DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL AND

ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING BASIC ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING

UNIT-III
SINGLE PHASE A.C. CIRCUITS

 Average value, R.M.S. value, form factor and peak factor for sinusoidal wave form.
 Steady State Analysis of series R-L-C circuits.
 Concept of Reactance, Impedance, Susceptance, Admittance.
 Concept of Power Factor, Real, Reactive and Complex power.
 Illustrative Problems.

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RMS VALUE:
 The RMS (Root Mean Square) value (also known as effective or virtual value) of of an alternating
current (AC) is the value of direct current (DC) when flowing through a circuit or resistor for the
specific time period and produces same amount of heat which produced by the alternating current (AC)
when flowing through the same circuit or resistor for a specific time.
 The value of an AC which will produce the same amount of heat while passing through in a heating
element (such as resistor) as DC produces through the element is called R.M.S Value.
 In short,
 The RMS Value of an Alternating Current is that when it compares to the Direct Current, then both AC
and DC current produce the same amount of heat when flowing through the same circuit for a specific
time period.

For a sinusoidal wave ,

or
IRMS = 0.707 x IM , ERMS = 0.707 EM
 Actually, the RMS value of a sine wave is the measurement of heating effect of sine wave. For example,
when a resistor is connected to across an AC voltage source, it produces specific amount of heat (Fig 2
– a). When the same resistor is connected across the DC voltage source as shown in (fig 2 – b). By
adjusting the value of DC voltage to get the same amount of heat generated before in AC voltage source
in fig a. It means the RMS value of a sine wave is equal to the DC Voltage source producing the same
amount of heat generated by AC Voltage source.
 In more clear words, the domestic voltage level in US is 110V, while 220V AC in UK. This voltage
level shows the effective value of (110V or 220V R.M.S) and it shows that the home wall socket is
capable to provide the same amount of average positive power as 110V or 220V DC Voltage.
 Keep in mind that the ampere meters and volt meters connected in AC circuits always showing
the RMS values (of current and voltage).
 For AC sine wave, RMS values of current and voltage are:
IRMS = 0.707 x IM , VRMS = 0.707 VM
 Let’s see how to find the R.M.S values of a sine wave.
 We know that the value of sinusoidal alternating current (AC) =
Im Sin ω θ = Im Sin θ
 While the mean of square of instantaneous values of current in in half or complete cycle is:

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The Square root of this value is:

Hence, the RMS value of the current is (while putting I = Im Sin θ):

Now,

Therefore, We may find that for a symmetrical sinusoidal current:

IRMS = Max Value of Current x 0.707
Average Value:
If we convert the alternating current (AC) sine wave into direct current (DC) sine wave through rectifiers,
then the converted value to the DC is known as the average value of that alternating current sine wave.

Fig 4 – Average Value of Voltage

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If the maximum value of alternating current is “IMAX“, then the value of converted DC current through
rectifier would be “0.637 IM” which is known as average value of the AC Sine wave (IAV).
Average Value of Current = IAV = 0.637 IM
Average Value of Voltage = EAV = 0.637 EM
The Average Value (also known as Mean Value) of an Alternating Current (AC) is expressed by that Direct
Current (DC) which transfers across any circuit the same amount of charge as is transferred by that
Alternating Current (AC) during the same time.
Keep in mind that the average or mean value of a full sinusoidal wave is “Zero” the value of current in first
half (Positive) is equal to the the next half cycle (Negative) in the opposite direction. In other words, There
are same amount of current in the positive and negative half cycles which flows in the opposite direction, so
the average value for a complete sine wave would be “0”. That’s the reason that’s why we don’t use average
value for plating and battery charging. If an AC wave is converted into DC through a rectifier, It can be used
for electrochemical works.

Fig 5- Average Value of Current

In short, the average value of a sine wave taken over a complete cycle is always zero, because the positive
values (above the zero crossing) offset or neutralize the negative values (below the zero crossing.)
We know that the standard equation of alternating current is
i = Sin ω θ = Im Sin θ

 Maximum value of current on sine wave = Im

 Average value of current on sine wave = IAV
 Instantaneous value of current on sine wave = i
 The angle specified fir “i” after zero position of current = θ
 Angle of half cycle = π radians
 Angle of full cycle = 2π radians

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(a) Average value of complete cycle:

Let i = Sin ω θ = Im Sin θ

Thus, the average value of a sinusoidal wave over a complete cycle is zero.
(b) Average value of current over a half cycle

Average Value of Current (Half Cycle)

IAV = 0.637 VM
Similarly, the average value of voltage over a half cycle
VAV = 0.637 VM

What is Peak Voltage or Maximum Voltage Value ?

Peak value is also known as Maximum Value, Crest Value or Amplitude. It is the maximum value of
alternating current or voltage from the “0” position no matter positive or negative half cycle in a sinusoidal
wave as shown in fig 8. Its expressed as IM and EM or VP and IM.
Equations of Peak Voltage Value is:
VP = √2 x VRMS = 1.414 VRMS

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VP = VP-P/2 = 0.5 VP-P

VP = π/2 x VAV = 1.571 x VAV
In other words, It is the value of voltage or current at the positive or the negative maximum (peaks) with
respect to zero. In simple words, it is the instantaneous value with maximum intensity.

Fig 8 – Peak or Maximum Values of Voltages

Peak to Peak Value:

The sum of positive and negative peak values is known as peak to peak value. Its expressed as IPP or VPP.
Equations and formulas for Peak to Peak Voltage are as follow:
VP-P = 2√2 x VRMS = 2.828 x VRMS
VP-P =2 x VP
VP-P = π x VAV = 3.141 x VAV
In other words, the peak to peak value of a sine wave, is the voltage or current from positive peak to the
negative peak and its value is double as compared to peak value or maximum value as shown in fig 8 above.

Peak Factor:
Peak Factor is also known as Crest Factor or Amplitude Factor.
It is the ratio between maximum value and RMS value of an alternating wave.

For a sinusoidal alternating voltage:

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For a sinusoidal alternating current:

Form Factor:
The ratio between RMS value and Average value of an alternating quantity (Current or Voltage) is known as

Form Factor.

Other Terms Related To AC Circuits

Waveform
 The path traced by a quantity (such as voltage or current) plotted as a function of some variable (such
as time, degree, radians, temperature etc.) is called waveform.

Cycle
1. One complete set of positive and negative values of alternating quality (such as voltage and current) is
known as cycle.
2. The portion of a waveform contained in one period of time is called cycle.
3. A distance between two same points related to value and direction is known as cycle.
4. A cycle is a complete alternation.

Period
 The time taken by a alternating quantity (such as current or voltage) to complete one cycle is called
its time period “T”.
 It is inversely proportional to the Frequency “f” and denoted by “T” where the unit of time period is
second.
 Mathematically;
T = 1/f
Frequency
 Frequency is the number if cycles passed through per second. It is denoted by “f” and has the unit
cycle per second i.e. Hz (Herts).
 The number of completed cycles in 1 second is called frequency.
 It is the number of cycles of alternating quantity per second in hertz.
 Frequency is the number of cycles that a sine wave completed in one second or the number of cycles
that occurs in one second.
f = 1/T

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Amplitude
 The maximum value, positive or negative, of an alternating quantity such as voltage or current is
known as its amplitude. Its denoted by VP, IP or EMAX and IMAX.
 Alternation
 One half cycle of a sine wave (Negative or Positive) is known as alternation which span is 180°
degree.

Fig 9 – Different Terms used in AC Circuits and Sine Wave

Introduction to Single Phase AC Circuit:

 In a dc circuit the relationship between the applied voltage V and current flowing through the circuit
I is a simple one and is given by the expression I = V/R but in an a c circuit this simple relationship
does not hold good. Variations in current and applied voltage set up magnetic and electrostatic
effects respectively and these must be taken into account with the resistance of the circuit while
determining the quantitative relations between current and applied voltage.
 With comparatively low-voltage, heavy- current circuits magnetic effects may be very large, but
electrostatic effects are usually negligible. On the other hand with high-voltage circuits electrostatic
effects may be of appreciable magnitude, and magnetic effects are also present.
 Here it has been discussed how the magnetic effects due to variations in current do and electrostatic
effects due to variations in the applied voltage affect the relationship between the applied voltage and
current.

Purely Resistive Circuit:

 A purely resistive or a non-inductive circuit is a circuit which has inductance so small that at normal
frequency its reactance is negligible as compared to its resistance. Ordinary filament lamps, water
resistances etc., are the examples of non-inductive resistances. If the circuit is purely non-inductive,
no reactance emf (i.e., self- induced or back emf) is set up and whole of the applied voltage is
utilized in overcoming the ohmic resistance of the circuit.
 Consider an ac circuit containing a non-inductive resistance of R ohms connected across a sinusoidal
voltage represented by v = V sin wt, as shown in Fig.

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As already said, when the current flowing through a pure resistance changes, no back emf is set up,
therefore, applied voltage has to overcome the ohmic drop of i R only:

And instantaneous current may be expressed as:

i = Imax sin ωt
From the expressions of instantaneous applied voltage and instantaneous current, it is evident that in a pure
resistive circuit, the applied voltage and current are in phase with each other, as shown by wave and phasor
diagrams in Figs. 4.1 (b) and (c) respectively.

Power in Purely Resistive Circuit:

The instantaneous power delivered to the circuit in question is the product of the instantaneous values of
applied voltage and current.

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Where V and I are the rms values of applied voltage and current respectively.
Thus for purely resistive circuits, the expression for power is the same as for dc circuits. From the power
curve for a purely resistive circuit shown in Fig. 4.1 (b) it is evident that power consumed in a pure resistive
circuit is not constant, it is fluctuating.
However, it is always positive. This is so because the instantaneous values of voltage and current are always
either positive or negative and, therefore, the product is always positive. This means that the voltage source
constantly delivers power to the circuit and the circuit consumes it.

Purely Inductive Circuit:

An inductive circuit is a coil with or without an iron core having negligible resistance. Practically pure
inductance can never be had as the inductive coil has always small resistance. However, a coil of thick
copper wire wound on a laminated iron core has negligible resistance arid is known as a choke coil.
When an alternating voltage is applied to a purely inductive coil, an emf, known as self-induced emf, is
induced in the coil which opposes the applied voltage. Since coil has no resistance, at every instant applied
voltage has to overcome this self-induced emf only.

From the expressions of instantaneous applied voltage and instantaneous current flowing through a purely
inductive coil it is observed that the current lags behind the applied voltage by π/2 as shown in Fig. 4.2 (b)
by wave diagram and in Fig 4.2 (c) by phasor diagram.

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Inductive Reactance:
ωL in the expression Imax = Vmax/ωL is known as inductive reactance and is denoted by XL i.e., XL = ω L
If L is in henry and co is in radians per second then XL will be in ohms.

Power in Purely Inductive Circuit:

Instantaneous power, p = v × i = Vmax sin ω t Imax sin (ωt – π/2)
Or p = – Vmax Imax sin ω t cos ω t = Vmax Imax/2 sin 2 ωt
The power measured by wattmeter is the average value of p which is zero since average of a sinusoidal
quantity of double frequency over a complete cycle is zero. Hence in a purely inductive circuit power
absorbed is zero.

Physically the above fact can be explained as below:

During the second quarter of a cycle the current and the magnetic flux of the coil increases and the coil
draws power from the supply source to build up the magnetic field (the power drawn is positive and the
energy drawn by the coil from the supply source is represented by the area between the curve p and the time
axis). The energy stored in the magnetic field during build up is given as W max = 1/2 L I2max.
In the next quarter the current decreases. The emf of self-induction will, however, tends to oppose its
decrease. The coil acts as a generator of electrical energy, returning the stored energy in the magnetic field
to the supply source (now the power drawn by the coil is negative and the curve p lies below the time axis).
The chain of events repeats itself during the next half cycles. Thus, a proportion of power is continually
exchanged between the field and the inductive circuit and the power consumed by a purely inductive coil is
zero.

Purely Capacitive Circuit:

When a dc voltage is impressed across the plates of a perfect condenser, it will become charged to full
voltage almost instantaneously. The charging current will flow only during the period of “build up” and will
cease to flow as soon as the capacitor has attained the steady voltage of the source. This implies that for a
direct current, a capacitor is a break in the circuit or an infinitely high resistance.
In Fig. 4.4 a sinusoidal voltage is applied to a capacitor. During the first quarter-cycle, the applied voltage
increases to the peak value, and the capacitor is charged to that value. The current is maximum in the
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beginning of the cycle and becomes zero at the maximum value of the applied voltage, so there is a phase
difference of 90° between the applied voltage and current. During the first quarter-cycle the current flows in
the normal direction through the circuit; hence the current is positive.
In the second quarter-cycle, the voltage applied across the capacitor falls, the capacitor loses its charge, and
current flows through it against the applied voltage because the capacitor discharges into the circuit. Thus,
the current is negative during the second quarter-cycle and attains a maximum value when the applied
voltage is zero.

The third and fourth quarter-cycles repeat the events of the first and second, respectively, with the difference
that the polarity of the applied voltage is reversed, and there are corresponding current changes.
In other words, an alternating current flow in the circuit because of the charging and discharging of the
capacitor. As illustrated in Figs. 4.4 (b) and (c) the current begins its cycle 90 degrees ahead of the voltage,
so the current in a capacitor leads the applied voltage by 90 degrees – the opposite of the inductance current-
voltage relationship.
Let an alternating voltage represented by v = Vmax sin ω t be applied across a capacitor of capacitance C
farads.

The expression for instantaneous charge is given as:

q = C Vmax sin ωt

Since the capacitor current is equal to the rate of change of charge, the capacitor current may be
obtained by differentiating the above equation:

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From the equations of instantaneous applied voltage and instantaneous current flowing through capacitance,
it is observed that the current leads the applied voltage by π/2, as shown in Figs. 4.4 (b) and (c) by wave and
phasor diagrams respectively.

Capacitive Reactance:

1/ω C in the expression Imax = Vmax/1/ω C is known as capacitive reactance and is denoted by XC i.e.,
XC = 1/ω C
If C is in farads and ω is in radians/s, then Xc will be in ohms.

Power in Purely Capacitive Circuit:

Hence power absorbed in a purely capacitive circuit is zero. The same is shown graphically in Fig. 4.4 (b).
The energy taken from the supply circuit is stored in the capacitor during the first quarter- cycle and returned
during the next.

The energy stored by a capacitor at maximum voltage across its plates is given by the expression:

This can be realized when it is recalled that no heat is produced and no work is done while current is flowing
through a capacitor. As a matter of fact, in commercial capacitors, there is a slight energy loss in the
dielectric in addition to a minute I2 R loss due to flow of current over the plates having definite ohmic
resistance.
The power curve is a sine wave of double the supply frequency. Although it raises the power factor from
zero to 0.002 or even a little more, but for ordinary purposes the power factor is taken to be zero. Obviously
the phase angle due to dielectric and ohmic losses decreases slightly.

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Resistance — Capacitance (R-C) Series Circuit:

Consider an ac circuit consisting of resistance of R ohms and capacitance of C farads connected in series, as
shown in Fig. 4.18 (a).
Let the supply frequency be of fHz and current flowing through the circuit be of I amperes (rms value).
Voltage drop across resistance, VR = I R in phase with the current.
Voltage drop across capacitance, VC = I XC lagging behind I by π/2 radians or 90°, as shown in Fig. 4.18 (b).

The applied voltage, being equal to phasor sum of VR and VC, is given in magnitude by-

The applied voltage lags behind the current by an angle ɸ:

If instantaneous voltage is represented by:

v = Vmax sin ω t

Then instantaneous current will be expressed as:

i = Imax sin (ω t + ɸ)

And power consumed by the circuit is given by:

P = VI cos ɸ

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Voltage triangle and impedance triangle Fig. 4.19 are shown in Figs. 4.19 (a) and 4.19 (b) respectively.

6. Apparent Power, True Power, Reactive Power and Power Factor:

The product of rms values of current and voltage, VI is called the apparent power and is measured in volt-
amperes or kilo-volt amperes (kVA).
The true power in an ac circuit is obtained by multiplying the apparent power by the power factor and is
expressed in watts or kilo-watts (kW).
The product of apparent power, VI and the sine of the angle between voltage and current, sin ɸ is called the
reactive power. This is also known as wattless power and is expressed in reactive volt-amperes or kilo-volt
amperes reactive (kVA R).

The above relations can easily be followed by referring to the power diagram shown in Fig. 4.7 (a).

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Power factor may be defined as:

(i) Cosine of the phase angle between voltage and current,
(ii) The ratio of the resistance to impedance, or
(iii) The ratio of true power to apparent power.
The power factor can never be greater than unity. The power factor is expressed either as fraction or as a
percentage. It is usual practice to attach the word ‘lagging’ or ‘leading’ with the numerical value of power
factor to signify whether the current lags behind or leads the voltage.

CONCEPT OF REACTANCE, IMPEDANCE, SUSCEPTANCE AND ADMITTANCE:

Reactance is essentially inertia against the motion of electrons. It is present anywhere electric or magnetic
fields are developed in proportion to applied voltage or current, respectively; but most notably in capacitors
and inductors. When alternating current goes through a pure reactance, a voltage drop is produced that is
90o out of phase with the current. Reactance is mathematically symbolized by the letter “X” and is
measured in the unit of ohms (Ω).

Impedance is a comprehensive expression of any and all forms of opposition to electron flow, including
both resistance and reactance. It is present in all circuits, and in all components. When alternating current
goes through an impedance, a voltage drop is produced that is somewhere between 0 o and 90o out of
phase with the current. Impedance is mathematically symbolized by the letter “Z” and is measured in the
unit of ohms (Ω), in complex form

Admittance is also a complex number as impedance which is having a real part, Conductance
(G) and imaginary part, Susceptance (B).

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(it is negative for capacitive susceptance and positive for inductive susceptance)

Susceptance (symbolized B) is an expression of the ease with which alternating current (AC) passes
through a capacitance or inductance

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UNIT-IV
ELECTRICAL MACHINES
Dc Generator
 Principle of Operation
 Constructional Features
 EMF Equation
Dc Motor
 Principle of Operation
 Back EMF
 Torque Equation
Single Phase Transformer
 Principle of Operation
 Constructional Features
 EMF Equation
 Simple Problems

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DC GENERATOR
Principle of DC Generator
There are two types of generators, one is ac generator and other is DC generator. Whatever
may be the types of generators, it always converts mechanical power to electrical power. An AC generator
produces alternating power. A DC generator produces direct power. Both of these generators produce
electrical power, based on same fundamental principle of Faraday's law of electromagnetic induction.
According to this law, when a conductor moves in a magnetic field it cuts magnetic lines of force, due to
which an emf is induced in the conductor. The magnitude of this induced emf depends upon the rate of
change of flux (magnetic line force) linkage with the conductor. This emf will cause a current to flow if the
conductor circuit is closed.
Hence the most basic tow essential parts of a generator are

1. a magnetic field
2. conductors which move inside that magnetic field.

Now we will go through working principle of DC generator. As, the working principle of ac generator is not
in scope of our discussion in this section.

Single Loop DC Generator

In the figure above, a single loop of conductor of rectangular shape is placed between two
opposite poles of magnet.

Let's us consider, the rectangular loop of conductor is ABCD which rotates inside the
magnetic field about its own axis ab. When the loop rotates from its vertical position to its horizontal
position, it cuts the flux lines of the field. As during this movement two sides, i.e. AB and CD of the loop
cut the flux lines there will be an emf induced in these both of the sides (AB and BC) of the loop.

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As the loop is closed there will be a current circulating through the loop. The direction of the current can be
determined by Fleming’s right hand Rule. This rule says that if you stretch thumb, index finger and middle
finger of your right hand perpendicular to each other, then thumbs indicates the direction of motion of the
conductor, index finger indicates the direction of magnetic field i.e. N - pole to S - pole, and middle finger
indicates the direction of flow of current through the conductor. Now if we apply this right-hand rule, we
will see at this horizontal position of the loop, current will flow from point A to B and on the other side of
the loop current will flow from point C to D.

Now if we allow the loop to move further, it will come again to its vertical position, but now upper side of
the loop will be CD and lower side will be AB (just opposite of the previous vertical position). At this
position the tangential motion of the sides of the loop is parallel to the flux lines of the field. Hence there
will be no question of flux cutting and consequently there will be no current in the loop.
If the loop rotates further, it comes to again in horizontal position. But now, said AB side of the loop comes
in front of N pole and CD comes in front of S pole, i.e. just opposite to the previous horizontal position as
shown in the figure beside.

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Here the tangential motion of the side of the loop is perpendicular to the flux lines, hence rate of flux cutting
is maximum here and according to Fleming’s right hand rule, at this position current flows from B to A and
on other side from D to [Link] if the loop is continued to rotate about its axis, every time the side AB comes
in front of S pole, the current flows from A to B and when it comes in front of N pole, the current flows
from B to A. Similarly, every time the side CD comes in front of S pole the current flows from C to D and
when it comes in front of N pole the current flows from D to C.

If we observe this phenomena in different way, it can be concluded, that each side of the loop comes in front
of N pole, the current will flow through that side in same direction i.e. downward to the reference plane and
similarly each side of the loop comes in front of S pole, current through it flows in same direction i.e.
upwards from reference plane. From this, we will come to the topic of principle of DC generator.

Now the loop is opened and connected it with a split ring as shown in the figure below. Split ring are made
out of a conducting cylinder which cuts into two halves or segments insulated from each other. The external
load terminals are connected with two carbon brushes which are rest on these split slip ring segments.
Working Principle of DC Generator

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It is seen that in the first half of the revolution current flows always along ABLMCD i.e. brush no 1 in
contact with segment a. In the next half revolution, in the figure the direction of the induced current in the
coil is reversed. But at the same time the position of the segments a and b are also reversed which results
that brush no 1 comes in touch with the segment b. Hence, the current in the load resistance again flows
from L to M. The wave from of the current through the load circuit is as shown in the figure. This current is
unidirectional.

This is basic working principle of DC generator, explained by single loop generator model. The position of
the brushes of DC generator is so arranged that the change over of the segments a and b from one brush to
other takes place when the plane of rotating coil is at right angle to the plane of the lines of force. It is so
become in that position, the induced emf in the coil is zero.
Construction of DC Generator
During explaining working principle of DC Generator, we have used a single loop DC
generator. But now we will discuss about practical construction of DC Generator.
A DC generator has the following parts

1. Yoke
2. Pole of generator
3. Field winding
4. Armature of DC generator
5. Brushes of generator and Commentator
6. Bearing
Yoke of DC Generator
Yoke or the outer frame of DC generator serves two purposes,

1. It holds the magnetic pole cores of the generator and acts as cover of the generator.
2. It carries the magnetic field flux.
In small generator, yoke are made of cast iron. Cast iron is cheaper in cost but heavier than steel. But for
large construction of DC generator, where weight of the machine is concerned, lighter cast steel or rolled

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steel is preferable for constructing yoke of DC generator. Normally larger yokes are formed by rounding a
rectangular steel slab and the edges are welded together at the bottom. Then feet, terminal box and hangers
are welded to the outer periphery of the yoke frame.
Pole Cores and Pole Shoes
Let's first discuss about pole core of DC generator. There are mainly two types of construction available.
One: Solid pole core, where it is made of a solid single piece of cast iron or cast steel.
Two: Laminated pole core, where it made of numbers of thin, limitations of annealed steel which are riveted
together. The thickness of the lamination is in the range of 0.04" to 0.01". The pole core is fixed to the inner
periphery of the yoke by means of bolts through the yoke and into the pole body. Since the poles project
inwards they are called salient poles. The pole shoes are so typically shaped, that, they spread out the
magnetic flux in the air gap and reduce the reluctance of the magnetic path. Due to their larger cross-section
they hold the pole coil at its position.
Pole Coils: The field coils or pole coils are wound around the pole core. These are a simple coil of insulated
copper wire or strip, which placed on the pole which placed between yoke and pole shoes as shown.
Armature Core
The purpose of armature core is to hold the armature winding and provide low reluctance
path for the flux through the armature from N pole to S pole. Although a DC generator provides direct
current but induced current in the armature is alternating in nature. That is why, cylindrical or drum shaped
armature core is build up of circular laminated sheet. In every circular lamination, slots are either die - cut or
punched on the outer periphery and the key way is located on the inner periphery as shown. Air ducts are
also punched of cut on each lamination for circulation of air through the core for providing better cooling.
Up to diameter of 40", the circular stampings are cut out in one piece of lamination sheet. But above 40",
diameter, number of suitable sections of a circle is cut. A complete circle of lamination is formed by four or
six or even eight such segment.
Armature Winding

Armature winding are generally formed wound. These are first wound in the form of flat
rectangular coils and are then pulled into their proper shape in a coil puller. Various conductors of the coils
are insulated from each other. The conductors are placed in the armature slots, which are lined with tough
insulating material. This slot insulation is folded over above the armature conductors placed in it and
secured in place by special hard wooden or fiber wedges. Two types of armature windings are used – Lap
winding and Wave winding.

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Commutator
The commentator plays a vital role in DC generator. It collects current from armature and
sends it to the load as direct current. It actually takes alternating current from armature and converts it to
direct current and then send it to external load. It is cylindrical structured and is build up of wedge-shaped
segments of high conductivity, hard drawn or drop forged copper. Each segment is insulated from the shaft
by means of insulated commutator segment shown below. Each commentator segment is connected with
corresponding armature conductor through segment riser or lug.
Brushes
The brushes are made of carbon. These are rectangular block shaped. The only function of
these carbon brushes of DC generator is to collect current from commutator segments. The brushes are
housed in the rectangular box shaped brush holder or brush box. As shown in figure, the brush face is placed
on the commutator segment which is attached to the brush holder.
Bearing

For small machine, ball bearing is used and for heavy duty DC generator, roller bearing is used. The bearing
must always be lubricated properly for smooth operation and long life of generator.
Armature winding
Basically armature winding of a DC machine is wound by one of the two methods, lap
winding or wave winding. The difference between these two is merely due to the end connections and
commutator connections of the conductor. To know how armature winding is done, it is essential to know
the following terminologies -

1. Pole pitch: It is defined as number of armature slots per pole. For example, if there are 36 conductors
and 4 poles, then the pole pitch is 36/4=9.
2. Coil span or coil pitch (Ys): It is the distance between the two sides of a coil measured in terms of
armature slots.
3. Front pitch (Yf): It is the distance, in terms of armature conductors, between the second conductor
of one coil and the first conductor of the next coil. OR it is the distance between two coil sides that
are connected to the same commutator segment.
4. Back pitch (Yb): The distance by which a coil advances on the back of the armature is called as back
pitch of the coil. It is measured in terms of armature conductors.
5. Resultant pitch (Yr): The distance, in terms of armature conductor, between the beginning of one coil
and the beginning of the next coil is called as resultant pitch of the coil.

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Armature winding can be done as single layer or double layer. It may be simplex, duplex or multiplex, and
this multiplicity increases the number of parallel paths.

Lap Winding and Wave Winding

In lap winding, the successive coils overlap each other. In a simplex lap winding, the two
ends of a coil are connected to adjacent commutator segments. The winding may be progressive or
retrogressive. A progressive winding progresses in the direction in which the coil is wound. The opposite
way is retrogressive. The following image shows progressive simplex lap winding.

In wave winding, a conductor under one pole is connected at the back to a conductor which occupies an
almost corresponding position under the next pole which is of opposite polarity. In other words, all the coils
which carry e.m.f in the same direction are connected in series. The following diagram shows a part of
simplex wave winding.

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