown. This high current pulses are believed to originate from the tips
of the microscopic projections on the cathode surface with densities of the order of 1 A/cm3.
These high density current pulses give rise to localised heating of the oil which may lead to the
formation of vapour bubbles. The vapour bubbles are formed when the energy exceeds 107 J/
cm2. When a bubble is formed, breakdown follows, either because of its elongation to a critical
size or when it completely bridges the gap between the electrodes. In either case, it will result in
the formation of a spark. According to this mechanism, the breakdown strength depends on the
pressure and the molecular structure of the liquid. For example, in n-alkanes the breakdown
strength was observed to depend on the chain length of the molecule. This theory is only
applicable at very small lengths (≤100µm) and does not explain the reduction in breakdown
strength with increased gap lengths.
Some important questions:
Q1. Discuss in detail the breakdown process of breakdown in
commercial liquids.
Q2. What is the difference between pure liquids and commercial
liquids.
Q3. Explain the various theories of breakdown mechanism of
commercial liquids dielectrics.
Q4. Discuss the breakdown in pure dielectrics.