Basic Engineering Science

21BES115/125

Department of Mechanical Engineering

B.N.M. Institute of Technology

An Autonomous Institution under VTU

Post box no. 7087, 27th cross, 12th Main, Banashankari 2nd Stage, Bengaluru- 560070, INDIA
Ph: 91-80- 26711780/81/82 Email: principal@[Link], [Link]
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1. ENERGY SOURCES: Wind Energy, Tidal Energy, Wave

Energy Conversion Devices, Solar Thermal Energy Conversion

1.1. WIND ENERGY

1.1.1. Introduction
Wind energy is an indirect form of solar energy. Winds are caused by the uneven heating of the
atmosphere by the sun, creating temperature, density and pressure differences. It is estimated that
2 per cent of all solar radiation falling on the face of the earth is converted into kinetic energy of
the atmosphere, 30 percent of which occurs in the lowest 1000 m of elevation. It is a clean, cheap,
and eco-friendly renewable source. The main disadvantages of wind energy are: it is a dispersed,
erratic and location-specific source. Wind energy is harnessed as mechanical energy with the help
of a wind turbine. Moderate to high-speed winds, typically from 5 m/s to about 25 m/s are
considered favorable for most wind turbines.
Globally, wind energy has become a mainstream energy source and an important player in the
world’s energy markets, and it now contributes to the energy mix in more than 70 countries across
the globe.
Major factors that have led to accelerated development of the wind power are as follows:
(i) Availability of high-strength fiber composites for constructing large low-cost rotor
blades
(ii) Falling prices of power electronics
(iii) Variable speed operation of electrical generators to capture maximum energy
(iv) Improved plant operation, pushing the availability up to 95 per cent
(v) Economy of scale, as the turbines and plants are getting larger in size
(vi) Accumulated field experience (the learning curve effect) improving the capacity factor
(vii) Short energy payback (or energy recovery) period of about one year

1.1.2. Wind Data

To be able to understand and predict the performance of wind turbines it is essential to have some
knowledge of the behavior and structure of wind. This is also required for proper design of
supporting structure to carry the imposed load safely and at an economically viable cost. The
Beaufort scale, a wind speed classification, gives a description of the effect of the wind.
Wind speed is measured by anemometer and wind direction is measured by wind vane attached to
a direction indicator.

Table 1.1 Wind Description Based on Beaufort Number

Beaufort Wind Speed Wind

Observable Effects
number m/s km/h Description
0 0.0–0.4 0.0–1.6 Smoke rises vertically Calm
1 0.4-1.8 1.6-6 Smoke drifts but vanes unaffected Light
2 1.8-3.6 6-13 Leaves move slightly but vanes unaffected Light
3 3.6-5.8 13-21 Leaves in motion, flags begin to extend Light
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Small branches move, dust raised, pages of

4 5.8-8.5 21-31 Moderate
book loosen
5 8.5-11 31-40 Small trees sway, wind noticeable Fresh
6 11-14 40-51 Large branches sway, telephone lines whistle Strong
7 14-17 51-63 Whole tree in motion Strong
8 17-21 63-76 Twigs break off, walking difficult Gale
9 21-25 76-88 Slight structural (e.g. chimneys) damage Gale
10 25-29 88-103 Trees uprooted, much structural damage Strong Gale
11 29-34 103-121 Widespread damage Strong Gale
Disastrous conditions, countryside devastated,
12 >34 >121 Hurricane
only occurs in tropical cyclones

1.1.3. Variation of Wind Velocity with Height

At the earth surface wind speed is always zero. It increases with height above the ground. The
wind near the earth surface is retarded by surface roughness. The rate of change of wind speed
with height is called wind shear. The lower layers of the air retard those above them, resulting in
change in mean wind speed with height, until the shear forces are reduced to zero. This height is
called the gradient height and is typically of about 2000 m, above the gradient height, known as

Figure 1.1. Variation of Wind speed with height

free atmosphere, changes in wind speed are not affected by ground conditions. The layer of air
from ground to gradient height is known as planetary boundary layer. The planetary boundary
layer mainly consists of (i) surface layer, which extends from the height of local obstructions to a
height of approximately 100 m and (ii) Ekman layer, which starts from 100 m and extends up to
gradient height.
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It is very important to place the wind turbine well above the height of local obstructions so that
the turbine disk receives a strong uniform wind flux across its area without erratic fluctuations.
As stated earlier, the standard wind speed measurements are often taken at a height of 10 m from
ground but wind turbines often operate at a height above this. A simple empirical power law model
can be used to estimate wind speed 𝑢𝑧 at a height 𝑧 relative to that available at standard reference
height 𝐻.
𝑧 𝛼
𝑢𝑧 = 𝑢𝐻 ( )
𝐻
where 𝑢𝐻 is mean wind speed at reference height 𝐻 (usually 10 m), 𝛼 depends on surface
roughness and the range of height being covered.

1.1.4. Principles of Wind Power

Total Power
The total power of a wind stream is equal to the rate of the incoming kinetic energy of that stream
𝐾𝐸𝑖 , or
𝑚̇𝑉𝑖2
𝑃𝑡𝑜𝑡 =
2
𝑉𝑖 is the velocity of incoming air, 𝑚̇ is the mass flow rate of air. Mass flow rate of air is given by
the continuity equation;
𝑚̇ = 𝜌𝐴 𝑉𝑖
where 𝜌 is the density of incoming wind, 𝐴 is the cross sectional area of stream,
1 1
𝑃𝑡𝑜𝑡 = (𝜌𝐴𝑉𝑖 )𝑉𝑖2 = (𝜌𝐴𝑉𝑖3 )
2 2

Maximum Power
Total Power cannot be converted completely to mechanical power. Consider a horizontal axis
propeller type windmill henceforth referred to as a wind turbine.
The maximum mechanical power conversion capacity of a turbine is given by;
8
𝑃𝑚𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 = 𝜌𝐴𝑉𝑖3
27

and the velocity of leaving air from the turbine blade at maximum mechanical power conversion
capacity, 𝑉𝑒 is given by;
𝑉𝑖
𝑉𝑒,𝑜𝑝𝑡 =
3
The ideal or maximum, theoretical efficiency 𝜂{𝑚𝑎𝑥} (also called power coefficient) is given by;
𝑃{𝑚𝑎𝑥} 8
𝜂{𝑚𝑎𝑥} = = = 0.5926
𝑃𝑡𝑜𝑡 27
In other words, a wind turbine is capable of converting no more than approxximately 60% of total
power of wind to useful power.
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Actual Power
There are many factors that influence the power extraction by a wind turbine like blade tip ratio,
blade inlet angle etc. which limits the real efficiency to 50 to 70% of ideal efficiency. The real
efficiency 𝜂 is thus expressed as the actual power produced to total power.
𝑃 = 𝜂𝑃𝑡𝑜𝑡

Torque Produced
There are two types of forces operating on the blades of a propeller type wind turbine. They are
circumferential forces in the direction of wheel rotation resulting in torque.
Torque,
𝑃 𝑃
𝑇= =
𝜔 𝜋𝐷𝑁
where 𝑃 is the power extracted, ω is angular velocity, 𝐷 is the diameter of the wheel and 𝑁 is the
rotational speed of the wheel.

1.1.5. Wind Energy Example

Let’s assume that we live in an area slightly above sea level that has an air density of 1.225 kg/m3
and we have installed a 40% efficient wind turbine which has a rotor blade radius of 6 m. Calculate
the output power from the turbine at a wind velocity of 8 m/s and again at double the velocity of
16 m/s.
Solution:
Data: Efficiency, η = 40% = 0.4
Density, ρ = 1.225 kg/m3
Rotor blade radius, R = 6 m
Case (1): Out power at wind velocity, Vi = 8 m/s
P = ½ x ρ x A Vi3 x η
P = 0.5 x 1.225 x (π.62) x 83 x 0.4
P = 14,187 W or 14.2 kW

Case (2): Out power at wind velocity, Vi = 16 m/s

P = ½ x ρ x A Vi3 x η
P = 0.5 x 1.225 x (π.62) x 163 x 0.4
P = 113,495 W or 113.5 kW
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1.1.6. Wind Turbine

The kinetic energy contained in the wind can be converted into both mechanical and electrical
energy by a windmill. A modern type of windmill that uses the kinetic energy of the wind to
produce an electrical energy output is called a Wind Turbine.
Multiple wind turbines that are arranged together in clusters to capture large amounts of wind
energy at the same time and convert it into electrical power feeding this power into the electrical
grid are known as Wind Farms. These wind farms can be located on flat land, mountain tops or
offshore in the sea.
Wind turbine technology may look simple but there are many mechanical parts to a modern wind
turbine. The wind turbine rotor blades rotate around a central hub, which turns a low speed gearbox
shaft, which rotates a generator at a higher speed and makes electricity. The electrical generator
converts the kinetic energy of the rotating blades into electrical energy were electrical cables carry
this energy to an electrical sub-station for distribution to the utility grid.

1.1.7. Types and Classification of Wind Turbines

Wind turbines are broadly classified into two categories. When the axis of rotation is parallel to
the air stream (i.e. horizontal), the turbine is said to be a Horizontal Axis Wind Turbine (HAWT),
and when it is perpendicular to the air stream (i.e. vertical), it is said to be a Vertical Axis Wind
Turbine (VAWT). The size of the rotor and its speed depends on rating of the turbine. Some of the
features of HAWT estimated at wind speed of 12 𝑚/𝑠 and 𝜂 = 30% are given below:

Class
SN Features
Small Medium Large Very Large
Rated
1 Power, 10 25 50 100 150 250 500 1000 2000 3000 4000
kW
Rotor
2 Diameter, 6.4 10 14 20 25 32 49 64 90 110 130
m
Rotor,
3 200 150 100 67 55 43 29 19 15 13 11
RPM

(A) Horizontal Axis Wind Turbine (HAWT)

The constructional details of most common, three-blade rotor, horizontal axis wind turbine are
shown in Fig.1.2. Main parts are as follows:
(a) Turbine Blades: Turbine blades are made of high-density wood or glass fiber and epoxy
composites. They have airfoil type cross-section. The blades are slightly twisted from the
outer tip to the root to reduce the tendency to stall. In addition to centrifugal force and
fatigue due to continuous vibrations there are many extraneous forces arising from wind
turbulence, gust, gravitational forces and directional changes in the wind, etc. All these
factors are to be taken care off at the designing stage. Diameter of a typical, MW range,
modern rotor may be of the order of 100 m.
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Figure 1.2. Horizontal Axis Wind Turbine

(b) Hub: The central solid portion of the rotor wheel is known as hub. All blades ate attached
to the hub. Mechanism for pitch angle control is also provided inside the hub.
(c) Nacelle: The term nacelle is derived from the name for housing containing the engines of
an aircraft. The rotor is attached to nacelle, mounted at the top of a tower. It contains rotor
brakes, gearbox, generator and electrical switchgear and control. Brakes are used to stop
the rotor when power generation is not desired. Gearbox steps up the shaft rpm to suit the
generator. Protection and control functions are provided by switchgear and control block.
The generated electrical power is conducted to ground terminals through a cable.
(d) Yaw Control Mechanism: The mechanism to adjust the nacelle around vertical axis to keep
it facing the wind is provided at the base of nacelle.
(e) Tower: Tower supports nacelle and rotor. For medium and large sized turbines, the tower
is slightly taller than the rotor diameter. In case of small sized turbine, the tower is much
larger than the rotor diameter as the air is erratic at lower heights. Both steel and concrete
towers are being used. The construction can be either tubular or lattice type. The tower
vibrations and resulting fatigue cycles under wind speed fluctuations are avoided by careful
design. This requires avoidance of all resonance frequencies of tower, the rotor and the
nacelle from the wind fluctuation frequencies.
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(B) Vertical Axis Wind Turbine (VAWT)

VAWTs are in the development stage and many models are undergoing field trial. Main attractions
of a VAWT are:
(i) It can accept wind from any direction, eliminating the need of yaw control.
(ii) Gearbox, generator etc. are located at the ground, thus eliminating the heavy nacelle at
the top of the tower. This simplifies the design and installation of the whole structure,
including tower.
(iii) The inspection and maintenance also gets easier and
(iv) It also reduces the overall cost.
The constructional details of a vertical axis wind turbine (Darrieus type rotor) are shown in Fig.
1.3. The details of main components are as follows:

Figure 1.3. Darrieus type Vertical Axis Wind Turbine

(a) Tower (or Rotor Shaft): The tower is a hollow vertical rotor shaft, which rotates freely
about vertical axis between top and bottom bearings. It is installed above a support
structure. In the absence of any load at the top, a very strong tower is not required, which
greatly simplifies its design. The upper part of the tower is supported by guy ropes. The
height of the tower of a large turbine is around 100 m.
(b) Blades: It has two or three thin, curved blades shaped like an eggbeater in profile, with
blades curved in a form that minimizes the bending stress caused by centrifugal forces-the
so-called ‘Troposkien’ profile. The blades have airfoil cross section with constant chord
length. The pitch of the blades cannot be changed. The diameter of the rotor is slightly less
than the tower height.
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(c) Support Structure: Support structure is provided at the ground to support the weight of the
rotor. Gearbox, generator, brakes, electrical switchgear and controls are housed within this
structure.

Advantages of Horizontal-axis Wind Turbines over Vertical-axis Wind Turbines

1. Stability: Blades are to the side of the turbines’ centre of gravity, helping stability.
2. Ability to wing warp: This gives the turbine blades the best angle of attack.
3. Ability to pitch the rotor blades in a storm to minimize damage: Variable blade pitch, which
gives the turbine blades the optimum angle of attack. Allowing the angle of attack to be
remotely adjusted gives great control, so the turbine collects the maximum amount of wind
energy for the time of day and season.
4. Tall tower allows access to strong wind in sites with wind shear: In some wind shear sites,
every 10m up, the wind speed can increase by 20% and the power output by 34%.
5. High efficiency: Since the blades always move perpendicularly to the wind, and receives
power through the whole rotation. In contrast, all VAWT, and the most proposed airborne
wind turbine designs involve various types of reciprocating actions, requiring airfoil
surfaces to backtrack against the wind for part of the cycle. Backtracking against the wind
leads to inherently low efficiency.
6. Tall tower allows placement on uneven land or in offshore locations.
7. Can be sited in forest above tree-line.
8. Most are self-starting.

Disadvantages of Horizontal-axis Wind Turbines over Vertical-axis Wind Turbines

1. It is difficult to transport (20% of equipment costs) and install. Tall masts and blades are
more difficult to transport and install. Transportation and installation can now cost 20% of
equipment costs. Further, it requires tall cranes and skilled operators.
2. Strong tower construction is required to support the heavy blades, gearbox, and generator.
3. Effect radar in proximity reflections from tall HAWTs may affect side lobes of radar
installations creating signal clutter, although filtering can suppress it.
4. Difficult to maintain.
5. Fatigue issues leading to blade failure.
6. They require an additional yaw control mechanism to turn the blades toward the wind.

The main benefits of wind power are that it is clean, safe, and endlessly renewable but the biggest
advantage of generating electricity using the winds energy is that the wind that powers the wind
turbines is completely free. Using wind energy has many other advantages as well as disadvantages
over other forms of renewable energy sources as listed below.

Advantages of Wind Energy Harvesting

1. Wind energy is a clean and renewable technology that does not release pollutants,
emissions or by-products into the atmosphere during operation since there are no chemical
processes involved in its electrical generation.
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2. Modern turbines produce very little mechanical noise when operating except for a low
“whooshing” sound.
3. Wind energy, which is actually a secondary component of solar energy, is a “renewable
energy” in the sense that there will always be wind as long as the sun continues to heat the
earth unevenly, and the earth continues to rotate.
4. Although the strength of the wind varies from one day to another, the total output of energy
over a set period of time, varies by only a small percentage as wind turbines are designed
to operate within a wind speed window which is usually between 10mph and 60mph or
4m/s to 25m/s.
5. Although wind turbines and especially wind farms take up a lot of land space, the land on
a wind farm can be used simultaneously for wind generation, crops growing, animal
grazing or anything else below the vanes of the turbines.
6. Wind generation can be done in remote areas and on any scale from small personal and
domestic use to large full size wind farms, which means that even remote mountainous
places that might otherwise be regarded as “off grid” can generate power.

Disadvantages of Wind Energy Harvesting

1. The environmental impact of wind energy as many people consider wind farms unsightly
and as man-made structures, the turbines may have a negative visual impact or be viewed
as a form of visual pollution.
2. Wind farms require large areas of land or have to be placed in environmentally sensitive
areas such as deserts, on top of hills and mountain ridges or offshore in the sea were the
winds force is stronger and constant.
3. The wind turbine is like a giant propeller and as such needs the kinetic power of the wind
to rotate it meaning that at low wind speeds or prolonged levels of no wind (calm weather),
the turbine does not generate any useful electricity.
4. Wind farms injure, kill and disturb the flight patterns of migratory birds and predatory
birds. Some birds and even bats have been killed by flying into the wind turbine blades
when rotating, but these numbers are very small.
5. Wind turbines cause noise pollution because they produce a low frequency “whooshing
sound” as the blades rotate which itself is largely masked by the noise of the driving wind.
6. The initial investment in the turbines, transportation and ground works makes wind energy
costs higher than for conventional fossil-fuel generators.
7. The best locations for converting wind into electricity are far away from populated urban
areas, which often means that the electricity must be stored and/or transported over long
cable distances.
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1.2 TIDAL ENERGY

1.2.1. Introduction
Tidal Energy or Tidal Power is another form of hydro power that exploits the vast energy source
of the oceans tides to generate electricity. Tidal Energy is a “sustainable energy source”, as the
Earth uses the gravitational forces of both the moon and the sun every day to move vast quantities
of water around the oceans and seas producing tides.
Tides are created because of the gravitational and kinematic effects due to the position and the
combined motion of the Earth, the Moon and the Sun. The Moon, even though it has much smaller
mass than the Sun, plays a more important role in the creation of tides because it is significantly
closer than the Sun. The mass of the Moon ‘‘pulls’’ the ocean water masses in its direction and
creates a ‘‘bulge’’ on the surface of the ocean. The effect of the Moon’s pull is modified by the
effect of the Sun, as shown in Fig. 1.4. When the Earth, the Moon and the sun are aligned, the tides
are amplified and are called spring tides. When the three bodies form a right-angle triangle the
tidal effect is modulated and we have the neap tides. There are two periods of spring tides and two
of neap tides during every Moon cycle, which lasts for approximately 29.5 days.

Figure 1.4. Spring and Neap Tides

The average range of the surface of the oceans is twice the maximum height, or approximately
1 𝑚. The bulges on the tidal deformations on the surface of the ocean form the tidal waves, which
are shallow, long wavelength waves that move on the surface of the Earth’s Ocean. At any time,
there are two highs and two lows on the surface of the ocean.
The Earth rotates around its axis with a period of 24 h, and the apparent motion of the moon is a
rotation around the Earth with a period of 24 h and 50 min. This implies that the tidal waves
propagate on the surface of the oceans with a period, which is half the apparent period of rotation
of the Moon. Therefore, the period of the ocean tides is 12 h 25 min or approximately 45,000 s.
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According to elementary wave theory, typical speeds of propagation of the tidal waves are close
to 200 m/s.
The presence of the continental shelves, the variable ocean depth and the irregularity of the
coastlines interfere significantly with tidal waves and cause local distortions and resonances. The
resonances create tidal waves with different amplitudes locally, which are significantly higher than
the global average range of 1 𝑚. These are most common in bays, gulfs and estuaries. Tidal ranges
between 5 and 10 m have been observed in several narrow bays and estuaries. Several of these
high ranges are listed in Table 1.2. These ranges reveal a few of the locations on the Earth with
high potential for electricity production from tidal power.
Table 1.2. shows that the amount of tidal power, which is available for conversion to electricity,
is very high. The average power available in several of the locations listed in this Table is equal to
that produced by tens of conventional fossil fuel plants. For example, the power available in the
Cobequid area alone is equivalent to 31% of the total electricity that was consumed in Canada in
2009. Similarly, the full utilization of the tidal power resources in France and England has the
capacity to provide between 25 and 30% of the electricity consumption in the two countries.
Clearly, tidal power if developed and well utilized may provide a high percentage of the electric
energy demand and will prove to be an excellent alternative to fossil fuels.
Table 1.2. Locations with high potential for tidal energy conversion (one pool system)
Location Country Range, m Average Power (MW)
Cobequid Canada 10.7 20000
Passmaquaddy Canada 5.5 1800
Sevem river England 9.8 1680
La Rance France 8.4 349
Mont St. Michel France 8.4 9700
Kimberlay Australia 6.4 630
Mesen Russia 6.6 14000
Khambat India 7.0 7000

1.2.2 Tidal Energy Utilization

Types of Tidal Energy Generation Systems

Presently, there are two types of tidal energy conversion systems normally used to generate
electricity from tidal energy. They are (1) Tidal Barrage system and (2) Tidal Current or Stream
system.

(1) Tidal Barrage Generation System

A Tidal Barrage (Figure 1.5) is a type of tidal power generation that involves the construction of
a fairly low dam wall, known as a “barrage” and hence its name, across the entrance of a tidal inlet
or basin creating a tidal reservoir.
This dam has a number of underwater tunnels cut into its width allowing sea water to flow through
them in a controllable way using “sluice gates”. Fixed within the tunnels are huge water turbine
generators that spin as the water rushes past them generating tidal electricity.
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Figure 1.5. Tidal Barrage Generation System

A tidal barrage generates electricity using the difference in the vertical height between the
incoming high tides and the outgoing low tides. As the tide ebbs and flows, sea water is allowed
to flow in or out of the reservoir through a one way underwater tunnel system. This flow of tidal
water back and forth causes the water turbine generators located within the tunnels to rotate
producing tidal energy with special generators used to produce electricity on both the incoming
and the outgoing tides.
The one disadvantage of Tidal Barrage Generation, is that it can only generate electricity when
the tide is actually flowing either “in” or “out” as during high and low tide times the tidal water is
stationary.
However, because tides are totally predictable, other power stations can compensate for this
stationary period when there is no tidal energy being produced. Another disadvantage of a tidal
barrage system, is the environmental and ecological effects that a long concrete dam may have on
the estuaries they span.

(2) Tidal Current or Stream Generation System

A Tidal Stream Generation system (Figure 1.6) reduces some of the environmental effects of tidal
barrages by using turbine generators beneath the surface of the water. Major tidal flows and ocean
currents, like the Gulf Stream, can be exploited to extract its tidal energy using underwater rotors
and turbines.
Tidal stream generation is very similar in principle to wind power generation, except this time
water currents flow across a turbines rotor blade which rotates the turbine, much like how wind
currents turn the blades for wind power turbines. In fact, tidal stream generation areas on the sea
bed can look just like underwater wind farms.
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Figure 1.6. Tidal Stream Generation System

Unlike off-shore wind power which can suffer from storms or heavy sea damage, tidal stream
turbines operate just below the sea surface or are fixed to the sea bed. Tidal streams are formed by
the horizontal fast flowing volumes of water caused by the ebb and flow of the tide as the profile
of the sea bed causes the water to speed up as it approaches the shoreline.
As water is much more denser than air and has a much slower flow rate, tidal stream turbines have
much smaller diameters and higher tip speed rates compared to an equivalent wind turbine. Tidal
stream turbines generate tidal power on both the ebb and flow of the tide. One of the disadvantages
of Tidal Stream Generation is that as the turbines are submerged under the surface of the water
they can create hazards to navigation and shipping.
Other forms of tidal energy include tidal fences which use individual vertical-axis turbines that are
mounted within a fence structure, known as the caisson, which completely blocks a channel and
force water through them. Another alternative way of harnessing tidal power is by using an
“oscillating tidal turbine”.
This is basically a fixed wing called a Hydroplane positioned on the sea bed. The hydroplane uses
the energy of the tidal stream flowing past it to oscillate its giant wing, similar to a whales flipper,
up and down with the movement of the tidal currents. This motion is then used to generate
electricity. The angle of the hydroplane to the flow of the tide can be varied to increase efficiency.

1.2.3 Advantages Tidal Energy

(1) Tidal energy is a renewable energy resource because the energy it produces is free and clean as
no fuel is needed and no waste bi-products are produced.
(2) Tidal energy has the potential to produce a great deal of free and green energy.
(3) Generally tidal energy is not expensive to operate and maintain compared to other forms of
renewable energies.
(4) Low visual impact as the tidal turbines are mainly if not totally submerged beneath the water.
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(5) Low noise pollution as any sound generated is transmitted through the water.
(6) High predictability as high and low tides can be predicted years in advance, unlike wind.
(7) Tidal barrages provide protection against flooding and land damage.
(8) Large tidal reservoirs have multiple uses and can create recreational lakes and areas where
before there were none.

1.2.4 Disadvantages of Tidal Energy

(1) Tidal energy is not always a constant energy source as it depends on the strength and flow of
the tides which themselves are affected by the gravitational effects of the moon and the sun.
(2) Tidal Energy requires a suitable site, where the tides and tidal streams are consistently strong.
(3) Must be able to withstand forces of nature resulting in high capital, construction and
maintenance costs.
(4) High power distribution costs to send the generated power from the submerged devices to the
land using long underwater cables.
(5) Intermittent power generation, only generates power ten hours a day during the ebb and flow of
the tides
(6) Changes to estuary ecosystem and an increase in coastal erosion where the tides are
concentrated.
(7) Buildup of silt, sediments and pollutants within the tidal barrage from rivers and streams flowing
into basin as it is unable to flow out into the sea.
(8) Danger to fish and other sea-life as they get stuck in the barrage or sucked through the tidal
turbine blades.
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1.3. WAVE ENERGY

1.3.1. Introduction
Ocean wave energy, or just simply Wave Energy, is another type of ocean based renewable energy
source that uses the power of the waves to generate electricity. Unlike tidal energy which uses the
ebb and flow of the tides, wave energy uses the vertical movement of the surface water that
produce tidal waves.
Wave Energy is an indirect form of wind energy that causes movement of the water on the surface
of the oceans and by capturing this energy the motion of the waves is converted to mechanical
energy and used to drive an electricity generator. In many respects, the technology used for
capturing this wave energy is similar to tidal energy or hydroelectric power.
In its simplest terms, an ocean wave is the up-and-down vertical movement of the sea water which
varies sinusoidally with time. This sinusoidal wave has high points called crests and low points
called troughs. The difference in height of a wave between the crest and the trough is called the
range, then the wave’s amplitude is the centre of these two points and corresponds to the actual
sea level when there is no movement of the water, in other words, a calm sea.

Figure 1.7. Ocean Wave and its Terminology

Waves transport energy from where they were created by storms far out in the ocean to a shoreline.
But a typical ocean wave does not resemble a perfect sinusoid, they are more irregular and complex
than a simple sinusoidal wave. Only the steady up-and-down movement of a heavy swell resembles
a sinusoidal wave much more than the chaotic nature of locally generated wind waves, as real sea
waves contain a mixture of waves with different frequencies, wave heights and directions.
Permanent ocean currents occur in several parts of the sea and are generated by a variety of forces
including: the Coriolis force; the predominant surface wind; temperature and salinity gradients;
the predominant tides. Variability in depth contours and shoreline configurations affect the ocean
currents’ direction and power potential. High intensity ocean currents are frequently met in the
waterways between islands, at the tip of large peninsulas and capes, for example off Cape Hateras
in North Carolina, U.S.A. or at waterways that connect oceans, as for example the Straight of
Magellan at the southernmost point of South America.
An ocean current is in all respects similar to a wind current. As with the wind power, the available
power of ocean currents is given by the expression:
1
𝑊 = 𝐴 𝜌𝑉 3
2
 16

The power production limitation on wind power, or Betz’s Law is also applicable to the ocean
currents. The maximum power that may be produced from a water turbine, which is placed within
the current, would be:
8
𝑊𝑚𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 = 𝜌𝐴 𝑉𝑖3
27
A significant difference between wind and ocean currents is that the density of the water is
approximately 832 times higher than that of air. This implies that significantly more power may
be produced by water currents. For example a small ocean current turbine with 3 𝑚 blade diameter
would produce a maximum of almost 152 𝑘𝑊 of electric power. Such an engine would only
produce 0.20 𝑘𝑊 from the wind. As a result, sea current turbines may be significantly smaller and
more compact than their wind counterparts.
Energy in the waves is harnessed basically in the form of mechanical energy using wave energy
converters, also known as wave devices or wave machines. A wave device may be placed in the
ocean in various possible situations and locations. The fluctuating mechanical energy obtained is
modified/smoothed out to drive a generator. Wave energy devices may be classified in various
ways. Depending upon the location of these devices, it can be classified as (i) off shore or deep-
water (water depth of 40 m or more) devices and (ii) shoreline devices. The availability of wave
power at deep ocean sites is three to eight times that of adjacent coastal sites. However, the cost
of construction/installation, operation and power transmission is quite large. Shoreline devices on
the other hand have the advantage of relatively easier maintenance and installation and they do not
require deep-water moorings and long underwater cables. Depending upon the position with
respect to sea level they are classified as: (i) floating, (ii) submerged and (iii) partly submerged
devices. Submerged devices have the benefit of avoiding the worst storm conditions but have
increased difficulties of maintenance.

1.3.2. Wave Energy Devices

Ocean wave energy has many advantages over ocean wind energy in that it is more predictable,
less variable and offers higher available energy densities. Depending on the distance between the
energy conversion device and the shoreline, wave energy systems can be classified as being either
Shoreline devices, Nearshore devices or Offshore devices.

Figure 1.8. Wave Energy Devices

Shoreline devices are wave energy devices which are fixed to or embedded in the shoreline, that
is they are both in and out of the water.
 17

Nearshore devices are characterised by being used to extract the wave power directly from the
breaker zone and the waters immediately beyond the breaker zone, (i.e. at 20 m water depth).
Offshore devices or deep water devices are the farthest out to sea and extend beyond the breaker
lines utilising the high-energy densities and higher power wave profiles available in the deep water
waves and surges.
One of the advantages of offshore devices is that there is no need for significant coastal earthworks,
as there is with onshore devices.
As most of the energy within a wave is contained near the surface and falls off sharply with depth.
There is a surprising range of designs available that maximise the energy available for capture.
These wave energy devices are either fixed bottom standing designs used in shallow water and
which pierce the waters surface, or fully floating devices that are used to capture the kinetic energy
content of a waves movement and convert each movement into electricity using a generator.
Depending on the actuating motion used in capturing the wave power, these devices are classified
as: (i) heaving float type, (ii) pitching type, (iii) heaving and pitching float type, and (iv) oscillating
water column type. For each of these types several designs have been developed and tested with
many more still at the design stage. Some designs will be discussed here:
1. Heaving Float Type
A float (buoy) placed on the surface of water heaves up and down with waves due to rise and fall
of water level. The resulting vertical motion is used to operate the piston of an air pump through
linkage. The pump may be anchored or moored to seabed. Several float-operated air pumps are
used to store energy in compressed air storage. The compressed air is used to generate electricity
through air turbine coupled to a generator.
Power may also be extracted from a buoy by means of an internally suspended weight, with high
inertia but free to swing. Energy is extracted from differential motion of buoy and pendulum. In
another version, hydraulic pump is operated by the motion of buoy to raise water to an onshore
reservoir and passed through a turbo-generator to generate electricity. In a Swedish design a
submerged flexible tube attached to buoy is used as air pump. Motion of buoy stretches the tube,
decreasing its volume to provide the pumping action. These designs are shown in Fig. 1.9.
 18

Figure 1.9. Heaving Float type Device

2. Oscillating Water Column Type

This device comprise a partly submerged concrete or steel structure, which has an opening to the
sea below the water line, thereby enclosing a column of air above a column of water. The wave
impinging on the device causes the water column to rise and fall, which alternately compresses or
depressurizes the air column. The air is allowed to flow through a turbine, which drives the
generator. The specially developed axial flow Well’s turbine, which operates with either directions
of airflow, is used to extract energy as shown in Fig. 1.10. Conventional (unidirectional) air turbine
with rectifying valves can also be used. Main advantages of oscillating water column device are:
(i) the air velocity can be increased by reducing the cross-section area of the air channel. Thus the
slow wave motion can be coupled to high-speed turbine motion. (ii) generating equipment are kept
away from immediate saline water environment.

Figure 1.10. Oscillating Water Column Device

3. Spill-over Type or Overtopping Devices

Overtopping Devices – also known as “spill-over” devices (Figure 1.11), are either fixed or
floating structures that use ramps and tapered sides positioned perpendicular to the waves. The sea
waves are driven up the ramp and over the sides filling-up a small tidal reservoir which is located
 19

2 to 3 metres above sea level. The potential energy of the water trapped inside the reservoir is then
extracted by returning the water back to the sea through a low head Kaplan turbine generator to
produce electricity.

Figure 1.11. Overtopping Device

1.3.3. Advantages of Wave Energy

(1) Wave energy is an abundant and renewable energy resource as the waves are generated
by the wind.
(2) Pollution free as wave energy generates little or no pollution to the environment compared
to other green energies.
(3) Reduces dependency on fossil fuels as wave energy consumes no fossil fuels during
operation.
(4) Wave energy is relatively consistent and predictable as waves can be accurately forecast
several days in advance.
(5) Wave energy devices are modular and easily sited with additional wave energy devices
added as needed.
(6) Dissipates the waves energy protecting the shoreline from coastal erosion.
(7) Presents no barriers or difficulty to migrating fish and aquatic animals.

1.3.4. Disadvantages of Wave Energy

(1) Visual impact of wave energy conversion devices on the shoreline and offshore floating
buoys or platforms.
(2) Wave energy conversion devices are location dependent requiring suitable sites were the
waves are consistently strong.
(3) Intermittent power generation as the waves come in intervals and does not generate power
during calm periods.
(4) Offshore wave energy devices can be a threat to navigation that cannot see or detect them
by radar.
(5) High power distribution costs to send the generated power from offshore devices to the
land using long underwater cables.
(6) They must be able to withstand forces of nature resulting in high capital, construction and
maintenance costs.
 20

1.4. SOLAR THERMAL ENERGY CONVERSION

The common characteristic of all Solar-Thermal systems for energy conversion is that they capture
the solar radiation as heat and subsequently use this heat primarily for two purposes:
a) The production of electricity via a conventional thermal cycle, and
b) Residential space or water heating and the supply of heat for commercial and industrial
processes.
For this process to be efficient and economical, it is necessary to collect and concentrate the diffuse
solar radiation in an efficient manner to arrive at a reasonably high-temperature heat source. Solar
thermal collectors gather the sun’s energy and direct it onto the receivers that contain the working
fluid. The receivers that can be considered are:
1. Central receivers
2. Dispersed or distributed receivers – can be a) the point-focus type or b) the line-focus type
3. Solar ponds
1.4.1. Solar-Thermal Power Plant (Central Receiver Type System)
The central receiver approach to solar-thermal-electric systems uses a large field of reflecting
mirrors called heliostats that redirect the sun’s energy and concentrate it on a central receiver
mounted on top of a tower. The heliostats are individually guided, since they cover a large field,
so that each focuses the sun’s energy it receives on the central receiver at all hours of sunlight. In
the receiver the concentrated solar energy is absorbed by a circulating fluid. The fluid could be
water, which vaporizes into steam that is used to drive a turbogenerator in a Rankine cycle, or an
intermediate fluid that transports the heat to the steam cycle.
The system should incorporate storage for nighttime and cloudy periods as shown in the Fig.1.12.
The receiver output is made greater than that required by the steam cycle, and the excess output
during periods of greatest solar incidence is bypassed to a thermal storage system. During periods
of low or no solar incidence, the feedwater is shunted to the storage system, instead of to the
receiver, where it vaporizes for use in the turbine, proper valving in the system allows operation
in either mode.
Since these power plants are located in arid areas, condenser water is cooled using a dry cooling
tower which requires no makeup water.
 21

Figure 1.12. Central Receiver-Heliostat Based Solar Power Plant

1.4.2. Distributed Solar Thermal Systems

Another approach to solar thermal energy conversion, besides the central receiver tower concept
is the distributed or dispersed solar thermal system. Rather than hundreds of heliostats focusing
solar energy on a single distant receiver atop a tall tower, this system is characterized by the use
of a large number of collectors, called concentrators.

1.4.3. Parabolic Dish System (Point-focus dish concentrator)

A parabolic dish collector is similar in appearance to a large satellite dish as shown in Fig. 1.13,
but has mirror-like reflectors and an absorber at the focal point. It uses a dual-axis sun tracker.
1. Concentrating solar energy onto a receiver located at the focal point of the dish.
2. The dish structure must track fully the sun to reflect the beam into the thermal receiver.
 22

The receiver absorbs the radiant solar energy, converting it into thermal energy in a circulating
fluid. The thermal energy can then either be converted into electricity using an engine–generator
coupled directly to the receiver, or it can be transported through pipes to a central power conversion
system. Parabolic-dish systems can achieve temperatures in excess of 1,500°C. Because the
receivers are distributed throughout a collector field, like parabolic troughs, parabolic dishes are
often called distributed receiver systems.
The following are the important advantages of parabolic dish reflectors:
1. They are the most efficient of all collector systems as they are always pointing the sun.
2. They typically have concentration ratio in the range of 500–2,000, and thus are highly efficient
at thermal energy absorption and power conversion systems.
3. They have modular collector and receiver units that can either function independently or as part
of a large system of dishes.
This type of solar thermal energy concentrator is primarily used with parabolic dish engine, which
is usually a Stirling engine coupled to a generator.

Figure 1.13. Parabolic Dish System

1.4.4. Solar Pond

The concept of the solar ponds combines power production from solar energy and storage. A solar
pond is essentially a pool of water, approximately 1 m deep. In a typical pool the water is heated
by the Sun and rises to the surface, where it partly evaporates. The evaporation of the water vents
a great deal of the pool’s water as vapor; does not allow the accumulation of a great deal of energy
in the pool; and keeps the average temperature of the water to low levels. Actually, the temperature
of a typical pool in the summer is low enough for it to be used for recreational activities. If the
natural convection process that brings warmer fluid to the pool surface is suppressed, it is possible
for the water temperature at the bottom of the pool to increase significantly by absorbing solar
radiation. This may be accomplished in a salt-gradient solar pond, which uses natural salt (NaCl)
as well as transparent partitions to suppress the natural convection in the pool. The depth of the
solar pond is approximately 1 m and its bottom and walls are coated with a light absorbing
material. The water in the solar pond is usually separated in three layers:
 23

a) The bottom layer is saturated with salt and, therefore, its density is significantly greater
than the density of pure water
b) The intermediate layer, which also contains salt at lower concentration, and
c) The upper layer, which is pure water without any salt.
Even though some solar ponds do not have partitions between the three layers, it is advisable to
include transparent partitions in order to suppress molecular diffusion, which will disturb and
annihilate the salt gradient.
When sunlight enters the solar pond, it is captured by the absorbing bottom and walls as well as
the water. The temperature of the water close to the bottom rises, but the density of the salty water
in this layer is high enough for natural convection to not occur. The transparent partitions between
the three layers create a ‘‘greenhouse effect,’’ thus trapping an additional quantity of heat in the
two bottom layers. A great deal of the insolation absorbed remains at the bottom of the pond, where
the temperature rises significantly. Temperatures as high as 95℃ have been recorded in the bottom
layer of well-designed solar ponds. Temperatures of this magnitude are sufficient to produce vapor
in a suitable secondary fluid, such as pentane, butane or a refrigerant, which becomes the working
fluid of a Rankine cycle operating with the solar pond as the boiler.
Because the water has very high heat capacity, a solar pond may store a significant amount of
energy to be used when the Sun is low in the horizon. The production of electricity from a solar
pond may continue even in the evening hours, when there is no natural insolation, thus providing
a good alternative to produce power in the evening hours, when the demand is high because of air-
conditioning needs. The main advantage of solar ponds is that they serve simultaneously as electric
power generating plants as well as storage media.
The disadvantage of solar ponds is that they loose a significant amount of heat to the ground and
to the atmospheric air. Because of this, the temperature of the lower zone becomes high enough to
produce power for only a limited period of time during the year, typically for a few weeks during
the summer. Even during these weeks, the solar pond temperature drops during the nights to levels
that do not support power generation. Therefore, the energy efficiency of solar ponds defined as
the electric energy produced during a year divided by the total incident solar energy is expected to
be very low.

Figure 1.14. Solar Pond based Power Plant

 24

1.4.5. Solar Water Heater - Solar Flat Plate Collector

The most widespread use of solar energy is the passive heating of buildings and water. While
passive heating does not produce electricity or any other form of energy, it helps avoid the use of
fossil fuels or electric power for heating purposes and, thus, helps conserve the energy resources
of the planet.
Passive solar heating in buildings is caused by an artificial greenhouse effect: Glass and several
polymeric materials allow low-wavelength solar radiation to pass through them, but trap high-
wavelength radiation. These materials effectively act as high-wavelength radiation filters. An
enclosure that is covered by one of the greenhouse materials and faces the Sun ‘‘traps’’ a great
deal of the solar energy.
As a consequence, the temperature inside the enclosure will rise. Thermodynamic equilibrium
between the enclosure and its surroundings will be established when the heat transfer from the
enclosure—via conduction and advection—is equal to the difference of the radiation energy that
enters and exits the enclosure. A simple piece of glass placed on the top of an otherwise open water
tank, which is exposed to the Sun in the southern European countries, would raise the temperature
of the water by 15 − 25℃. This is an adequate temperature for the water to be used in domestic
applications. Well-insulated enclosures may reach temperatures 40 − 50℃ higher than the
ambient. Such enclosures are called solar collectors or simply collectors. The solar collectors are
typically placed on the roofs of buildings, facing the prevailing direction of the Sun- south in the
northern hemisphere and north in the southern hemisphere and are used for water and space
heating.
A schematic diagram of the cross-section of a solar collector is depicted in Fig.1.15 (b). Because
a typical collector as shown in Fig.1.15 (a) is placed on a roof, the solar collector depicted is at an
angle with the horizontal. A line diagram of the solar water heater is given in Fig.1.15 (c). The
inside material of the collector is coated with absorbing paint and usually has a dark color. Solar
energy enters the top of the collector through the double glass and heats up the enclosed fluid,
which is typically water or a solution. Depending on the design of the collector, the temperature
of this fluid may reach 70 − 85℃. Another, closed water circuit picks up the heat from the
collector and dissipates it inside the building: the water that is circulated through the pipes of this
circuit may supply the tank of a water heater and maintain it at the typically required temperature
of 40 − 50℃, or it may circulate via space heaters to supply the heat required to maintain a
comfortable condition in the building.
Solar collectors may trap direct or diffuse solar radiation. Because they also absorb diffused
radiation, they may operate even in the cloudy autumn and winter days when most of the heating
for the buildings is needed. Since the heated water may be stored for later use, the solar heating of
buildings is not limited only to the daylight hours and may extend into the night hours. With the
appropriate design of the heating system, solar heating may provide hot water and heat for
buildings throughout the year and save a significant amount of primary energy resources.
 25

(c) Solar Water Heater – Flat Plate Type

Figure 1.15. Flat plate collector for Water Heating

 26

1.4.6. Selection of Solar Collectors – A Practical Approach

Sizing a Solar Flat Plate Collector for use in a solar hot water or heating system depends upon the
hot water demand. If the homes hot water consumption or maximum water temperature is reduced,
hot water demands may be supplied by a smaller solar array that is easy to install on the roof. Also,
smaller thermal systems are cheaper to install and will pay for themselves sooner through energy
savings.
Sizing a solar thermal energy system of course depends on your hot water needs, temperature and
consumption but general rules of thumb can be used to help give an idea of a system size.
Solar flat plate collectors usually range in size from about 32 square feet (4 x 8 ft) or 3 square
metres and can weigh more than 200 pounds or 100 kilo-grams each. One square foot (1000 cm2)
heats about two gallons or 10 litres of water per day to well over 70oC. Therefore a single panel
of 20 to 30 square feet will heat about 60 gallons (300 litres) of water which is about the size of a
standard hot water storage tank.
In general, you will need about 10 to 16 ft2 of flat plate collector area per person and about 1.5 to
2.0 gallons of hot water storage per square foot of collector area. So for a family of four persons
this translate into 40 to 60 square feet of collector plate area and 60 to 120 gallons of storage. Then
a solar hot water heating system for a family of four would need at least two standard solar flat
plate collectors of about 32 square feet (4 x 8 ft) each.
Although they have a higher initial cost than a conventional gas, oil and electric water heaters,
solar thermal will dramatically reduce fuel consumption and can have a payback period of less
than 10 years. There are several solar water heater design types and plans that are currently
manufactured by suppliers.

1.4.7. Advantages of Solar Energy

1) Solar energy will be accessible as long as we have the sun and hence it is a truly renewable
energy source. It can be harnessed in all areas of the world and is available every day.
2) Since solar power is pollution-free, causes no greenhouse gases and freely available in
the nature, it can be used as an alternative to high-cost energy sources.
3) Reduced dependence on foreign oil and fossil fuels
4) Can be installed virtually anywhere; in a field to on a building
5) Ability to live grid free if all power generated provides enough for the home/building and
excess power can be sold back to the power company if the grid inner tied
6) Renewable clean power that is available every day of the year, even cloudy days produce
some power
7) Solar energy can be converted into other forms of energy; hence it can be used for a wide
range of applications from household, industrial to electricity production.
8) Solar energy systems generally don’t require a lot of maintenance. You only need to keep
them relatively clean, so cleaning them a couple of times per year will do the job.

1.4.8. Disadvantages of Solar Energy

1) Solar energy is a dilute source of energy. So, it may take up a significant amount of land
and cause land degradation or habitat loss for wildlife. Larger utility-scale PV systems
 27

may require up to 3.5 to 10 acres per megawatt and CSP facilities require anywhere from
4 to 16.5 acres per megawatt.
2) Collection of solar energy is a critical and difficult stage. Special components are required
to collect the solar energy and also to concentrate it efficiently.
3) Solar energy depends entirely on a country’s exposure to sunlight; this could be limited
by a country’s climate.
4) One of the biggest problems that solar energy technology poses is that energy is only
generated while the sun is shining. That means night time and overcast days can interrupt
the supply.
5) The energy collected during the Sun shining must be stored for its use during night times
and cloudy conditions. Storage devices (batteries) increase the cost of solar systems. The
batteries can often be large and heavy, taking up space and needing to be replaced from
time to time.
6) Solar panels can be expensive to install resulting in a time-lag of many years for savings
on energy bills to match initial investments.

Review Questions:
1. Write a short note on formation of wind and comment on its variation with height. Also
comment on effect of wind energy harvesting on environment.
2. Sketch and explain the construction and working of HAWT. Evaluate its merits and demerits.
3. Illustrate with a neat sketch the construction and working of VAWT. Evaluate its merits and
demerits
4. Explain the formation of Tides with a neat sketch, comment on effect of tidal energy on
environment
5. Illustrate with a neat sketch, the operation of single basin single effect and double effect
schemes.
6. Illustrate with sketch working of Tidal barrages and Tidal turbine. Explain the significance of
these system to society.
7. List the advantage and disadvantages of Tidal Energy conversion system and comment on its
economic issues.
8. Write a note on the concept of solar pond and its use for power generation. Comment on its cost
of generation and initial investments.
9. Illustrate with diagram the construction and working of Solar water heater and explain selection
parameter of solar water heater for domestic, commercial applications
10. Explain with neat sketch Pitching type and oscillating type wave energy conversion system.
11. Mention advantages and disadvantages of wave energy conversion and comment on latest
development in wave energy.
12. Write a short note on central receiver-heliostat based solar power plant.
13. With a neat concept diagram discuss a solar water heater suitable for your home.
 28

2. BELT DRIVE

2.1 INTRODUCTION
The power is transmitted from the prime mover (power source), for example electric motor, to
machines like, drilling machine, lathe, etc., by means of intermediate mechanism called
drives. Most commonly used drives are:
Belt drive, Rope drive, Chain drive and Gear drive.
The selection of particular type of drive depends on the application, i.e., the amount of power
transmitted, distance between the two shafts, etc,

2.2 COMPONENTS OF BELT DRIVE

The belt drives are used to transmit power or motion from one shaft to another by means of a
inextensible belt running over two pulleys (Fig. 2.1). A pulley is a circular disc having a hole
at center so as to accommodate a shaft in it. Motion is transmitted due to frictional force
between the pulleys and the belt surface. Belt drives run smoothly and with little noise, and
provide shock absorption for motors, loads, and bearings when the force and power needed
changes. A drawback to belt drives is that they transmit less power than gears or chain drives.

Figure 2.1 Belt drives

A simple arrangement of belt drive is shown in figure 2.2. The belt drive consists of two
pulleys mounted on two different shafts and a continuous inextensible belt running over these
two pulleys. One shaft called the driving shaft receives power from the mains and transmits to
another shaft called driven shaft. The pulley mounted on the driving shaft is called driving
pulley or driver while the other pulley mounted on a shaft to which the power is to be
transmitted is called the driven pulley or follower. The belt passing over the pulley is kept in
tension so as to avoid slip over the pulley. This helps in transmitting power effectively from
one shaft to another.
 29

Figure 2.2 Belt drive arrangement

2.3 TYPES OF BELT DRIVE

There are two types of belt drives – open belt, and cross belt drives.

Figure 2.3 Open belt drive

In open belt drive, the driving and the driven pulley are rotating in the same direction. When
shafts are placed apart, the lower side of the belt should be tight side and upper side must be
the slack side. When the upper side becomes slack side, it will sag due to its own weight and
thus increases the arc of contact which in turn increases the capacity of the drive.
In cross belt drives they rotate in opposite directions. At the junction where the belt crosses, it
rubs against itself and wears off. To avoid excessive wear, the shaft must be placed at a
maximum distance from each other and operate at low speeds.
 30

Figure 2.4 Cross belt drive

2.4 VELOCITY RATIO OF BELT DRIVE

The velocity ratio of a belt drive is defined as the ratio of the speed of the driven pulley to the
speed of the driving pulley.
When there is no slip, the peripheral velocity of the two pulleys should be same.
Let d1 and d2 be the diameter of the driving pulley and driven pulley respectively, let N1 and
N2 be their speeds in rpm.
Linear speed of the belt = [circumferential speed of the driving pulley] = [circumferential
speed of the driven pulley]
= [π d1N1] = [πd2N2]
d1N1 = d2N2
Velocity ratio = N2/N1 = d1/d2
Considering thickness of belt ‘t’,
Velocity ratio = N2/N1 = (d1+ t)/ (d2+ t)

2.5 SLIP IN BELT DRIVE

The difference between the tensions in the tight and slack sides of the belt is equal to the force
of friction. When this condition exists in a belt drive, the friction between the pulley and the
belt in contact with it will provide the necessary frictional grip to prevent the sliding of the
belt over the pulley. Suppose the difference between the tension in the tight and slack sides of
the belt is greater than the force of friction, then the belt begins to slide over the surface of the
pulley. This sliding of the belt which causes a relative motion between the pulley and belt is
called slip.
Velocity ratio (when slip is considered) = N2/N1 =
 31

Where, S = % slip

2.6 CREEP IN BELT DRIVE

Any material when subjected to tension elongates, and so is the belt material. This elongation
is directly proportional to the tension in the belt. Tensions on the two sides of the belt passing
over the pulley are different, on the tight side the tension is more, and on the slack side, the
tension is less. Hence, there is a gradual increase in the length of belt over the surface of the
pulley. This stretching results in relative motion between the belt and pulley surfaces. This
phenomenon is called creep. Any material when subjected to tension elongates, and so is the
belt material. This elongation is directly proportional to the tension in the belt. Tensions on
the two sides of the belt passing over the pulley are different, on the tight side the tension is
more, and on the slack side, the tension is less. Hence, there is a gradual increase in the length
of belt over the surface of the pulley. This stretching results in relative motion between the
belt and pulley surfaces. This phenomenon is called creep.

2.7 LENGTH OF BELT FOR OPEN BELT DRIVE

An open belt drive is shown in figure 2.5.

Let
r1 = radius of larger pulley
r2 = radius of larger pulley
X = center distance between two pulleys
L = length of belt

Angle of lap of the smaller pulley = π − 2Φ radians

Angle of lap of the larger pulley = π + 2 Φ radians

Figure 2.5 Length of belt for open belt drive

 32

Substituting Φ and cos Φ in equation, we get

 33

2.8 LENGTH OF BELT FOR CROSS BELT DRIVE

A crossed belt drive is shown in figure 2.6.

Let
r1 = radius of larger pulley
r2 = radius of larger pulley
X = center distance between two pulleys
L = length of belt

Angle of lap of the smaller pulley = π + 2Φ radians

Angle of lap of the larger pulley = π + 2 Φ radians

Figure 2.6 Length of belt for cross belt drive

 34

2.9 INITIAL TENSION BELT DRIVE

When a belt is wound round the two pulleys (i.e., driver and follower), its two ends are joined
together; so that the belt may continuously move over the pulleys, since the motion of the belt
from the driver and the follower is governed by a firm grip, due to friction between the belt and
the pulleys. In order to increase this grip, the belt is tightened up. At this stage, even when the
pulleys are stationary, the belt is subjected to some tension, called initial tension.
When the driver starts rotating, it pulls the belt from one side (increasing tension in the belt on
this side) and delivers it to the other side (decreasing the tension in the belt on that side). The
increased tension in one side of the belt is called tension in tight side and the decreased tension
in the other side of the belt is called tension in the slack side.
Let T0 = Initial tension in the belt,
T1 = Tension in the tight side of the belt,
T2 = Tension in the slack side of the belt,
 35

Initial tension in the belt is given by

2.10 BELT TENTIONS IN FLAT BELT DRIVE

Consider flat belt wound around a driven pulley as shown in figure 2.7 (a). let the driven
pulley rotates in clockwise direction.
Let T1 = tension on tight side of the belt
T2 = tension on slack side of the belt
θ = arc of contact between belt and pulley
µ = coefficient of friction between belt and pulley
Consider a small element PQ of the belt. Let δθ be the angle subtended by the element PQ.
The element PQ is in the equilibrium under the action of the following forces. Refer figure 2.7
(b),
Slack side tension (T) acting at P
tight side tension (T + δT) acting at Q
Normal reaction (R) exerted by the pulley on belt element PQ
Friction force (F = µR) acting perpendicular to the normal reaction (R),
 36

Figure 2.7 Belt tensions

 37

The above equation gives the relationship between the tensions T1 and T2. And the angle of
contact θ between the belt and the pulley.

2.11 POWER TRANSMITTED IN A BELT DRIVE

Let T1 = tension on tight side of the belt (maximum tension) in Newton (N)
T2 = tension on slack side of the belt in N
d1 = diameter of driver pulley in m
d2 = diameter of driven or follower pulley in m
The effective turning force acting on the circumference of the follower is the difference in
tensions on the tight side (T1) and slack side (T2) of the belt.

2.12 APPLICATIONS OF BELT DRIVE

Belt drives are having wide range of applications of power transmission starting from
industrial, automobile, marine, aerospace, farming sector etc.

2.13 ADVANTAGES OF BELT DRIVE

1. A belt drive is simple and economical.
2. It can be easily installed and removed.
3. A belt drive is capable of transferring power vertically, horizontally and in inclined
plane too.
4. Noise and vibration are damped out.
 38

5. Machinery life is increased because load fluctuations are shock-absorbed.

6. Less maintenance cost because no lubrication is required.
7. Belts permit flexibility ranging from high horsepower drives to slow speed and high-
speed drives so it is highly efficient in use.
8. A flat belt is best for very high-speed drives.
9. This drive is very economical even when the distance between the shaft is very large.
10. Belts will slip under overload conditions this leads the biggest advantages that
preventing mechanical damage to shafts, keys, and other machine parts.
11. Capable of transferring power vertically, horizontally and in inclined plane too.

2.14 DISADVANTAGES OF BELT DRIVE

1. Operating temperature is restricted up to 80 to 85 0C.
2. Heat build-up occurs.
3. Belts can't be used where exact timing or constant speed is required because of slippage.
4. In belt drive, belts are damaged easily by abrasives or heat or some chemicals.
5. Some adjustment of center distance or use of an idler pulley is necessary for wearing and
stretching of belt drive compensation.
6. Speed is limited to usually 35 meters per second.
7. Power transmission is limited to 370 kilowatts.
8. Loss of power due to slip and creep.
9. Cannot be used for a very short distance.

2.15 NUMERICAL PROBLES ON BELT DRIVE

PROBLE 1:
In a cross belt drive the difference in tension between tight and slack side is 1200 N. If the
angle of contact is 160º and the co-efficient of friction is 0.28, find the tension between slack
and tight sides.
SOLUTION:
 39

PROBLE 2:
In a belt drive the ratio of tensions is 2, and the slack side is 500 N. If the speed and diameter
of the driven pulley are 200 rpm and 120 cm respectively, find the power transmitted.
SOLUTION:
 40

PROBLE 3:
Two pulleys of diameters 500 mm and 250 mm are to be connected by an open belt drive. If
the distance between their axis is 1.5 m, find the required length of belt.

SOLUTION:

PROBLE 4:
Determine the length of belt required to connect two pulleys having opposite direction of
rotation. The diameters of two pulleys are 500 mm and 250 mm. The distance between their
axis is 1.5 m.

SOLUTION:
 41

QUESTIONS FOR REVIEW

1. Discuss relative merits and demerits of belt, rope and chain drive for transmission of
power.
2. Obtain an expression for the length of a belt in an open belt drive.
3. Obtain an expression for the length of a belt in a cross-belt drive.
4. In a belt drive, the velocity ratio is 2. The driving pulley runs at 720 rpm. The diameter of
the driven pulley is 250 mm. find the speed of the driven pulley and the diameter of the
driving pulley.
5. A shaft running at 200 rpm is to drive a shaft at 300 rpm. The pulley on the driving shaft is
300 mm in diameter. Determine diameter of the driven pulley and velocity ratio of the
drive. Also find the linear velocity of the belt.
6. An open belt drive is used to connect a machine with an engine shaft, which is rotating at
300 rpm. Pulley on the engine shaft has 150 mm diameter and on the machine shaft 600
mm diameter. The thickness of the belt is 6 mm. Determine the machine by neglecting the
belt thickness and also by considering the belt thickness.
7. In a belt drive, the angle of lap on a driven pulley is 160º and the coefficient of friction is
0.3. if the maximum tension in the belt is 9 kN, calculate the initial tension in the drive.
8. It is desired to transmit a power of 20 kW between 2 parallel shafts by means of an open
belt drive. The driving shaft rotates at 150 rpm, while the driven shaft at 250 rpm. The
distance between the centers of two shafts is 2.7 m. The pulley mounted on driven shaft
has 600 mm. Estimate the length of the belt required.
9. Two parallel shafts 6 m apart are provided with 300 mm and 400 mm diameter pulleys and
are connected by means of a cross belt. The direction of rotation of the follower pulley is
to be reversed by changing over to an open belt drive. How much length of the belt has to
be reduced?
10. Find the power transmitted by a belt running over a pulley of 600 mm diameter at 200
rpm. The coefficient of friction between the belt and the pulley is 0.25, angle of lap 160°
and maximum tension in the belt is 2500 N.
11. In a flat belt drive the initial tension is 2000 N. The coefficient of friction between the belt
and the pulley is 0.3 and the angle of lap on the smaller pulley is 150°. The smaller pulley
has a radius of 200 mm and rotates at 500 rpm. Find the power in kW transmitted by the
belt drive.
12. A pulley is driven by a flat belt running at a speed of 600 m/min. The coefficient of
friction between the pulley and the belt is 0.3 and the angle of lap is 160°. If the maximum
tension in the belt is 700 N; find the power transmitted by a belt.
13. Two pulleys, one 450 mm diameter and the other 200 mm diameter are on parallel shafts
 42

1.95 m apart and are connected by a crossed belt. Find the length of the belt required and
the angle of contact between the belt and each pulley.
What power can be transmitted by the belt drive when the larger pulley rotates at 200
rev/min, if the maximum permissible tension in the belt is 1 kN, and the coefficient of
friction between the belt and pulley is 0.25?
 43

3. MECHANICAL DRIVE SYSTEM

3.1 GEAR DRIVE - INTRODUCTION

A gear is a toothed wheel that engages another toothed mechanism to change speed or the
direction of transmitted motion. Combination of gears, known as gear train is generally used
for one of four different reasons:
1. To increase or decrease the speed of rotation,
2. To change the amount of force or torque,
3. To move rotational motion to a different axis (i.e. parallel, right angles, rotating, linear
etc.),
4. To reverse the direction of rotation.

Figure 3.1 Gear trains inside a mechanical wrist watch

Gears are compact, positive-engagement, power transmission elements capable of changing
the amount of force or torque. Sports cars go fast (have speed) but cannot pull any weight. Big
trucks can pull heavy loads (have power) but cannot go fast. Gears cause this. Gears are
generally selected and manufactured using standards established by American Gear
Manufacturers Association (AGMA) and American National Standards Institute (ANSI).
A gear train is a mechanical system formed by mounting gears on a frame, so the teeth of the
gears engage. Gear teeth are designed to ensure the pitch circles of engaging gears roll on each
other without slipping, providing a smooth transmission of rotation from one gear to the next.
The main purpose of a gear train is to increase torque or speed. The arrangement of the driver
and driven gears determine if the gear train will increase torque or speed. To increase output
torque using a gear train, a power source should be directly connected to a smaller gear and
used to drive a larger gear.

3.2 GEAR TYPES, CHARACTERISTICS & APPLICATIONS

The gears can be classified according to:
1. the position of shaft axes
2. the peripheral velocity
 44

3. the type of gears

4. the teeth position

3.2.1. According to the position of shaft axes:

Gears may be classified according to the relative position of the axes of revolution. The axes
may be:

1. Parallel shafts where the angle between driving and driven shaft is 0
[Link] include spur gears, single and double helical gears.
2. Intersecting shafts where there is some angle between driving and driven shaft.
Examples include bevel and miter gear.
3. Non-intersecting and non-parallel shafts where the shafts are not coplanar.
Examples include the hypoid and worm gear.

Figure 3.2 Classification of gears according to position of shafts

3.2.2. According to peripheral velocity:

Gears can be classified as:

1. Low velocity type, if their peripheral velocity lies in the range of 1 to 3 m/sec.
2. Medium velocity type, if their peripheral velocity lies in the range of 3 to 15
m/sec.
3. High velocity type, if their peripheral velocity exceeds 15 m/s.

3.2.3. According to type of gears:

Gears can be classified as external gears, internal gears, and rack and pinion.
1. External gears mesh externally - the bigger one is called “gear” and the
smallerone is called “pinion”.
2. Internal gears mesh internally - the larger one is called “annular” gear and
thesmaller one is called “pinion”.
3. Rack and pinion type – converts rotary to linear motion or vice versa. There is
a straight line gear called “rack” on which a small rotary gear called “pinion”
moves.
 45

3.2.4. According to teeth position:

Gears are classified as straight, inclined and curved.

1. Straight gear teeth are those where the teeth axis is parallel to the shaft axis.
2. Inclined gear teeth are those where the teeth axis is at some angle.
3. Curve gear teeth are curved on the rim’s surface.

3.2.1 TYPEOF GEARS

(a) SPUR GEARS

Spur gears are used to transmit power between two parallel shafts. The teeth on these
gears are cut straight and are parallel to the shafts to which they are attached.

Figure 3.3 Spur gears

Characteristics:
• Simplest and most economical type of gear to manufacture.
• Speed ratios of up to 8 (in extreme cases up to 20) for one step (single reduction) design;
up to 45 for two step design; and up to 200 for three-step design.

Limitations:
• Not suitable when a direction change between the two shafts is required.
• Produce noise because the contact occurs over the full face width of the mating teeth
instantaneously.

HELICAL GEARS
Helical gears resemble spur gears, but the teeth are cut at an angle rather than parallel to the
shaft axis like on spur gears. The angle that the helical gear tooth is on is referred to as the
helix angle. The angle of helix depends upon the condition of the shaft design and relative
position of the shafts. To ensure that the gears run smoothly, the helix angle should be such
that one end of the gear tooth remains in contact until the opposite end of the following gear
tooth has found a contact. For parallel shafts, the helix angle should not exceed 20 degrees to
avoid excessive end thrust.
 46

Figure 3.4 Helical gears

Characteristics:
The longer teeth cause helical gears to have the following differences from spur gears of the
same size:
• Tooth strength is greater because the teeth are longer than the teeth of spur gear of
equivalent pitch diameter.
• Can carry higher loads than can spur gears because of greater surface contact on
the teeth.
• Can be used to connect parallel shafts as well as non-parallel, non-intersecting
shafts.
• Quieter even at higher speed and are durable.

Limitations:
• Gears in mesh produce thrust forces in the axial directions.
• Expensive compared to spur gears.

BEVEL GEARS

A bevel gear is shaped like a section of a cone and primarily used to transfer power between
intersecting shafts at right angles. The teeth of a bevel gear may be straight or spiral. Straight
gear is preferred for peripheral speeds up to 1000 feet per minute; above that they tend to be
noisy.

Characteristics:
• Designed for the efficient transmission of power and motion between intersecting
shafts. A good example of bevel gears is seen as the main mechanism for a
hand drill. As the handle of the drill is turned in a vertical direction, the
bevelgears change the rotation of the chuck to a horizontal rotation.
• Permit a minor adjustment during assembly and allow for some displacement
due to deflection under operating loads without concentrating the load on the end
of the tooth.
 47

Figure 3.5 Bevel gears

WORM GEARS
Worm gears are used to transmit power between two shafts that are at right angles to each
other and are non-intersecting.
Worm gears are special gears that resemble screws, and can be used to drive spur gears or
helical gears. Worm gearing is essentially a special form of helical gearing in which the teeth
have line contact and the axes of the driving and driven shafts are usually at right angles
and do not intersect.

Characteristics:
• Meshes are self-locking. Worm gears have an interesting feature that no other gear set
has: the worm can easily turn the gear, but the gear cannot turn the worm. This is because
the angle on the worm is so shallow that when the gear tries to spin it, the friction
between the gear and the worm holds the worm in place. This feature is useful for
machines such as conveyor systems, in which the locking feature can act as a brake for
the conveyor when the motor is not turning.
• Worm gear is always used as the input gear, i.e. the torque is applied to the input end of
the worm shaft by a driven sprocket or electric motor.
• Best suited for applications where a great ratio reduction is required between the driving
and driven shafts. It is common for worm gears to have reductions of 20:1, and even up
to 300:1 or greater.

Limitations:
• Yield low efficiency because of high sliding velocities across the teeth, thereby causing
high friction losses.
• When used in high torque applications, the friction causes the wear on the gear teeth and
erosion of the restraining surface.
 48

Figure 3.6 Bevel gears

RACKS (STRAIGHT GEARS)

The rack is a bar with a profile of the gear of infinite diameter, and when used with a
meshing pinion, enables the rotary to linear movement or vice versa.

Characteristics:
• Racks with machined ends can be joined together to make any desired length.
• The most well-known application of a rack is the rack and pinion steering system used on
many cars in the past. The steering wheel of a car rotates the gear that engages the rack.
The rack slides right or left, when the gear turns, depending on the way we turn the wheel.
Windshield wipers in cars are powered by a rack and pinion mechanism.

Figure 3.7 Rack and pinion

3.3 GEARS FUNDAMENTALS & TERMINOLOGY

In this section, we will discuss the gear fundamentals, considering spur gears. It is the most
common and the simplest form, and hence the most comprehensible. The same principles
apply to spiral gears and bevel gears too.
A gear can be defined in terms of its pitch, pressure angle and number of teeth. Let’s discuss
few terms here:
Pitch Circle Diameter (d) - This is the diameter of a circle about which the gear tooth
geometry is designed or constructed. The pitch circle is the imaginary circle found at the point
where the teeth of two gears mesh. The diameter of the pitch circle is called the pitch
 49

diameter.
Outside Diameter (OD) - The outside circle is the distance around the outer edge of thegear’s
teeth. The diameter of the outside circle is called the outside diameter.

Figure 3.8 Terminology of gears in mesh

Root - The root is the bottom part of a gear wheel.

Pitch - Pitch is a measure of tooth spacing along the pitch circle. It is the distance between
any point on one tooth and same point on the next tooth. It is expressed in the following
forms:
Diametral Pitch (Pd) is the number of teeth per inch of the pitch diameter and is also an index
of tooth size. It is given as:

Where:
Pd = diametral pitch
Z = number of teeth
d = pitch circle diameter in inches
A large diametral pitch indicates a small tooth and vice versa. Another way of saying this;
larger gears have fewer teeth per inch of diametral pitch.

Module (m) is the metric equivalent of diametral pitch, i.e. the pitch diameter (in mm)
divided by the number of teeth, but unlike diametral pitch, the higher number, the larger the
teeth. Meshing gears must have the same module:

Circular Pitch (Pc): is the distance from a point on one tooth to the corresponding poing on
the adjacent tooth, measured along the pitch circle. Calculated in inches, the circular pitch
equals the pitch circle circumference divided by the number of teeth:
 50

Because the circular pitch is directly proportional to the module and inversely proportional to
the diametral pitch, meshing teeth must have the same circular pitch.

Figure 3.9 Gear terminology

Relationship between Circular Pitch and Diametral Pitch:

We have,

The product of the circular pitch and the diametral pitch is equal to pi ( ).

Number of Teeth (N): The number of gear teeth is related to the diametral pitch and the
pitch circle diameter by equation,
Z = d x Pd .
Tooth Size: Diametral pitch, module and circular pitch are all indications of tooth size; ratios
which determine the number of teeth in a gear for a given pitch diameter. In designing a gear
set, the number of teeth in each member is of necessity. As a rule of thumb, teeth should be
large and low in number for heavily loaded gears and small and numerous for smooth
operation.
Center Distance (CD)

Center Distance is the distance between the centers of the shaft of one spur gear to the center
of the shaft of the other spur gear. The standard center distance between two spur gears is
one-half the sum of their pitch diameters.
 51

Figure 3.10 Gears in mesh

3.4 GEAR TRAIN

A gear train is a combination of gears used to transmit power from one shaft to another. The
gear to which the force is first applied is called the driver and the final gear on the train to
which the force is transmitted is called the driven gear. Any gears between the driver and the
driven gears are called the idlers. Conventionally, the smaller gear is the Pinion (B) and the
larger one is the Gear (A). In most applications, the pinion is the driver; this reduces speed but
increases torque.

Figure 3.11 Gear train

When gears are connected together, it is common to talk about the corresponding gear ratio.
Gear ratio is the ratio of the number of teeth on the first gear to the number of teeth on the
second. It is the reciprocal of speed ratio, which is the ratio of second gear to first gear.
Assuming T1, T2 as number of teeth on first (driver) gear and second (driven) gear and N1, N2
as rotational speed (in rpm) of the two gears respectively,
Speed ratio = N2/N1 = T1/T2
Gear ratio Tarin value = N1/N2 = T2/T1
Speed ratio = = Speed of driven No. of teeth on driver

If you turn a gear with 6 teeth 3 times and is meshed with a second gear having 18 teeth,
than the driving gear 18 teeth (6 x 3) will move through the meshed area. This means that the
18 teeth from the second gear also move through the meshed area. If the second gear has 18
teeth, then it only has to rotate once because 18 x 1=18.
 52

Also, the second gear will be turning slower than the first because it is larger, and larger gears
turn slower than smaller gears because they have more teeth.

3.5 TYPES OF GEAR TRAINS

1. Simple gear train
2. Compound gear train
3. Planetary gear train
4. Inverted gear train
5. Differential gear

3.5.1 Simple Gear Train

Simple gear trains have only one gear per shaft as shown in Figure 3.12. The simple gear train
is used where there is a large distance to be covered between the input shaft and the output
shaft.

Figure 3.12 Simple gear train

In a simple gear train,
1. Two external gears of a pair always move in opposite directions.
2. All odd numbered gears move in one direction and all even numbered gears move in
the opposite.
3. Speed ratio is negative when the input and the output gears rotate in the opposite
 53

directions and it is positive when the two rotate in the same direction.
4. All the gears can be in a straight line or arranged in a zig-zag manner. A simple gear
train can also have bevel gears.
5. Let T = number of teeth on a gear, N = speed of a gear in rpm
6. Referring to Figure 3.16, since the driving gear 1 is in mesh with the intermediate
gear 2, therefore speed ratio for these two gears is

7.
8. Similarly, as the intermediate gear 2 is in mesh with the driven gear 3, therefore
speed ratio for these two gears is

9.
10. The speed ratio of the gear train as shown in Figure 3.16 is obtained by multiplying
the equations (i) and (ii).

Thus, it is seen that the intermediate gears have no effect on the speed ratio and, therefore,
they are known as idlers.

3.5.2 Compound Gear Train

In a compound gear train at least one of the intermediate shafts in the train must hold two
gears as shown in Figure 3.13. Compound gear trains are used when large changes in speed or
power output are needed and there is only a small space between the input and output shafts.
 54

Figure 3.13 Compound gear train

In a compound train of gears, as shown in Figure 3.14, the gear 1 is the driving gear, gears 2
and 3 are compound gears which are mounted on one of the intermediate shaft. The gears 4
and 5 are also compound gears which are mounted on another intermediate shaft and the gear
6 is the driven gear mounted on the driven shaft.
Let T = number of teeth on a gear, N = speed of a gear in rpm
Since gear 1 is in mesh with gear 2, therefore its speed ratio is

and for gears 5 and 6, speed ratio is

Note: Since gears 2 and 3 are mounted on a single shaft, therefore N2 = N3. Similarly gears 4
and 5 are mounted on a single shaft, therefore N4 = N5.
 55

The advantage of a compound train over a simple gear train is that a much larger speed
reduction from the first shaft to the last shaft can be obtained with small gears. If a simple
gear train is used to give a large speed reduction, the last gear has to be very large. Usually for
a speed reduction in excess of 7 to 1, a simple train is not used and a compound train or worm
gearing is employed.

3.5.3 Planetary Gear Train

A planetary transmission system (or Epicyclic gear train) as shown in Figure 3.14, consists
normally of a centrally pivoted sun gear, a ring gear and several planet gears which rotate
between these. This assembly concept explains the term planetary transmission, as the planet
gears rotate around the sun gear as in the astronomical sense the planets rotate around the Sun.

Figure 3.14 Planetary gear train

In an epicyclic gear train, the axis of rotation of one or more of the wheels is carried on an
arm which is free to revolve about the axis of rotation of one of the other wheels in the train.
The diagram shows a Gear B on the end of an arm A. Gear B meshes with Gear C and
revolves around it when the arm is rotated. B is called the planet gear and C the sun.
Planetary gearing or epicyclic gearing provides an efficient means to transfer high torques
utilizing a compact design.
 56

3.5.4 Inverted Gear Train

When the axes of the first gear (i.e., first driver) and the last gear (i.e., last driven or
follower) are co-axial, then the gear train is known as reverted gear train as shown in Fig.
3.16. We see that gear 1 (i.e., first driver) drives the gear 2 (i.e., first driven or follower) in
the opposite direction. Since the gears 2 and 3 are mounted on the same shaft, therefore they
form a compound gear and the gear 3 will rotate in the same direction as that of gear 2. The
gear 3 (which is now the second driver) drives the gear 4 (i.e., the last driven or follower) in
the same direction as that of gear 1. Thus, we see that in a reverted gear train, the motion of
the first gear and the last gear is like.
Let
T1 = Number of teeth on gear 1,
r1 = Pitch circle radius of gear 1, and
N1 = Speed of gear 1 in r.p.m.
Similarly,
T2, T3, T4 = Number of teeth on respective gears,
r2, r3, r4 = Pitch circle radii of respective gears, and
N2, N3, N4 = Speed of respective gears in r.p.m.
Since the distance between the centres of the shafts of gears 1 and 2 as well as gears 3 and 4
is same, therefore,
r1 + r2 = r3 + r4 ...(i)
Also, the circular pitch or module of all the gears is assumed to be same, therefore number
of teeth on each gear is directly proportional to its circumference or radius.
∴ T1 + T2 = T3 + T4 ...(ii)

...(iii)
From equations (i), (ii) and (iii), we can determine the number of teeth on each gear for the
given centre distance, speed ratio and module only when the number of teeth on one gear is
chosen arbitrarily. The reverted gear trains are used in automotive transmissions, lathe back
gears, industrial speed reducers, and in clocks (Fig. 3.16) (where the minute and hour hand
shafts are co-axial).
 57

Figure 3.15 Inverted gear train

Figure 3.16 Clock Mechanism

3.5.5 Differential Gear

Differential (Fig. 3.17) is the main component of the power train. It is bolted on the rear axle
and connects the propeller shaft to the rear wheels. While a vehicle taking a turn, its outer
wheel run faster than the inner wheel. If we connect the propeller shaft by rear axle without
using of differential gear, then the torque transmitted both the rear wheels is equal in any
condition. So, the both rear wheels will run at same speed while taking a turn which occur a
problem in driving a vehicle. To eliminate this problem a device is used which is known as
differential gear. Differential is the mechanism of gears by means of which outer wheel runs
faster than the inner wheel while taking a turn or moving over upheaval road. It is a part of
the driving axle housing assembly, which includes the differential, rear axles, wheels and
 58

bearings. It consists of a system of gear arranged in such a way that connects the propeller
shaft with the rear axle and transmit the different torque to rear wheels if necessary.
Differential is an arrangement of gears which work together and allow the vehicle to take a
turn smoothly. In the differential, bevel pinion gear is fixed to the propeller shaft which
rotates the crown wheel. The crown wheel has another unit called the differential unit. It
consists of two bevel gears (sun gear) and two bevel gears (planet gear). The bevel gears are
in contact with the half shaft of the rear axle. When the crown wheel is rotating, it rotates
the differential unit. The bevel (sun) gears of the differential rotate the two shafts.

Figure 3.17 Differential gear

3.6 ADVANTAGES OF GEAR DRIVE

1. Gear drives can be used for low, medium and high-power transmission.
2. Gears can be used even for very low speed and have reliable service.
3. They are used for transmitting motion over small centre distance of shafts.
4. They are used for large reduction in speed and for transmission of torque.
 59

5. Gears require only lubrication; hence less maintenance is required.

6. Gear drives cab used to transmit power or motion between parallel, intersecting and
non-parallel non-intersecting shafts.
7. They are used for positive drive, so its velocity ratio remains constant.
8. By using gear trains, large velocity ratio can be obtained with minimum space.

3.7 DISADVANTAGES OF GEAR DRIVE

1. Gears are not suitable for transmitting motion over a large distance.
2. Gears are not suitable for large velocities.
3. Higher speeds and the inaccuracy in cutting gear teeth can cause vibration and noise
through the operation.
4. Gear drives are costlier.
5. High cleanliness and proper lubrication are required for gear drive.
6. Gear drive have no flexibility.

3.7 APPLICATIONS OF BELT DRIVE

Gear drives are having wide range of applications of power transmission starting from
industrial, automobile, marine, aerospace, farming sector etc.

EXAMPLE 3.1
The gearing of a machine tool is shown in Figure 3.18. The motor shaft is connected to gear A
and rotates at 975 rpm. The gear wheels B, C, D and E are fixed to parallel shafts rotating
together. The final gear F is fixed on the output shaft. What is the speed of gear F?
The number of teeth on each gear are as given below:
Gear: A B C D E F
No. of teeth: 20 50 25 75 26 65

Figure 3.19

Solution:
Given: NA = 975 rpm;
TA = 20; TB = 50; TC = 25; TD = 75; TE = 26; TF = 65
 60

EXAMPLE 3.2
In the figure below, Gears B and C represent a compound gear and have the following details:
Gear A - 120 teeth, Gear B - 40 teeth, Gear C - 80 teeth, Gear D -20 teeth
What is the output in rpm at D, and what is the direction of rotation if Gear A rotates in a
clockwise direction at 30 rpm?

Solution:
When answering a question like this, split it into two parts.
Treat Gears A and B as the first part of the question. Treat Gears C and D as the second part.
Gear ratio AB = driven/driving = 40/120 = 1/3
Gear ratio CD = driven /driving = 20/80 = 1/4
Since the driving Gear A rotates 30 RPM and the Gear B is smaller than Gear A, we can
conclude that the rpm for Gear B is 30*3 = 90 rpm
Since Gears B and C represent a compound gear, they have the same rotational speed.
Therefore, Gear D speed is obtained by multiplying 4 to Gear C speed of 90 rpm.
Thus, Gear D moves at 90*4 = 360 rpm
OR
1/3 x ¼ = 1/12
Since Gear A moves at 30 rpm and Gear D is smaller, we multiply by 12:30 x 12 = 360 rpm.
 61

EXAMPLE 3.3
Calculate the gear ratio for the compound chain shown below. If the input gear rotates
clockwise, in which direction does the output rotate?

Gear A has 20 teeth Gear B has 100 teeth Gear C has 40 teeth Gear D has 100 teethGear E has
10 teeth Gear F has 100 teeth.

Solution:
The driving teeth are A, C and E
The driven teeth are B, D and F
Gear ratio = (100 x 100 x 100) / (20 x 40 x 10) = 125
Alternatively we can say there are three simple gear trains as follows:
First gear GR = 100/20 = 5
Second chain GR = 100/40 = 2.5
Third chain GR = 100/10 = 10
The overall ratio = 5 x 2.5 x 10 = 125
Each chain reverses the direction of rotation so if A is clockwise, B and C rotate anti-
clockwise, so D and E rotate clockwise. The output gear F hence rotates anti-clockwise.
More complex compound gear trains can achieve high and low gear ratios in a restricted space
by coupling large and small gears on the same axle. In this way gear ratios of adjacent gears
can be multiplied through the gear train.

REVIEW QUESTIONS
1. What is a gear train? What are its main types?
2. What is the difference between a simple gear train and a compound gear train? Explain with
the neat sketches.
3. What is a reverted gear train? Where is it used?
[Link] do you mean by Differentials? Give examples.
5. What is a differential gear of an automobile? How does it function?
 62

6. For the following combinations of gears, how fast will the second gear turn relative to the
first: (a) a 10 teeth gear is meshed to a 40 teeth gear and (b) a 40 teeth gear is meshed to a
20 teeth gear.
7. What size gear must a 20t gear turning at 100 rpm be meshed with for the second gear to
turn at 50 rpm?
8. If you place a 20t gear on the axle of a wheel and connect it to a 100t driver gear connected
to a motor: (a) Are you gearing up or down? (b) What is the gear ratio? (c) With what
speed and torque will the wheel turn relative to the motor?
9. Two parallel shafts are to be connected by spur gearing. The approximate distance between
the shafts is 600 mm. If one shaft runs at 120 rpm. and the other at 360 rpm., find the
number of teeth on each wheel, if the module is 8 mm. Also determine the exact distance
apart of the shafts. [Ans. 114, 38; 608 mm]
10. What will the overall gear ratio be if a 40 teeth gear drives a 10 teeth gear, which is
mounted on the same axle as another 40 teeth gear driving a final 10 teeth gear? Is this
gearing up or gearing down?
11. The velocity ratio of a gear drive is 3. Driving wheel has 24 teeth and turns at 180 rpm.
Find the rotational speed and the number of teeth on the driven wheel.
12. A simple gear train consists of 3 gears in series. The number of teeth on the driving gear is
60, on the idler 40 and on the driven gear 80. If the driving gear rotates at 1200 rpm, find
the speed of the driven gear and also the velocity ratio.
13. A simple gear train consists of 4 gears having 30, 40, 50, and 60 teeth respectively in
series. Determine the speed and direction of rotation of the last gear if the first gear makes
600 rpm in clockwise direction.
14. A simple gear train consists of 4 gears A, B, C and D having 20, 40, 60, and 70 teeth
respectively. Gear A is mounted on the driving shaft, while gear D is on the driven shaft.
Gears B and C are idler gears. If A rotates at 500 rpm in clockwise direction, determine (a)
speed and direction of gear D, (b) Train value of the gear train, (c) speed and direction of
intermediate gears. Sketch the arrangement of gear train using circles.
15. A gear train consists of four gears A, B, C and D of 20, 25, 50 and 75 teeth respectively. A
meshes with C and B is a compound gear with C, B meshes with D. If A has a speed of
300 rpm, what is the speed of D. Sketch the gear train.
16. A compound gear train consists of 4 gears P, Q, R, S having 20, 40, 60 and 80 teeth
respectively. The gear P is keyed to driving shaft; gear S to driven shaft, Q and R are
compound gears, Q meshing with P R meshes S. If P rotates at 150 rpm what is the rpm
of gear S? Show gear arrangement.