Sub: Introduction to Civil Engineering

Module-1 Notes

Introduction to Civil Engineering: Fields of Civil Engineering

1. Surveying: Scope of surveying are
 For preparing the contour map to determine the best possible route and amount of
earthwork required
 For preparing the engineering map showing engineering details like highways,
railways, canals, dams, reservoirs, etc.
 Maps prepared for marking boundaries of countries, states, districts etc., avoid
disputes

2. Geotechnical Engineering: Scope of Geotechnical Engineering are

 To assess the quality and strength of soil to construct civil engineering structure
 To design retaining walls for soil retainment.
 To decide type of foundations for different type of structures.
 For design of underground structures such as Tunnels, Shafts, Conduits.
 Design of earthen dams for storage of water.
 For design of Roads for transportation facilities.

3. Structural Engineering: Scope of structural Engineering are

 Analysis and design of Dams, Bridges, Stadiums, Auditoriums, Multi - storied
buildings.
 Analysis and design of power generation stations
 Analysis and design of steel industrial structures
 Repair, rehabilitation and maintenance of structures
 Design of nuclear Power plants.
 Design of structural reinforcement for different type of structural components

4. a)Hydraulics Engineering: Scope of Hydraulic Engineering are

 To measure the discharge of water in rivers for design of bridges
 Design of hydro power plants for generation of electricity.
 Design of Pumps and turbines
  Design of water supply schemes for the city which includes design of pipes and pumps.
 Design of canals to carry water to irrigation land from dams.
 Design of Weirs for Dams.

b) Water Resource Engineering: Scope of water resource engineering are

• To arrive the total discharge of water from catchment areas

• To design the reservoir capacity to store the water
• For water quality management and pollution control.
• Supply of water for garden and recreational centers.
• Design of water supply systems for the cities and industries.
• To measure the total rainfall

5. Transportation Engineering: Scope of Transportation engineering are

• It involves planning, design, construction, operation and maintenance of
transportation [Link] and design of runways, roads, harbors and railways

• Maintenance and up gradation of harbors, airports, railway system based on

requirements.
• It contributes economic, industrial, social and cultural development of any country.
• Design of traffic signals for control of traffic.

6. Environmental Engineering: Scope of Environmental Engineering are

• Involves collection of water, Purification and supply for drinking.
• Waste water collection, treatment and disposal
• Air pollution control and treatments.
• Solid waste management and control
• E-Waste management control and Treatment
• Construction waste management and control

7. Construction planning and Project Management: Scope of Construction

planning and Project Management are

• It involves the choice of technology, the estimation of the required resources and
durations for individual tasks etc,.
• A good construction plan is the basis for developing the budget and the schedule for
work

• In is the master plan that ensures a construction project runs smoothly and meets all its
deadlines, budget constraints, and quality standards.
• It involves the material storage, labours and equipment's required for the completion
of the Project.
• Critical Path Method (CPM) is used to execute the work in a planned manner such
that the project is completed within specified time and allotted budget.
 Basic Materials of Construction

Following are the basic materials of construction:

1. Brick:

Brick is a small rectangular block typically made of fired or sun-dried clay, used in
construction.

Good qualities of Bricks:

• The bricks should be table-moulded, well burnt in kilns, copper-coloured, free

from cracks and with sharp and square edges.
• The bricks should be uniform in shape and should be of standard size.
• The bricks should give a clear metallic ringing sound when struck with each other.
• The brick should not absorbs water more than 20% by weight, for first class bricks
and 22% by weight for second class bricks, when soaked in water for a period of
24 hours.
• No impression should be left on brick surface, when it is scratched with finger nail.
• The bricks should not break into pieces when dropped flat on hard ground from
a height of about one meter.
• The bricks should have low thermal conductivity and they should be sound proof.
• The bricks, when soaked in water for 24 hours, should not show deposits of white
salt

Types of Bricks
1. Sun-dried bricks

Unburnt bricks or sundried bricks are the most basic example for bricks. They are not so
strong, have reduced fire and water resistance, and hence they are used in temporary
structures

2. Burnt Clay Bricks

Burnt bricks are good quality bricks and burnt bricks are classified into four types and
they are

• First class bricks: They are table-molded and burnt in large kilns. So, these bricks
contain standard shape, sharp edges and smooth surfaces.
• Second class bricks: Second class bricks are moderate quality bricks and they are
 molded by ground-molding process. These bricks are also burnt in kilns. But because
of ground molding, they do not have smooth surfaces as well as sharp edges
• Third class bricks: Third class bricks are poor quality bricks which are generally
used for temporary structures like unburnt bricks.
• Fourth class bricks: Fourth class bricks are very poor quality bricks and these are
not used as bricks in the structure. They are crushed and used as aggregates in the
manufacturing of concrete.
3. Fly Ash Bricks

Fly ash bricks are manufactured using fly ash and water. These bricks have better
properties than clay bricks and great resistant to freeze thaw cycles

4. Concrete Bricks

Concrete bricks are manufacturing using concrete with ingredients as cement, sand, coarse
aggregates and water. These bricks can be manufactured in sizes as required.

5. Sand Lime or Calcium Silicate Bricks

Calcium silicate bricks are made of sand and lime and popularly known as sand lime
bricks. These bricks are used for several purposes in construction industries such as
ornamental works in buildings, masonry works etc.

Tests on Bricks:

1. Absorption Test on Bricks

Absorption test is conducted on brick to find out the amount of moisture content absorbed
by brick under extreme conditions. For a good quality brick the amount of water
absorption should not exceed 20% of weight of dry brick.

2. Crushing Strength or Compressive Strength Test on Bricks:

Crushing strength of bricks is determined by placing brick in compression testing machine.

Minimum crushing strength of brick is 3.50N/mm2, if it is less than 3.50 N/mm2, then it is
not useful for construction purpose.

3. Hardness Test on Bricks

A good brick should resist scratches against sharp things. So, for this test a sharp tool or
finger nail is used to make scratch on brick. If there is no scratch impression on brick then it
is said to be hard brick.
 4. Shape and Size Test on Bricks

Shape and size of bricks are very important consideration. All bricks used for construction
should be of same size

5. Color Test of Bricks

A good brick should possess bright and uniform color throughout its body

6. Soundness Test of Bricks

In this test, 2 bricks are chosen randomly and struck with one another. Then sound produced
should be clear bell ringing sound and brick should not break. Then it is said to be good
brick.

7. Efflorescence Test on Bricks

A good quality brick should not contain any soluble salts in it. If soluble salts are there, then it
will cause efflorescence on brick surfaces.

Advantages of Brick Masonry:

 Bricks are having uniform shape and size.

 Handling is easy with brick as the bricks are light in weight.
 Brick is easily available and transportation cost is less
 Construction cost can be reduced in brick masonry as mortar joints are thin.

Disadvantages of Brick Masonry

 Not as strong as other materials such as stone.

 Not as durable compared to stone.
 Brick masonry needs plastering to protect from weathering.
 Brick absorbs water which will cause dampness and damage to the structure.
 Less aesthetic view with brick as there is limited sizes and colors.

2) Cement:

Cement is a powder of alumina, silica, lime, iron oxide, and magnesium oxide burned
together in a kiln and finely powdered and used as binding material in mortar and concrete.
 Uses of Cement

 The most significant use of cement is production of concrete and mortar

 It is used in concrete for laying floors, roofs and constructing lintels, beams, stairs, pillars
etc.
 It can be used for preparation of foundations, watertight floors, footpaths, etc.
 It can be used for manufacturing precast pipes, garden seats, flower pots, dust bins,
fencing posts, etc.
 It is used in the construction of water Tanks

Different types of cements

 Ordinary Portland cement: This cement is used in general concrete construction where
there is no exposure to sulphates in the soil or in groundwater
 Portland pozzolana cement: PPC is used for the structures having direct contact with
water such as marine structure, dams, bridge piers, sanitation system like Sewers and
thick foundation where mass concrete is used.
 Rapid hardening Portland cement: It is generally used in road work and bridge
construction where the time factor is very important.
 Portland slag cement: It can be used in mass concrete structures such as retaining walls,
foundation, and dams.
 Sulphate resisting Portland cement: Since ordinary Portland cement is susceptible to
attack of sulphate hence sulphate resisting Cement is developed to use where the soil is
infected with sulphates
 Quick setting Cement: Quick setting cement sets very fast. This cement is used for
foundation where pumping of water is needed

Requirements of good cement:

1) Fineness of Cement

The size of the particles of the cement is its fineness. The required fineness of good cement is
achieved through grinding the clinker in the last step of cement production process. Fineness of
cement should not be more than 10%

2) Soundness of Cement

Soundness refers to the ability of cement to not shrink upon hardening. Soundness should not
be more than 10mm
 3) Consistency of Cement
The ability of cement paste to flow is consistency. It is measured by Vicat Test. Generally the
consistency of cement is 29%.

4) Strength of Cement

 Compressive Strength: It is the most common strength test on cement. The test
specimen of 50mmx50mmx50mm are casted and after curing the specimens are tested
under compressive loads until failure
 Tensile strength: Split tensile test is conducted for determining the tensile strength of
cement.
 Flexural strength: This is actually a measure of tensile strength in bending. The test is
performed on a 40 x40 x 160 mm cement mortar beam, which is loaded at its centre point
until failure.

5) Setting Time of Cement

Cement sets and hardens when water is added.

 Initial setting time: When the paste begins to stiffen which is typically occurs within 30-
45 minutes
 Final setting time: When the cement hardens, being able to sustain some load which
occurs in between6 to 10 hours

6) Specific Gravity (Relative Density)

Specific gravity is generally used in mixture proportioning calculations. Portland cement has a

Specific gravity of 3.15

Plain Cement Concrete

Plain cement concrete is the mixture of cement, fine aggregate (sand) and coarse aggregate
without steel.

Material Used in Plain Cement Concrete:

1. Coarse Aggregate

Coarse aggregate used in the PCC must be of hard broken stone of granite or similar stone,
free from dust, dirt and other foreign matter. The stone ballast shall be 20 mm in size and
smaller.

2. Fine Aggregate

Fine aggregate shall be of coarse sand consisting of hard, sharp and angular grains and free
from dust, dirt and organic matter.

3. Cement

Portland Pozzolana cement (P.P.C) is normally used for plain cement concrete.

4 Water

Generally, potable water shall be used having a pH value not less than 6.

Uses of Plain cement concrete

 As bed concrete below the wall footings, column footings

 As sill concrete to get a hard and even surface at window and ventilator sills.
 As to coping concrete over the parapet and compound walls.
 It is used in rigid pavement construction for transportation
 Storm/ Sewer at drains, small retaining walls.
 To make tennis courts, basketball courts etc

a. Reinforced concrete is used for the construction of roof slabs, columns, beams and
footings in residential and commercial structures.
b. Reinforced concrete is used for construction of bridges of small, medium and long
spans resulting in aesthetically superior and economical structures in comparison
with steel bridges
c. Reinforced concrete is used in the construction of roads that is designed to carry
heavy traffics loads.
d. Pipes and conduits have been constructed from reinforced concrete
e. Electric poles are made from reinforced cement concrete.
f. For construction of bunkers the reinforced concrete is used.
Structural steel:

Steel is a kind of metal alloy that's made of iron and carbon. Due to its high strength it is
often used to build the framework of high rise buildings.

Uses of structural steel:

1) To Build High Rise Buildings

Structural steel is resistant to external forces such as wind and earthquakes. Hence the
high rise buildings are constructed using steel members.

2) To Build Industrial Sheds

Another benefit of structural steel is that it is cost effective and hence it is used in the
construction of industrial sheds

3) To Build Bridges

Steel has a high strength to weight ratio, which means, steel is a tensile metal and is used
in construction of bridges

4) To Build Parking Garages

Structural steel is useful to build parking garages. Due to light weight of structural
members it easier to construct structures.

5) To Build Residential Buildings

They should be able to withstand external forces such as wind, earthquakes, and storms
hence used in residential buildings
Classification of steel

1) Low-carbon steel – This class of steel contains up to 0.30% C. Low carbon steel is
used for automobile body panels, tin plates and wire products.

2) Medium-carbon steel – This class is similar to low carbon, except it ranges from 0.30%
– 0.60% C. Medium carbon steel is mainly used for shafts, axles, gears, crankshafts,
couplings and forgings.

3) High-carbon steel– This of steel ranges from 0.60% – 1.00% C. High carbon steel is
used for spring materials and high-strength wires.
4) High-strength low-alloy steel – This steel alloy is designed to provide better
mechanical properties and greater resistance to atmospheric corrosion.

5) Low-alloy steels – This alloy’s primary function is to increase its strength and
toughness after heat treatment.
 Structural Elements of a Buildings:

1) Foundation:
Foundation is the lowest part of the building or the civil structure that is in direct contact
with the soil which transfers loads from the structure to the soil safely

Functions of foundation:

• Foundation are the main reason behind the stability of any structure. The stronger is the
foundation, more stable is the structure.

• The proper design and construction of foundations provide a proper surface for the
development of the substructure in a proper level and over a firm bed.

• Specially designed foundation helps in avoiding the lateral movements of the supporting
material.

• A proper foundation distributes load on to the surface of the bed uniformly. This uniform
transfer helps in avoiding unequal settlement of the building.

• The foundation serves the purpose of completely distributing the load from the structure
over a large base area and then to the soil underneath. This load transferred to the soil
should be within the allowable bearing capacity of the soil.

2) Plinth:

Part of the structure between the ground and the raised floor of the house ie, it separates
structure in to substructure and superstructure.

Functions of Plinth:

• It evenly distributes and disperses the load of the columns to the foundation evenly

• The plinth doesn’t allow the dampness and moisture of the ground floor to reach the
building’s top structure

• In framed structure houses and buildings plinth beams are used as a barrier for protection
from water seepage.

• Plinth protects the rest of the house from dampness.

• Provides a better aesthetic appeal to the building

 • It also prevents cracks in the building when the foundation suffers from settlement

3) Lintel:

A lintel is the beam or other support at the top of a door or window.

Types of lintel:
1. Timber Lintels
2. Stone Lintel
3. Brick Lintels
4. Reinforced Brick Lintel
5. Steel Lintel
6. Reinforced Concrete Lintel

Functions of Lintel:

• Lintel supports the walls above the openings like doors, windows, etc.
• Lintel withstands the imposed loads coming from above bricks or block including
the roofing members.
• The lintel is used to transfer all imposed loads to the side walls.
• Sometimes lintels are used as a decorative architectural element.

4. Chejja:

Chejja or Sun-Shade means a sloping or horizontal structural overhang, usually provided

for protection from sun and rain or for architectural considerations at lintel level.

Functions of Chejja

 Usually protects from external sunlight.

 Also protects from rainwater entering into the building.
 It also serves as aesthetic decoration with little design on it from architectural point
of view.

 Also it can be used as a support for AC.

 5. Masonry wall
Masonry is a term used to indicate the part of the construction that uses brick, concrete blocks,
structural clay tile, and stone. These materials are held together with mortar.

Types of Masonry walls:

i. Load-bearing masonry wall
ii. Reinforced masonry wall
iii. Hollow masonry wall
iv. Composite masonry wall
v. Post-tensioned masonry wall

i) Load bearing Masonry wall

A load-bearing wall is a wall that bears the load coming from the structure and transfers the load
to the foundation

ii) Reinforced masonry wall:

A reinforced masonry wall is made with any type of brick, stone or concrete, reinforced by steel
bars. This type of wall could be non-load-bearing or load-bearing.

iii) Hollow masonry wall:

Hollow masonry walls are made with hollow cement blocks. This type of masonry wall is
used to stop dampness from getting inside the building. It creates a hollow area between the
outside and inside of masonry walls

iv) Composite masonry wall

Composite Masonry walls are made with the combination of two or more building materials;
stones and bricks or hollow bricks and bricks.

v) Post tensioned masonry walls

Post-tensioning provides an additional axial load to masonry structures and thus
increases resistance to lateral force.
Functions of walls:

 The use of materials such as bricks and stones can increase the thermal resistance of a
building.
 Masonry is a non-combustible product and can protect the building from fire.
 Masonry walls protect the structures from winds.
 Masonry walls protect the structures from direct sunlight.

6. Column

A column can be defined as a vertical structural member which transmits the loads from beam of
the building to foundation.

Functions of a Column:

1. Load Bearing:
o The primary function of a column is to carry vertical loads from beams, slabs, or
roofs and transfer them safely to the foundation.
2. Load Transfer:
o It transfers the loads (dead load, live load, and sometimes wind or seismic loads) to
the foundation without causing failure or excessive settlement.
3. Structural Stability:
o Columns help maintain the stability of the entire structure
4. Architectural Function:
o Sometimes columns are used for aesthetic or architectural design purposes,
enhancing the building’s appearance (e.g., decorative or monumental columns).

7. Beam:

A beam is a horizontal structural member in a building to resist the lateral loads applied to the
beam’s axis.
Functions of a Beam:

1. Load Distribution:
o The primary function of a beam is to carry loads from slabs, walls, or floors and
transfer them to columns or load-bearing walls.
2. Support for Slabs and Roofs:
o Beams support slabs, ceilings, and roofs, preventing them from sagging or
collapsing.
3. Bending Resistance:
o Beams are designed to resist bending caused by loads acting perpendicular to their
length.
4. Maintaining Structural Integrity:
o Beams help tie columns together, providing stability and rigidity to the structural
frame.
5. Aesthetic and Architectural Role:
o In some structures, exposed beams are used for architectural or decorative purposes
(e.g., wooden beams in traditional designs).

8. Slab

A slab is a flat, two-dimensional structural component of building having a very small

thickness compared to its length and breadth. It transfers the structural loads to the beams.
Functions of a Slab:

1. Load Distribution:
o The primary function of a slab is to carry loads from occupants, furniture, and
equipment and transfer them to beams and columns.
2. Providing Flat Surfaces (Floors & Roofs):
o Slabs form the horizontal flat surfaces in buildings — used as floors, ceilings, or
roofs.
3. Supporting Live and Dead Loads:
o Slabs support both dead loads (self-weight, floor finishes) and live loads (people,
furniture, etc.).
4. Space Division:
o Slabs separate one floor from another, dividing the structure into different usable
levels.
5. Structural Stability:
o They help in maintaining stability and rigidity of the building by acting as a
diaphragm that distributes lateral loads (e.g., wind or earthquake forces).
6. Protection:
o Roof slabs protect the interior of the building from environmental factors like rain,
heat, and wind.
7. Aesthetic and Functional Role:
o Slabs provide a smooth ceiling surface for finishing and aesthetic design.

[Link]:

A staircase is a set of steps leading from one floor of building to another floor. The staircase
provide access from one floor to another floor
 Types of Staircase

• Straight Stair: In these types of stairs, all the steps are arranged continuously along in
one direction.

• Dogged-legged Stair: Dog Legged Staircase Dog legged staircase is the most
economical staircase in which stairs are arranged with two adjacent flights running
parallel with the mid-landing that is usually provided where there is less space or causing
in economical use of available space.

• Circular Stair: A circular staircase resembles a circle in plan

• Spiral Stair: A spiral staircase is a round stair system in which the individual steps
connect to a center column, hence forming a complete circle

Functions of a Staircase:

1. Vertical Circulation:
o The main function of a staircase is to provide access between different floors of a
building safely and conveniently.
2. Emergency Exit:
o Staircases act as escape routes during emergencies such as fire or power failure
when lifts cannot be used.
3. Structural Connection:
o They connect various levels of a building structurally, ensuring continuity between
floors.
4. Aesthetic Value:
o Staircases can also enhance the interior design and aesthetic appeal of a building
when designed attractively.
5. Space Utilization:
o The area under the staircase can be used efficiently for storage, washrooms, or
decorative spaces.