Internal Combustion Engine

(ME60111)

Pabitra Badhuk
Assistant Professor
Department of Mechanical Engineering
IIT Kharagpur
Module 3 – CI engines
combustion
Why does CI engine operate lean?
Compression ignition engine adopts a heterogeneous combustion model. That is, fuel and air mix at the
moment of injection and burn. Because, there is virtually no time for fuel-air mixing, each fuel
molecule must be surrounded with a significantly large number of air molecules to increase the
probability that each fuel molecule finds air molecules to react with. Otherwise, the engine will emit
unburned carbon particles (soot) as shown below.
CI engine air-fuel ratio
The air-fuel ratio decreases progressively with engine load. The following values are typical.

A/F ratio > 50 (𝜙 < 0.3) at idling condition

25 < A/F ratio < 50 (0.6 > 𝜙 > 0.3) at cruise condition
15 < A/F ratio < 25 (1 > 𝜙 > 0.6) during high power requirement

CI engine is not recommended to run at stoichiometry as soot emission is significant when 𝜙 > 0.8
(A/F ratio < 18).
Premixed vs Diffusion Flame
Injection Techniques
Functional requirements of an injection system
Fuel metering: This is very critical as metering errors may cause drastic variation in the A/F ratio.
Injection timing: Accurate injection timing is essential for maximizing efficiency
Injection rate: The injection rate should be flexible to meet the requirements at changing speed and
load.
Fuel atomization: The injection system should be able to atomize the fuel for faster mixing.
Droplet distribution: Uniform distribution of fuel droplets inside the combustor is to be ensured.
Eliminate dribbling: The starting and end of injection should be sharp. Fuel dribbling causes high
emissions.
Mechanical Injection System

Main components
(i) Fuel tank
(ii) Plunger feed pump: Supplies fuel from the main tank to the injection system
(iii) Fuel pump: To meter and pressurize the fuel for injection
(iv) Injector
(v) Filters: Prevents dust and abrasive particles from entering the pump and injectors, thereby
minimizing the wear and tear of the components
Mechanical injection system - Fuel Pump
It consists of a reciprocating plunger inside a barrel.
The plunger is driven by a camshaft.

(a) A sketch of a typical plunger is shown. (b)

(b) A schematic diagram of the plunger within the (a)
barrel is shown. Near the port A, fuel is always
available under relatively low pressure. While the axial
movement of the plunger is through cam shaft, its
rotational movement about its axis by means of rack D.
Port B is the orifice through which fuel is delivered to
the injector. At this stage it is closed by means of a
spring-loaded check valve. When the plunger is below
port A, the fuel gets filled in the barrel above it. As the
plunger rises and closes the port A the fuel will flow out
through port C (as shown in Figure (b)). This is because
it has to overcome the spring force of the check valve in
order to flow through port B. Hence it takes the easier
way out via port C.
Mechanical injection system - Fuel Pump (Continued)

(c) At this stage rack rotates the plunger and as a

result port C also closes. The only escape route (c) (d)
for the fuel is past the check valve through
orifice B to the injector. This is the beginning of
injection and also the effective stroke of the
plunger.

(d) The injection continues till the helical

indentation on the plunger uncovers port C.
Now the fuel will take the easy way out through
C and the check valve will close the orifice B.
The fuel-injection stops and the effective stroke
ends. Hence the effective stroke of the plunger
is the axial distance traversed between the time
port A is closed off and the time port A is
uncovered.
Mechanical injection system - Fuel Pump (Continued)

(e) & (f) The plunger is rotated to the

position shown. The same sequence of (c) (d)
events occur. But in this case port C is
uncovered sooner. Hence the effective
stroke is shortened.

It is important to remember here that

though the axial distance traversed by the
plunger is same for every stroke, the
rotation of the plunger by the rack
determining the length of the effective
stroke and thus the quantity of fuel
injected.
How a mechanical injection system fulfils the requirements
Requirement Strategy
Fuel metering Through rotation of the plunger by the rack
Injection timing Through cam-based actuation system
Injection rate Through cam-based actuation system
Fuel atomization Controlled by the injector orifice dia
Droplet distribution Controlled by the injector geometry
Eliminate dribbling Fuel injection is cut off by the injector needle spring once the line pressure
falls
Shortcomings of the mechanical injection system
Limited adaptability: Injection timing is set mechanically, can’t be changed flexibly under transient
or variable load conditions. Using cam phasing, multiple cam profiles can bring limited flexibility.

Poor atomization at low speed: At low engine speed, the plunger movement is slow. Hence, the
maximum pressure inside the plunger pump is lower. Lower injection pressure leads to poor
atomization.

Injection rate shaping: In a mechanical injection system, the fuel is completely injected into the
cylinder in one shot. This is a shortcoming, because multiple-shot injections (also known as split
injection) help to reduce knocking in CI engines.

Difficulty adhering to emission norms: Due to poor atomization, mechanical injection systems
generate soot levels beyond the acceptable limit set by modern emission norms (BS6).

Coarse fuel metering: The fuel metering through the rack and plunger is coarse, and the metering
can be incorrect during dynamically changing load requirements.
Common rail system
In the mechanical injection system, the process of pressure generation and fuel injection are linked.
In the common-rail pressure-accumulator fuel-injection system, the functions of pressure generation
and fuel injection are separate. Injection pressure is largely independent of engine speed or injected-
fuel quantity, and is generated by a high-pressure pump. This system thus offers a high degree of
flexibility in designing the fuel-injection process. Injection pressure ranges up to 1600-1800 bar.
Common rail system
Comparison: Mechanical vs Common Rail Injection System
Mechanical Injection System Common Rail Direct Injection (CRDI)
Pressure generated by the injection Pressure generated by a high-pressure
Pressure pump plunger (driven by camshaft). pump and stored in the common rail.
Generation Injection pressure depends on engine Pressure is independent of engine
speed/load. speed.
Mechanical cam profile and governor ECU controls injection timing, duration,
Fuel Injection
control timing and quantity. Limited and number of injections electronically.
Control
flexibility. Very flexible.
Injection Pressure 200–800 bar (older engines,
1000–2500+ bar
Levels inline/distributor pumps).
Number of
Typically one injection event per Multiple injection events possible (pilot,
Injections per
cycle (main injection). pre, main, post)
Cycle
Coarser atomization due to lower Very fine atomization due to ultra-high
Spray
pressure → bigger droplets, less pressure → better mixing and faster
Atomization
mixing efficiency. combustion.
Comparison: Mechanical vs Common Rail Injection System
Mechanical Injection System Common Rail Direct Injection (CRDI)
Higher soot, NOx; limited emission Lower soot & NOx (via multiple
Emissions
control capability. injections, ECU optimization).
Louder “diesel knock” due to single, Quieter operation due to pilot injections
Engine Noise
abrupt injection. softening pressure rise.
Complex, requires precise injectors and
Mechanically robust, easier to repair;
Maintenance ECU; higher maintenance cost if failure
fewer electronic components.
occurs.
More expensive due to sensors, ECU,
Cost Cheaper to manufacture and maintain.
high-precision injectors.
Found in older vehicles, tractors, Used in modern cars, trucks, and high-
Application
stationary diesel engines. speed diesels meeting emission norms.
Spray characteristics
without swirl
High-speed Schlieren movies of diesel sprays

[Link]
spray/vaporizing-and-non-vaporizing/
Evaporating diesel spray (Non-reactive)
After an initial development period,
the tip of the liquid fuel region
stops penetrating and fluctuates
about a mean axial location. This
distance is known as liquid fuel
penetration length.
The vapor generated from the
liquid continues to move forward
due to the momentum, hence vapor
penetration length keeps
Vapor penetration length increasing with time.
The spray angle also fluctuates
around a mean value. It is a
function of the injector geometry.
Typically, the liquid jet profile till
half of the liquid penetration length
is considered to compute the spray
angle.
Evaporating diesel spray (Non-reactive)
Penetration length (mm)

Representative image showing the transient evolution of liquid and vapor penetration length.
Reference: [Link]
Effect of ambient density on LPL
Reference: SAE Transactions, 1998, Vol. 107, Section 3:
JOURNAL OF ENGINES (1998), pp. 1205-1227

CR of 20 may produce an ambient density of 30

kg/m3 when the intake pressure is boosted by 0.5
bar. Boost level up to 2.5 bar is common in
heavy-duty diesel engines. Hence, the LPL will
be even shorter in real application.

Time averaged images for three sprays injected from left to right into the ambient gas density given
in each image. The orifice pressure drop and diameter, the ambient gas temperature, the fuel
temperature, and the fuel were 1350 bar, 246 𝜇𝑚, 1000 K, 438 K, and diesel, respectively.
Effect of ambient temperature on LPL

Liquid length as a function of gas temperature for

five gas densities. The orifice diameter, the
injection pressure drop across the orifice, the fuel
temperature, and the fuel were 0.246 mm, 136
Mpa, 438 K, and HMN, respectively.

Reference: SAE Transactions, 1998, Vol. 107, Section 3:

JOURNAL OF ENGINES (1998), pp. 1205-1227
Effect of orifice diameter on LPL
Liquid length vs orifice diameter for a
wide range of conditions. The terms in the
legend are the ambient gas temperature
(T), the orifice pressure drop (Δ𝑝𝑓 ), and
the fuel. The aspect ratio of the orifices
and the fuel temperature were nominally
4.2 and 438 K, respectively.

The liquid length is linearly dependent on

the orifice diameter. This is an important
result, since liquid impingement on piston
bowl is a concern. Typically, the smaller
the bore, the smaller the injector orifice
sizes to reduce the liquid penetration
length. Although, manufacturing is
expensive and injector clogging is a
challenge for smaller orifices.
Effect of injection pressure on LPL
Liquid length vs pressure drop across the
injector orifice for a wide range of conditions.
The term ‘d’ in the legend is the orifice
diameter. The orifice pressure drop has a
negligible effect on the liquid length over a very
large pressure range. The largest systematic
effect observed is a small (< 7%) decrease in
liquid length for an increase in the injection
pressure difference across the orifice from 50 to
170 Mpa.

The lack of injection pressure effect on LPL

indicates that the change in the fuel flow rate
that occurs with a change in injection pressure
must cause exactly the same change in the
overall fuel evaporation rate. If not, the liquid
length would change. Higher 𝑃𝑖𝑛𝑗 will not
aggravate liquid impingement issue.
Role of air entrainment into the fuel jet

There are two timescales in the problem of diesel spray evaporation. The
first timescale is related to the breakup of liquid column into individual
droplets.

The second timescale is related to the entrainment of air into the fuel jet.
The entrained air contains the required enthalpy for fuel evaporation. By
conservation of energy, the energy entrainment rate is directly
proportional to the ambient gas mass entrainment rate. A change in the
fuel flow rate (𝑚ሶ 𝑓 ) will have to be matched by the air entrainment rate
(𝑚ሶ 𝑎 ) to supply the energy needed to vaporize the injected fuel.
Derivation: Rate of air entrainment
Assume:
1. x >> d (orifice diameter)
fuel
A A 2. Axial momentum flux is constant
3. The volume fraction of fuel is negligible at x >> d.
air air From the geometry:
𝜃
𝑟 𝑥 = 𝑥𝑡𝑎𝑛
x 2
Assume axial momentum flux is conserved across stations AA and BB. Also
assume that at station BB, the volume fraction of fuel is negligible.
2
𝜋𝑑 2
𝜌𝑓 𝑈𝑓2 = 𝜌𝑎 𝑈𝑎 𝜋𝑟 𝑥 2
B B
4
r (x)
𝑑 𝜌𝑓
𝑈𝑎 = 𝑈𝑓
2𝑟 𝜌𝑎
𝑚ሶ 𝑎 𝑥 = 𝜌𝑎 𝑈𝑎 𝜋𝑟 𝑥 2
𝜋 𝜃
𝑚ሶ 𝑎 𝑥 = 𝜌𝑎 𝜌𝑓 . 𝑑. 𝑥. tan . 𝑈𝑓
2 2
Mathematical formulation
The expressions for the injected fuel mass flow rate (𝑚ሶ 𝑓 ) and the entrained air
mass flow rate (𝑚ሶ 𝑎 ) up to any axial location (x) are given by:
𝑚ሶ 𝑓 ∝ 𝜌𝑓 . 𝑑 2 . 𝑈𝑓
𝜃
𝑚ሶ 𝑎 𝑥 ∝ 𝜌𝑎 𝜌𝑓 . 𝑑. 𝑥. 𝑈𝑓 . tan
2
𝑚ሶ 𝑓
𝐿𝑃𝐿 ∝ .𝑥
𝑚ሶ 𝑎 (𝑥)

The terms in the equations are ambient gas density (𝜌𝑎 ), the fuel density (𝜌𝑓 ),
the orifice diameter (𝑑), the injected fuel velocity (𝑈𝑓 ), the axial distance from
the orifice (𝑥), and the spreading angle of the spray (𝜃).

The first relationship simply states that the mass flow rate of fuel at any axial
location is simply the injected fuel mass flow rate. The second relationship
shows that the entrained gas flow rate depends linearly on the orifice diameter,
the axial location in the spray, and the injected fuel velocity (𝑈𝑓 ∝ Δ𝑃𝑓 ). The
third relationship establishes the dependence of LPL on the mass flow rates of
Explaining LPL behavior
𝑚ሶ 𝑓 ∝ 𝜌𝑓 . 𝑑 2 . 𝑈𝑓
𝜃
𝑚ሶ 𝑎 (𝑥) ∝ 𝜌𝑎 𝜌𝑓 . 𝑑. 𝑥. 𝑈𝑓 . tan
2

Other parameters held constant, doubling the orifice diameter quadruples

the amount of fuel injected, but only doubles the entrained gas. This
implies that the LPL will double in order to supply the air (containing
enthalpy) required for complete fuel evaporation.

We see that both 𝑚ሶ 𝑎 and 𝑚ሶ 𝑓 have the same dependence on injection

pressure (𝑈𝑓 ∝ Δ𝑃𝑓 ). Hence LPL does not change when injection
pressure changes. A fixed LPL indicates that vaporization rate increases
proportionally with the fuel injection rate. Additionally, residence time of
𝐿𝑃𝐿 𝐿𝑃𝐿
the fuel in the liquid state ~ ~ decreases.
𝑈𝑓 Δ𝑃𝑓
Dominant trends
Liquid length decreases linearly with orifice diameter and approaches zero as the orifice diameter
approaches zero.

Injection pressure has no significant influence on liquid length.

Liquid length decreases with increasing ambient gas density or temperature.

Decreasing fuel volatility or fuel temperature increases liquid length.

LPL in a typical heavy-duty engine

Liquid lengths predicted for a heavy-duty DI diesel engine. The dark gray regions are for warmed-
up engine operating conditions; the light gray regions denote cold start conditions. Typical piston
bowl wall distances from the fuel injector nozzle orifice are indicated. The light gray lines are for
constant in-cylinder gas densities, at TC of compression.
LPL in a typical light-duty engine

Liquid lengths predicted for a light-duty DI diesel engine. The dark gray regions are for warmed-
up engine operating conditions; the light gray regions denote cold start conditions. Typical piston
bowl wall distances from the fuel injector nozzle orifice are indicated. The light gray lines are for
constant in-cylinder gas densities, at TC of compression.
Example 1
𝜋
𝑚ሶ 𝑓 = 𝜌𝑓 . 𝑑 2 . 𝑈𝑓
4
𝜋 𝜃
𝑚ሶ 𝑎 𝑥 = 𝜌𝑎 𝜌𝑓 . 𝑑. 𝑥. 𝑈𝑓 . tan
2 2
𝑚ሶ 𝑓
Assume that 𝐿𝑃𝐿 ∝ 𝑥. Compute the ratio of the LPL for the light-duty and the heavy-duty
𝑚ሶ 𝑎(𝑥)
engines. Assume 𝐶𝑑 = 0.85.

Ambient Fuel density Orifice dia Injection Spray cone

density (kg/m3) (mm) pressure (bar) angle (full)
(kg/m3)
Light-duty 35 835 0.12 1600 40
engine
Heavy-duty 60 835 0.24 2200 30
engine
Answer: 0.482
High-speed Schlieren movies of diesel sprays
Soot luminosity is visible from the combusting
spray. The dark region outside of the combusting
spray is the schlieren effect from hot combustion
products at the edge of the spray—not soot. The
combusting spray penetrates more quickly than
the vaporizing spray because of the dilation of
hot combustion products within the spray.

[Link]
spray/vaporizing-and-combusting/
Transient reactive diesel spray
Transient reactive diesel spray – description
As the liquid fuel exits the nozzle, liquid ligaments and larger drops rapidly atomize to fine drops (~10 μ
diameter) whose momentum carries them into the combustion chamber as a “jet.” This early spray
region contains the fuel as drops which heat up and vaporize as their motion entrains hot air into the
spray. A fuel-vapor air mixture forms within this droplet-containing region and further expands the spray
as the spray continues to penetrate (and slow down), up to 4.5° after start of injection (ASI). The ignition
chemistry then spontaneously commences in the leading region of the spray (where the fuel has been
within the combustion chamber longest) where mixing of air entrained into the spray with evaporated
fuel has brought the mixture fuel-air equivalence ratio from very rich values to about 2 to 4 (still well-
rich of stoichiometric). The diesel fuel molecules then start to break into fragments, which combine to
form polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs), which in turn grow to form increasing amounts of soot
particles of increasing size.
At about the crank angle of the peak heat-release-rate of the premixed combustion phase (some 6 to 6.5°
ASI in this example), the mixing-controlled diffusion flame forms and rapidly surrounds the jet. The
“fuel” for this diffusion flame is the fuel-rich mixture of partly reacted diesel-fuel vapor, entrained air,
fuel-fragments, PAHs and soot, all inside the diffusion flame. The oxygen for this diffusion flame to
complete combustion comes from the air that diffuses into the flame from the outside. Thus, previous
figure summarizes this description of the diesel combustion process during its transient phase while fuel
injection continues and all these processes are occurring in sequence as indicated.
Fully developed reactive diesel fuel spray

650 K

Mixture temperature
Soot reburning
NOx formation regions
Air entrainment location
Flame lift-off
Fully developed reactive diesel fuel spray - Description
The figure in the previous slide shows the temperature distribution within the spray in this quasi-
steady stage. The liquid fuel jet entering the chamber atomizes, entrains hot air (plus a modest amount
of residual gas) at around 950 K, and vaporizes, producing cooler rich fuel-air mixture (ϕ ~ 4) at
about 650 K. This mixture enters the spray region within the diffusion flame sheath, entraining
recirculated partially oxidized rich combustion products, and raising its temperature to about 825 K.
Then, low-temperature oxidation reactions occur releasing enough chemical energy to raise the
temperature to about 1150 K. At which point oxidation becomes more rapid, this rich mixture passes
through a fuel-rich premixed flame consuming the locally available oxygen, releasing 10 to 15% of
the fuel’s chemical energy, and attaining temperatures of order 1600 K.

As the fuel passes through this rich premixed reaction zone or flame, hydrocarbon fragments form
which become the building blocks for soot particles within the evolving rich fuel spray. These build
up into particle nuclei which become heated by radiation from the flame, grow into soot particles and
agglomerate. The highest levels of soot and largest particles are thus found in the leading region of
the spray.
Fully developed reactive diesel fuel spray - Description
These soot-particle-containing gases move into the diffusion flame reaction region around the spray
where any remaining fuel vapor, fuel fragments, PAHs, and soot particles become oxidized to CO2
and H2O using oxygen that diffuses into this flame sheath from the air outside. The highest
temperatures are reached in this diffusion flame where close-to stoichiometric combustion occurs. It
is here, within this high-temperature diffusion flame sheath (where there is a slight excess of oxygen)
that the air pollutant nitric oxide (NO) largely forms. These products of complete combustion then (in
a net sense) diffuse outward from the thin diffusion flame reaction zone mixing with excess air,
become leaner, with their temperature and degree of dissociation of CO2 and H2O decreasing and
releasing chemical energy in the process.

Key features of this more complete phenomenological diesel spray combustion model (in a warmed-
up engine) are the limited penetration of fuel droplets into the combustion chamber, the two-stage
nature of the combustion process—a fuel-rich premixed flame within the spray followed by a
diffusion flame surrounding the spray where the rich premixed combustion products release most of
their chemical energy as they fully oxidize. These flame regions are lifted off (separated) from the
injector nozzle hole allowing the spray to entrain hot air into the spray core to create the rich mixture
within the spray. The substantial amount of additional oxygen required for complete combustion
diffuses into the spray-enveloping diffusion flame sheath from the outside.
Flame lift-off length

Flame lift-off length is controlled by two variables:

(a) Physical delay
(b) Chemical delay
Physical delay: Time required for the liquid fuel
to vaporize and mix with air to form an ignitable
mixture.
Chemical delay: Time required for pre-flame chemical reactions (low-temperature oxidation, chain
branching) to progress until self-sustaining heat release occurs.
 Effect of ambient gas temperature and density on FLOL
The figure is a plot of lift-off length versus ambient gas
temperature for four ambient gas densities ranging
from 7.3 to 58.5 kg/m3. The ambient gas oxygen
concentration, orifice diameter and pressure drop
across the orifice were 21%, 180 micron and 138 MPa,
respectively. As ambient gas temperature and density
increase, the lift-off length decreases. The temperature
and density trends indicate that compression heating of
in-cylinder gases as combustion proceeds during the
injection period in an engine will cause the lift-off
length to shorten with time.

The gray region represents the range of lift-off lengths Higher ambient density would enhance air
expected in a quiescent-type diesel engine for an orifice entrainment. Hence, the physical delay will
diameter of 180 mm and an injection pressure of 138 be shortened. Higher ambient temperature
MPa. The range is about 7 to 30 mm, with a moderate- would shorten both the physical and the
load, heavy-duty engine condition falling in the 10–15 chemical delay.
mm range.
Effect of ambient oxygen concentration on FLOL

Higher ambient O2
conc. would shorten the
chemical delay. Hence,
the flame lift-off length
reduces.

The left figure is a plot of lift-off length versus ambient gas temperature for four ambient gas oxygen
concentrations ranging from 21% by volume (the concentration in air) down to 15% and ambient gas
densities of 7.3 and 30.0 kg/m3. The right figure extends the data set to include ambient gas densities of
14.8 to 58.5 kg/m3. The figures show that for any ambient gas temperature and density, the lift-off length
increases as the ambient gas oxygen concentration decreases. The increase in lift-off length is
approximately proportional to the decrease in oxygen concentration.
 Effect of orifice diameter/pressure drop on FLOL

As either orifice diameter or injection pressure increase, the lift-off length increases. The lift-off length
has a weaker dependence on orifice diameter compared to the liquid penetration length. Physical delay
increases due to poor entrainment, hence lift-off length increases.

The lift-off length increases linearly with the injection velocity. That is, it increases linearly with the
square root of the orifice pressure drop. The FLOL increases due to increased jet velocity.
Lift-off vs Liquid Penetration Length
As the orifice diameter decreases, the liquid length shortens
relative to the lift-off length, becoming shorter than the lift-off
length at an orifice diameter of about 160 mm for the conditions
of the figure. The relative trend between liquid and lift-off length
is the result of the differing dependencies of liquid and lift-off
length on orifice diameter. As discussed previously, liquid length
has a strong linear dependence on orifice diameter, while lift-off
length has a much weaker dependence on orifice diameter.

For smaller orifice diameters, with liquid lengths shorter than

lift-off lengths, fuel vaporization will be completed prior to any
combustion. This means that there will be no direct interaction Comparison of lift-off (black curve) and
between the vaporization and combustion regions in the fuel jet. liquid lengths (gray line) as a function of
orifice diameter. The ambient-gas
For the larger orifice diameters, with liquid lengths longer than temperature and density were 1000 K
the lift-off lengths, there will most likely be a more direct and and 14.8 kg/m3. The pressure drop across
stronger interaction between vaporization and combustion the injector orifice was 138 Mpa.
processes.
Comparison: LPL vs FLoL
In each schematic, the dark gray region emanating from
the injector orifice at the bottom represents the
maximum possible extent of the region containing fuel
droplets mixed with vaporized fuel and entrained air
(i.e., the liquid length). The lighter gray region outside
the fuel droplet-containing region represents the region
More sooty Less sooty with vaporized fuel mixed with entrained air. The black
curve emanating from the lift-off location in the
downstream direction is the mixing-controlled
combustion zone (i.e., diffusion flame zone).

The checkered region in the central region of the fuel

jet downstream of the lift-off length represents the rich,
premixed reaction zone. The dotted region in the figure
downstream of the central reaction zone is the soot
formation and growth region. Soot begins to form just
downstream of this central reaction zone and evolves as
the gases are transported downstream.
Comparison: LPL vs FLoL
The schematic on the left is for an orifice pressure
drop of 40 MPa, an orifice diameter of 250 mm, and
an ambient gas temperature and density of 1100 K and
23 kg/m3. The temperature and density are indicative
of those expected for a moderate-load, heavy-duty
diesel engine condition after ambient gas compression
More sooty Less sooty heating from autoignition has occurred. The schematic
on the right is for an orifice pressure drop of 200 MPa,
an orifice diameter of 100 mm, and an ambient gas
temperature and density of 1000 K and 20 kg/m3.

𝜁𝑠𝑡 → Percentage of air entrained into the fuel core at

the flame lift-off point compared to the air required for
complete combustion of fuel.
LPL vs FLOL – Discussion

Preferred
zone of
operation
(less sooty)

This zone is to be
avoided (more sooty)
Example 2
𝜋
Mass flow rate through a single hole diesel injector is given by: 𝑚ሶ 𝑓 = 4
𝜌𝑓 . 𝑑2 . 𝑈𝑓
𝜋 𝜃
Entrained air flow rate up to axial distance x from the orifice: 𝑚ሶ 𝑎 𝑥 = 2
𝜌𝑎 𝜌𝑓 . 𝑑. 𝑥. 𝑈𝑓 . tan 2

The injection velocity connects with the injection pressure as: 𝑈𝑓 = 𝐶𝑑 2Δ𝑃
ൗ𝜌𝑓

𝑘𝐽
The effective net heat of vaporization of fuel is 220 kJ/kg at engine conditions. Assume C𝑝𝑎𝑖𝑟 = 1 𝑘𝑔.𝐾 , 𝐶𝑑 = 0.85.
(a) Compute the rate of enthalpy required to vaporize the fuel (in kW).
(b) If the vaporized fuel-air mixture temperature is 800 K, compute the air flow rate (in kg/s) required to vaporize
the fuel.
(c) Calculate the distance from the orifice (in mm) at which the entrained air would be able to completely vaporize
the fuel?
(d) Would the entrained air and fuel mixture be able to sustain a premixed flame? Assume n-dodecane 𝐶12 𝐻26
as fuel. The flame sustains itself between 0.5 < 𝜙 < 4.
𝒌𝒈 𝒌𝒈 𝒅(𝒎𝒊𝒄𝒓𝒐𝒏) 𝚫𝐏 (𝐛𝐚𝐫) Full cone 𝑻𝒂𝒎𝒃
𝝆𝒇 𝝆𝒂 angle (𝜽)
𝒎𝟑 𝒎𝟑
750 22 200 1600 18° 950 K

(a) 2.88 kW, (b) 0.0192 kg/s, (c) 5.41 mm, (d) flame will not sustain.
Combustion chamber design
and characteristics
Indirect injection – Legacy design
Historically, as diesel combustion systems
developed, the use of air swirl to enhance
fuel-air mixing rates, despite amplification
as the air is forced into the piston bowl
Swirl pre-chamber Turbulent pre-chamber during compression, did not provide
sufficiently high fuel-air mixing rates for
Injector
Glow plug small high-speed diesels such as those used
in automobiles.

This is because the injection pressure was

low with mechanical injection systems,
leading to poor atomization and generation
of larger droplets. Indirect-injection or
divided-chamber combustion systems were
used instead, where the vigorous charge
motion required during fuel injection is
generated in a prechamber, during the
compression stroke.
Indirect injection – Legacy design
During compression, air is forced from the main chamber above the piston into the auxiliary
chamber, through the nozzle or orifice (or set of orifices). Thus, toward the end of compression, a
vigorous flow in the auxiliary chamber is set up; in swirl chamber systems, the connecting passage
and chamber are shaped so that this flow within the auxiliary chamber rotates rapidly.

Combustion starts in the auxiliary chamber; the pressure rise associated with combustion forces fluid
back into the main chamber, where the jet issuing from the nozzle entrains and mixes with the main
chamber air. The glow plug shown on the right of the prechambers is a cold-starting aid. The plug is
heated prior to and during the engine’s starting process to ensure ignition of fuel early in the engine
cranking process. Such indirect-injection, swirl or pre-chamber, engines are no longer mainstream
diesel engine technologies due to the inability to meet modern emission standards for NOx and soot.

Indirect injection engines fell out of favour because of large heat loss, leading to poor fuel economy,
and difficulty complying with emission regulations.
CI engines – How does the engine design adapt to size change?
The piston, rings, and cylinder liner must survive friction, wear, and lubrication breakdown. Above
about 10–15 m/s mean piston speed, oil film cannot reliably prevent metal-to-metal contact. This
upper limit applies to both small car engines and giant marine diesels.

Orders of magnitude variation in size → But average piston speed is almost constant → So, larger
engines need to run slower → Assuming constant crank angle for combustion, time available for
combustion is orders of magnitude higher in a large engine compared to a small engine.

As engine size decreases, more vigorous air motion is required while less fuel jet penetration is
necessary. It is this logic, primarily, that leads to the different diesel combustion chamber designs and
fuel injection systems found in practice over the large size range of production diesel engines.
 Direct injection (DI) systems
If the piston bowl
contains a lip, then it
is called a re-entrant
bowl. In re-entrant
bowls, the cross-
sectional area is
smaller near the bowl
entry than inside the
bowl.

Quiescent chamber with Bowl-in-piston chamber with Re-entrant bowl-in-piston

multi-hole nozzle typical moderate swirl and multi- chamber with high swirl and
of larger engines. hole nozzle. Used in medium- multi-hole nozzle. Used in
size (10-15 cm bore) engines. smaller (7-9 cm bore) engines.
Summary of different direct injection (DI) systems
Bowl-in-piston designs
Bowl-in-piston designs induce squish and swirl to
the flow field inside the combustion chamber.
During compression, the vertical motion of the
piston displaces fluid elements inward toward the
cylinder centerline (squish).

However, conservation of angular momentum

implies that 𝑟𝑈𝜃 is constant. Thus, as the element is
displaced inward, its tangential velocity increases
as the radius of gyration is reduced.

For low levels of flow swirl, the squish flow penetrates to nearly the cylinder centerline before it turns
down into the bowl as required by symmetry constraints. For high swirl levels, the centrifugal forces
are sufficiently great that the squish flow turns down into the bowl as soon as the combustion chamber
geometry permits.
Over-swirl
A moderate level of swirl supports faster mixing and enhances combustion stability. However, a
greater swirl than the optimal brings some challenges:
(a) Increased level of heat loss to the combustor walls.
(b) Reduced fuel jet penetration leading to spray overlap.
(c) Spray overlap also leads to greater soot formation.
(d) Large (heavier) droplets may be pushed to the bowl wall due to centrifugal forces, leading to film
formation on the wall.
A combination of these effects increases BSFC beyond the optimal mean swirl ratio. The optimal mean
swirl ratio is a function of the engine geometry and operating conditions.
BSFC (g/kWh)

Over-swirl

Mean swirl ratio (MSR)

Direct injection compression ignition – High-speed movie

[Link]
spray/vaporizing-and-non-vaporizing/ [Link]
regime/direct-injection-compression-ignition/
Heat release rate profile for continuous fuel injection
HRR
Heat release rate profile

ab – Ignition delay
bc – Premixed combustion
cd – Mixing-controlled combustion
de – Late combustion / Soot burnout
Factors influencing ignition delay
SN Variable Effect on delay period Reason
1. Cetane number of Reduces Reduces self-ignition temperature
fuel
2. Injection pressure Reduces Better atomization, less physical delay

3. Injection advance Increases Pressures and temperatures are lower

angle when injection begins
4. Compression ratio Reduces Increases air temperature and pressure and
reduces auto-ignition temperatures.
5. Intake temperature Reduces Increases air temperature
6. Intake Pressure Reduces Increase indensity reduces auto- ignition
temperature
7. Speed of engine Increases in °CA Heat loss is reduced at large engine RPM

8. Load (fuel/air-ratio) Decreases Ambient temperature increases due to residual

gases
Premixed combustion phase (bc)

Combustion of the fuel which has mixed with the air to within the flammability limits (air at
high-temperature and high-pressure) during the ignition delay period occurs rapidly in a few
degree crank angles. A considerable amount of fuel is accumulated in the combustion chamber
during the delay period.
This accumulated fuel burns very rapidly causing a steep rise in the cylinder pressure. The rate
of pressure rise increases with the increase in delay period because the amount of fuel taking part
in this combustion increases with an increase in delay period. This phase of combustion causing
rapid pressure rise in the cylinder is known as “Period of uncontrolled combustion”.
Mixing-controlled combustion phase (cd)
After premixed gas consumed, the burning rate
is controlled by the rate at which mixture becomes
available for burning. The burning rate is
controlled primarily by the fuel-air mixing process.

The fuel injected after the process of uncontrolled

combustion burns at the same rate at which it is
injected because, the vaporization of fuel, mixing with
the air and burning takes place at almost
instantaneously as the fuel leaves the nozzle.

This is because, the temperature and pressure

inside the cylinder are sufficiently high and
sufficient turbulence is created due to previous
burning, thus the delay period for the fuel injected
after the process of uncontrolled combustion is
almost zero. This period of combustion is known as
“Controlled combustion”.
Late combustion phase (de)
• Heat release may proceed at a lower rate well into the expansion stroke (no additional
fuel injected during this phase). Combustion of any unburned liquid fuel and soot is
responsible for this.

• Thermal decomposition of the part of fuel takes place during uncontrolled and controlled
combustion.
• The decomposed fuel molecules contain enough number of hydrocarbons and carbon
particles which have lower reaction rate.

• Some carbon and hydrocarbons, decomposed from fuel are left in the combustion products
because the rate of decomposition during uncontrolled and controlled combustion is more
than the rate of reaction of these molecules during that period.

• These unburned hydrocarbons and carbon generally burn after stopping the fuel injection or
during the expansion stroke. This process of combustion of decomposed carbon atoms
is known as “After Burning”.
Overview of the combustion process
• The total burning period is significantly longer than the fuel injection period.
• The magnitude of the initial peak of the burning-rate diagram depends strongly on the duration of
the ignition delay period, being higher for longer delays.
• No knock limit: a higher compression ratio can be used.
• Since engine torque is controlled by the fuel flow rate, there is no pumping loss associated with
throttling the airflow.
• Formation of soot prevents the engine from operating at stoichiometry. Hence, for a given
compression ratio, the peak P and T are lower in a CI engine compared with an SI engine.
• Lean fuel-air mixture leads to a higher 𝛾, and hence a higher cycle efficiency.
Effect of injection system on heat release rate
Mechanical injection system CRDI

(schematic representation)

CRDI enables greater injection pressure, hence better atomization → Smaller ignition delay.
Hence, CRDI reduces the premixed HRR peak compared to mechanical injection systems.
Effect of engine RPM on heat release rate
High engine RPM Low engine RPM

(schematic representation)

At high engine RPM, the ignition delay is smaller (compared to low engine RPM) in terms of time in
milliseconds, but larger in terms of °CA.

The fuel injection rate increases proportionally with engine RPM. Hence, a greater amount of fuel
accumulates in the combustion chamber before ignition occurs.
Effect of injection strategy on heat release rate
Continuous injection Split injection
pilot main

(schematic representation)

Pilot injection is used to shorten the ignition delay between the start of injection and the start of
combustion of the main injection of the standard diesel injection strategy. Its objective is primarily to
reduce engine noise. The combustion of the pilot injection fuel with its entrained air raises the
temperature of the mixture around the injector, thus reducing the ignition delay of the main-injection
fuel. The shorter the delay, the less rapid the initial burning rate of the main fuel pulse. Typically, pilot
fuel injection amounts are a few per cent (5 to 15%) of the total fuel injected, depending on load, and
its injection is started some 15 to 35 degrees CA before TC. Pilot fuel injection results in significant
reductions in the ignition delay by a factor of about two.
Knocking in CI engines

• Sudden combustion of large quantity of

accumulated fuel may cause a large rate of
pressure rise.
• High pressure rise rate creates extreme
pressure differentials and vibrations known as
knocking.
• Knocking in C I combustion occurs during
earlier part of combustion.
• Increasing quantity of accumulated fuel
increases knock severity.
Summary
Factors that reduce ignition delay (refer to the previous slide on this) would also reduce knocking
tendency in diesel engines. With the advent of CRDI and split injection techniques, the issue of
knocking has been adequately resolved.
At the present day, the maximum operating RPM in the CI engine is limited by the maximum fuel-air
mixing rate. At high RPM, insufficient mixing time causes locally rich regions, leading to excessive
soot.
Advanced injection strategies (with up to 5 individual injection events in a single cycle) are being
researched for pushing the max operable RPM.
 Performance
Characterization
Turbocharging
In an SI engine, turbocharging increases the tendency of knocking. Hence, the utility of turbocharging
is limited. Often, the compression ratio is reduced compared to the naturally aspirated variant when the
engine is turbocharged.

The CI engine does not have this limitation. In fact, the tendency to knock (due to large ignition delay)
is reduced when the engine is turbocharged. Hence, turbocharging is ubiquitous for diesel engines. In
fact, it is difficult to find a naturally aspirated diesel engine in a commercial vehicle. For the same
displacement volume, the maximum power that can be produced by a diesel engine is lower compared
to a petrol engine as the diesel engine runs at a lower RPM. The turbocharger compensates for the lack
of power to some extent.

The peak pressure boost is limited to 0.5-1.0 bar in an SI engine; in comparison, the max boost level
can go as high as 3.0 bar in a CI engine. The max. boost is limited by the material stress level.
Performance characteristics – NA vs Turbo

The power output at a given speed is higher (A – B) at the

Turbo
same specific fuel consumption.

The same amount of power is available at a lower engine NA

speed due to turbocharging. Thus, with a turbocharged
engine, the point at which a required amount of power is
produced is shifted to a position where frictional losses are
lower. The result of this is lower fuel consumption (E – D).

The efficiency gain with turbocharging is more significant in

CI engines. In SI engines, turbocharged engines often run
with a lower compression ratio to avoid knocking. Such
adjustment is not needed in CI engines.
Comparison between petrol and diesel variants

[Link]
17.44 23.23
smart-plus-vs-smart/?c1=19519&c2=19611&source=17
FAQ
Why is the max operable RPM lower with diesel compared to petrol engines?
• At engine speed exceeding 5000 RPM, combustion efficiency drops because of insufficient time.
This limits the max RPM.
• Diesel engine parts are bulkier. The inertia of the parts also restrict the max RPM.

Why do diesel engines have better torque characteristics than petrol engines?
• Greater compression ratio → Greater in-cylinder pressure → Greater torque
• Greater boost can be given by turbocharging → Greater in-cylinder pressure → Greater torque
• Diesel engines have comparatively longer stroke/bore ratio → longer crank lever arm → Greater
torque

Why do diesel engines have a lower brake-specific fuel consumption (higher mileage)?
• No pumping loss at idling conditions
• Higher compression ratio
• Calorific value of diesel is higher than petrol (volume basis)
• The undersquare design (stroke > bore) is more thermally efficient as it minimizes heat loss.
Why does diesel engine have comparatively longer stroke length?

Oversquare engine
Square engine
Bore > Stroke Undersquare engine
Bore = Stroke
(high-performance Bore < Stroke
petrol engines) (Heavy-duty diesel engines)
The maximum mean piston speed is similar (~ 15 m/s) in both petrol and diesel engines due to
lubrication consideration. Since the petrol engine revs at a higher RPM, the stroke length need to be
shorter. The undersquare design is also thermally efficient as it minimizes heat loss.
2𝐿𝑁
𝑆𝑝 = ; 𝐹𝑜𝑟 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 𝑆𝑝 𝑙𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑁 𝑑𝑒𝑚𝑎𝑛𝑑𝑠 𝑙𝑜𝑛𝑔𝑒𝑟 𝐿
60
During peak heat load (close to TDC) surface/volume ratio is lowest in the undersquare design.

Oversquare engine Square engine Undersquare engine

Higher S/V ratio Lower S/V ratio
Performance map
The figure shows the performance map for a four-
stroke cycle medium-swirl turbocharged and
aftercooled truck DI diesel engine. Maximum torque
is close to 800 N·m at 1500 rev/min, minimum bsfc
(at 1200 rev/min) is just below 200 g/kW·h. These
practical parameters correspond to a brake mean
effective pressure (bmep) of 1260 kPa and a brake
fuel conversion efficiency of 42.5%. The gross
indicated fuel conversion efficiency would be over
50%.

Note that the drop in efficiency (increase in bsfc)

as load decreases is not that large (10%) until
load drops below about one-third the maximum
load. The significantly better part-load efficiency of
the diesel relative to the gasoline engine is one of
the diesel’s major advantages.
Fuel
Cetane number and its significance
• Cetane number of a fuel is defined as the % (volume) of normal cetane in a
mixture of normal cetane and α-methyl naphthalene, which has the same
ignition characteristics (ignition delay) as the test fuel when combustion is carried
out in a standard engine under specified operating conditions
• In original designated method: α-methylnapthalene (C11H10) with Cetane number 0 represented
the bottom of the scale.
• Now more stable compound isocetane (heptamethylnonane, HMN) with designated Cetane
value 15 represents the bottom of the scale.
• Normal cetane, C 16 H 34 is arbitrarily assigned a cetane number of 100.
• For low cetane fuels the ignition delay is long and most of the fuel is injected before
auto ignition and rapid combustion, under extreme cases this produces an audible knocking
sound referred to as “diesel knock”.
• For high cetane fuels the ignition delay is short and very little fuel is injected before auto
ignition, the heat release rate is controlled by the rate of fuel injection and fuel-air mixing –
smoother engine operation. CN of normal diesel fuels: 45-55
Cetane number measurement configuration and steps
• Experimental determination in a standardised single cylinder engine (ASTM D613)
– Speed-900 rpm
– Start of injection: 13°CA bTDC, Injection pressure: 103 bar
– Coolant temperature 100°C, Intake Air temperature: 65.6°C
Test fuel run
• The unknown diesel fuel is run in the CFR engine.
• The operator varies the compression ratio until the ignition delay corresponds to 13°CA (from
start of injection at 13° bTDC → SOC at TDC).This gives you the reference condition.
Reference fuel runs
• Now the compression ratio is kept fixed at this value.
• The operator prepares different blends of n-cetane (CN=100) and HMN (CN=15). Each blend is
tested until one produces the same ignition delay of 13°CA under the same compression ratio.
Cetane number assignment

𝐶𝑁 = % 𝑜𝑓 𝑛 − 𝑐𝑒𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑒 + 0.15 ∗ % 𝑜𝑓 𝐻𝑀𝑁 (𝑏𝑦 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒)

Diesel fuel characteristics
Diesel fuels are the product of graduated distillation of crude oil. They contain a whole range of
individual hydrocarbons with boiling points ranging from roughly 180°C to 370°C. Diesel fuel auto-
ignites on average at approximately 350°C, which is very early in comparison with gasoline (on
average 500°C).

High-quality diesel fuels are characterised by the following features:

• High cetane number
• Relatively low final boiling point
• Narrow density and viscosity spread
• Low aromatic compounds (particularly polyaromatic compounds) content
• Low sulfur content

In addition, the following characteristics are particularly important for the service life and constant
function of fuel-injection systems:
• Good lubricity
• Absence of free water
Boiling range
The boiling range of a fuel, i.e., the temperature range at
which the fuel vaporizes, depends on its composition. A
low initial boiling point makes a fuel suitable for use in
cold weather, but also means a lower cetane number and
poor lubricant properties. This raises the wear risk for
central injection units.

On the other hand, if the final boiling point is situated at

high temperatures, this can result in increased soot
production and nozzle coking. For this reason, the final
boiling point should not be too high. The requirement of
the ACEA (Association of European Automobile
Manufacturers) is 350°C.
Reference: J. Cisek 2018 IOP Conf. Ser.: Mater.
Sci. Eng. 421 042010.
PIONA characterization
Normal paraffins have excellent cetane numbers, but very poor cold flow properties and low
volumetric heating values. Aromatics have very good cold flow properties and volumetric heating
values, but very low cetane numbers. Isoparaffins and naphthenes are intermediate, with values of
these properties between those of normal paraffins and aromatics.

Reference: Diesel fuels technical review by Chevron, 2007

Diesel additives
The total concentration of additives is normally about < 0.1%. This does not change the physical
parameters of fuels, such as density, viscosity, or the boiling curve.
Additives Effect Example
Ignition accelerators Reduces engine emissions and noise Nitric acid esters of
or cetane improvers alcohols
Detergents Keep nozzles cleaner
Flow improvers Improve reliability at low temperatures Polymer substances
Wax anti-setting Improve storage properties at low temperatures
additives
Lubricity enhancers Reduce fuel-injection component wear especially Fatty acids, fatty
with hydrogenated low-sulfur fuels acid-esters
Antifoaming Makes refuelling easier (reduces the tendency to
additives slosh over)
Anticorrosive Protects the fuel system
additives