An Analysis of Students’ Ability in Using Conjunctions in Writing Descriptive Text at the

Tenth Grade of Senior High School

by

Ririn

CHAPTER II

REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE

2.1 Writing Skill

2.1.1Definition of Writing Skill

Writing is a skill that requires not only the ability to choose words, but also to

organize the relationships between ideas so that readers can understand the writer's intent.

In the first edition, (Lowe, 2010, p. 108) explain that the writing process consists of

finding ideas, drafting, and revising repeatedly to produce effective writing. Second

edition, (Lowe & Zemliansky, 2020, p. 15) also mention that knowing who the audience

is and the situation in which the writing is used helps writers choose the right language,

including how they connect ideas and paragraph structure.

According to Wanti (2024, p. 28), there are twelve genres of writing, including

descriptive, recount, narrative, procedure, explanation, discussion, exposition, news item,

information report, anecdote, and review. Robinson (2017, p.33) expaind Writing is an
active and productive process that allows you to clarify your thoughts, understand their

significance, decide how to express them, and effectively share them with others. Writing

is an active and productive process that involves expressing the ideas in one’s mind into

written form. According to Meyers (2005 as cited in wanti, 2024, p. 28), producing good

writing involves six key steps: generating ideas, prewriting, organizing thoughts, drafting,

revising, and creating the final version.

Beyond recognizing writing as a process, writers understand that choosing a

suitable topic is a crucial step in completing an assignment. In some cases, instructors

suggest topics to begin with, while in others, students are expected to select their own. An

effective topic addresses the assignment’s content while also matching its purpose and

intended audience (Hall, 2018, p. 89).

Based on the discussion above, writing is a purposeful process that involves

generating ideas, organizing thoughts, and choosing suitable topics and language to

communicate effectively. By following steps such as drafting and revising, writers can

produce coherent texts that meet the assignment’s goals and engage the audience.

Mastering writing as a skill and process allows individuals to express their ideas clearly

and successfully in academic and professional contexts.

2.1.2 Purpose of Writing

In academic writing, authors can attempt to summarize the information, analysis

of the ideas or concepts, express and defend an opinion, and combine ideas from several

sources to produce new arguments (Jeffrey, 2015, p. 9). The purpose of writing, most
especially the contrast between writing to argue and writing to inform, is a critical point

that significantly influences the course of the writing process. Argumentative writing is

more likely to engage more cognitive processing than informative writing. Moreover, the

writing purpose affects the features of the writing process, such as the length of the pause

that takes place in the course of the writing process (Valenzuela & Castillo, 2022, p.

885).

Based on these perspectives, the purpose of academic writing can be considered a

key element in the writing process. Purpose determines how writers organize information

and develop ideas in their texts. Different writing purposes, such as arguing or informing,

also influence the level of cognitive engagement involved during the writing process.

Therefore, understanding the purpose of writing is essential for producing effective and

meaningful academic texts.

2.1.3 Writing Skill in Senior High School

Writing is one of the language skills taught in English language learning in high

school. Writing skills learning is aimed at equipping students with knowledge,

experience, and writing strategies, ranging from simple texts to more complex texts in

various genres, such as narrative, descriptive, expository, news, recount, and reports.

Based on the results of informal interviews conducted by researchers with several high

school English teachers, this condition shows that writing skills tend to receive less

attention than reading and speaking skills. In addition, most high school students stated

that they often only copied texts or writing assignments from books or other sources,
including the internet, and then submitted them to their teachers without actually going

through the writing process (Eliwarti & Aruan, 2018, p. 64).

Based on these conditions, writing skills in high school can be considered an

important but often overlooked component of English language teaching. Limited

teaching focus and inadequate writing practice can hinder students’ ability to develop true

writing competence. When writing activities are reduced to mere copying of texts,

students lose the opportunity to practice critical thinking and language production.

Therefore, greater attention to the teaching of writing skills is essential to support

students’ academic development in high school.

2.1.4 Components of Writing

Writing skills consist of several main components that are interrelated in

producing a good text. (MacArthur et al) identify five components in writing, content,

organization, vocabulary, language use or grammar, and mechanics. These components

cover aspects ranging from idea development to the accuracy of language use and

technical elements of writing. Therefore, these five components are often used as a basis

for assessing students’ writing skills (MacArthur et al., 2006, p. 125, as cited in Abda &

Asty, 2016, p. 31).

 Content

Content refers to the ideas and information conveyed in writing. It

includes the writer’s understanding of the topic, clarity of the main idea,
 sufficiency of supporting details, and the interrelationships among ideas

within the subject matter (MacArthur et al., 2006, p. 125, as cited in Apraza

Pino Abda & Asty, 2016, p. 31).

 Organization

Organization deals with how ideas are arranged and connected in a

written text. It involves coherence and cohesion, the presence of a controlling

idea, and the logical relationships of ideas within and between paragraphs

(MacArthur et al., 2006, p. 125, as cited in Apraza Pino Abda & Asty, 2016,

p. 31).

 Vocabulary

Vocabulary concerns the appropriate and accurate use of words in

writing. It includes correct word choice, idiomatic usage, mastery of

vocabulary items, and the use of language that suits the intended register or

context (MacArthur et al., 2006, p. 125, as cited in Apraza Pino Abda & Asty,

2016, p. 31).

 Grammar

Language use refers to the correct application of grammatical rules in

writing. This component covers aspects such as verb tenses, effective use of

complex sentence constructions, agreement in number, and proper word order

(MacArthur et al., 2006, p. 125, as cited in Abda & Asty, 2016,p. 31).

 Mechanics
 Mechanics relate to the technical aspects of writing. This component

includes spelling, punctuation, capitalization, paragraphing, and handwriting,

all of which contribute to the clarity and readability of a written text

(MacArthur et al., 2006, p. 125, as cited in Abda & Asty, 2016, p. 31).

2.2 Descriptive

2.2.1 Definition of Descriptive Text

Descriptive text is a type of writing that portrays a person, place, mood, situation,

or other subjects through words. Its primary purpose is to provide detailed information to

the reader (Erlita, 2022, p. 113).

Descriptive writing is a type of writing that seeks to provide readers with a vivid

and sensory experience through the use of detailed and expressive language. Rather than

merely presenting information, it aims to capture the true essence of a person, place,

object, or experience by employing rich imagery and careful descriptions (Holliway,

2004 as cited in Siregar et all., 2023, p. 152).

Learning descriptive writing is important because it equips individuals with the

ability to communicate ideas effectively, evoke emotions, and create clear mental images

for readers. This skill enables writers to portray people, places, objects, or experiences in

detail, allowing readers to engage with the content more deeply (Siregar, 2023, p. 152).

Based on the discussion above, descriptive writing is a vital skill that enables

writers to convey detailed information and create vivid, sensory experiences for readers.

By using expressive language and rich imagery, writers can effectively capture the
essence of people, places, objects, or experiences, while engaging readers on a deeper

emotional and intellectual level. Mastering descriptive writing not only enhances

communication but also allows individuals to evoke imagination and understanding,

making it an essential tool in both academic and everyday contexts.

2.2.2 Sosial Function of Descriptive Text

(Sunardi & Sujadi 2016 cited in Noprianto, 2017, p. 78) describe five steps

of discovery-based learning: problem identification, information gathering, information

processing, verification, and conclusion or generalization. In the context of descriptive

writing, this discovery learning theory can help students understand the social function of

text, namely the ability to write clear and communicative descriptions of a person, place,

or object. At the information gathering and processing stage, teachers can guide students

to recognize the communicative purpose and generic structure of descriptive texts so that

students understand how the text they write should fulfill its social function (Noprianto,

2017, p. 78).

Furthermore, in the verification stage, students can be trained with activities that

emphasize the connection between sentences and paragraphs and the selection of

appropriate participants as the subject of the text. These activities help students write

texts that are coherent and in line with their descriptive purposes, so that the social

function of the text can be achieved. Thus, learning designed through systematic
discovery learning steps not only helps students understand the structure and language of

the text, but also improves their ability to adapt the text to its intended social function

(Noprianto, 2017, p. 78).

Based on this explanation, the application of discovery-based learning as a

starting point in teaching descriptive texts can help students better understand the social

function of texts. Through steps ranging from information gathering, processing, to

verification, students can familiarize themselves with writing coherent texts, choosing the

right participants as subjects, and adjusting their descriptions according to

communicative purposes. This approach as a starting point provides a strong foundation

for students to produce descriptive texts that are clear, communicative, and in accordance

with their social function.

2.2.3 Generic Structure of Descriptive Text

There are various types of texts, also known as genres. Genre is defined as a type

of text that has a specific communicative purpose, generic structure, and linguistic

characteristics (Ministry of National Education, 2004 as cited in wanti 2024, p. 27-28).

The generic structure of descriptive texts generally consists of two main parts:

identification and description. The description section includes the purpose of the

description, an explanation of the features and uses, physical characteristics, descriptions

of people, interesting traits or characteristics, and relevant evidence (Hardy Klarwein

1991 as cited in wanti 2024, p.27-28). Based on this structure, understanding the
components of descriptive texts can help students organize their ideas systematically and

produce coherent written texts.

2.2.4 Languange Features of Descriptive Text

Understanding language features in descriptive essays provides important benefits

for writers and readers in various contexts. The appropriate use of linguistic features

helps writers convey descriptions clearly and interestingly, highlighting the unique

characteristics of the objects being described. In addition, appropriate linguistic features

can create a more vivid picture and build emotional engagement with readers (Putri,

2024, p. 30). Therefore, mastery of linguistic features is an important aspect of producing

effective and meaningful descriptive texts.

2.3 Conjunction

Based on research conducted by (Wibawati et al., 2019, p. 46) on the analysis of

conjunction usage errors in the writing of EFL students in Indonesia, it was found that

many students still have difficulty using conjunctions appropriately, especially in

connecting clauses and organizing ideas coherently. Common errors include the use of

conjunctions that are not appropriate to the context, repetition of simple conjunctions, and

minimal use of correlative and subordinative conjunctions. This shows that although

students understand the basic functions of conjunctions, their application in writing is still
limited and affects the flow of ideas. In line with these findings, recent research by

(Adellaviani, 2025, p. 176) shows a similar phenomenon in the context of descriptive

texts; students often use simple conjunctions such as "and" or "but" repeatedly, rarely

utilizing more complex conjunctions to indicate cause and effect, contrast, or alternatives.

Both studies confirm that the appropriate use of conjunctions remains a major challenge

in English writing instruction, especially for creating cohesive and logical descriptive

writing.

2.2.1 Coordinating Conjunctions

According to Septiani et al. (2025, p. 7), coordinating conjunctions play an

important role because they help maintain clear and balanced sentence structure. These

conjunctions are used to connect elements that have the same grammatical level, such as

words, phrases, or independent clauses. The most well-known coordinating conjunctions

can be remembered through the acronym FANBOYS, which stands for for, and, nor, but,

or, yet, and so. For example: I want to go out, but it’s raining (Ugli, 2025, p. 581).

2.2.2 Subordinating Conjunctions

According to Septiani et al. (2025, p. 7), subordinating conjunctions play a role in

connecting dependent clauses with independent clauses, thereby indicating relationships

such as cause, reason, effect, or purpose. Some examples of commonly used

subordinating conjunctions include after, even though, than, whenever, although, how,

that, where, as if, though, wherever, as if, in order that, till, whether, as though, once,

unless, which, because, rather than, until, while, before, since, what, who, even if, as well
as Indonesian forms such as bahwa, ketika, and mengapa (Nurbaidah, 2019, as cited in

Septiani et al., 2025, p. 7).

2.2.3 Correlative Conjunctions

Correlative conjunctions are pairs of words that function together to connect

parallel elements in a sentence (Ugli, 2025, p. 581). Examples of correlative conjunctions

include: either...or..., not...nor..., both...and..., not only...but also.... The function of these

conjunctions is to connect independent clauses, words, or phrases that have similar

structures and meanings. It should be noted that correlative conjunctions can only

connect two elements, so they cannot be used to combine more than two elements

(Septiani et al., 2025, p. 7).

2.3.3 Functions of Conjunctions in Sentences

Conjunctions can be considered one of the elements of cohesion in discourse.

Therefore, conjunctions play an important role in maintaining the unity and coherence of

a text (Gunas, 2025, p. 1). Previous studies have confirmed that conjunctions play an

important role in the context of education. Several studies show that the appropriate use

of conjunctions can improve students' language skills and encourage more effective and

productive communication (Bui, 2022; Kamil & Saeed, 2023; Zahara et al., 2023; Gunas,

2025, p. 1). Gunas (2025, p. 1) asserts that incorporating knowledge of conjunctions into

writing instruction provides significant benefits. This approach emphasizes the

also aligning with the general objectives of language learning.

Based on the discussion above, it can be concluded that conjunctions are essential

linguistic elements that contribute significantly to textual cohesion and coherence. Their

appropriate use not only enhances students’ language skills but also supports effective

writing instruction and promotes clear, meaningful communication in line with broader

language learning objectives.

2.4 Conjunctions in Writing Descriptive Text

Descriptive texts play a crucial role in vocational schools since they are frequently

applied in professional settings, including the description of products, locations, and

technical procedures. A description can be defined as a type of written text that aims to

present detailed information about an object, place, or process in a clear and specific

manner (Laia et al. 2025, p. 275).

Descriptive texts are considered an appropriate choice because they are relatively

simple and easier to comprehend when used to explain or describe an object compared to

other text types. The process of writing descriptive texts requires the use of conjunctions

to link information and establish a logical flow of ideas. As stated by (Chaer 2008 cited

in Laila et al. 2025, p. 275), conjunctions function as linguistic elements that connect

syntactic units, including words, phrases, clauses, and sentences.

role in descriptive writing, particularly in supporting grammatical cohesion and logical

organization of ideas. The appropriate use of conjunctions not only helps students

connect information coherently but also enhances text comprehension and clarity.

Therefore, mastering conjunctions is essential for students, especially in vocational

school contexts, to produce effective and meaningful descriptive texts that meet both

academic and professional communication needs.

2.4.1 The Role of Conjunctions in Text Cohesion

Laia et al. (2025, p. 274) state that conjunctions function as an essential

component of grammatical cohesion in written texts and contribute to students’ ability to

organize ideas systematically and logically, as well as to improve text comprehension. In

line with this view, the use of conjunctions is considered essential because they serve as

key elements in building textual cohesion, which is an inseparable aspect of a text

(Wibawati & Musthafa, 2019, p. 46). Based on this discussion, conjunctions can be seen

as fundamental linguistic devices that support coherent and effective written

communication.

2.4.2 Use of Conjunctions in Descriptive Text Writing

Laia et al. (2025, p. 275) state that writing, as one of the four language skills,

plays an important role in enabling students to express ideas, thoughts, and information in

written form. They further explain that conjunctions are often perceived as minor
elements in writing; however, these linguistic devices have a crucial function in ensuring

clarity of meaning in students’ texts. In addition, conjunctions are considered an essential

component of effective writing because they help connect ideas within sentences and

across clauses, resulting in more coherent and comprehensible texts. Consequently, the

analysis of errors in conjunction usage is regarded as beneficial, as it can assist educators

in developing more effective instructional strategies and improving students’ overall

writing skills (Laia et al., 2025, p. 275). Based on this explanation, mastering the use of

conjunctions is essential to support students in producing clear, coherent, and effective

written texts.

2.5 Students’ Ability

2.5.1 Definition of Students’ Ability

Mastery of conjunctions is an important aspect that must be mastered by students

majoring in English. Students who are skilled in using conjunctions will find it easier to

connect and integrate sentences in their writing. Research findings show that students’

ability to use correlative conjunctions is higher than that of coordinative conjunctions.

Coordinative conjunctions are one of the most challenging for students, especially the

three items for, nor, and yet, which are often answered incorrectly. However, overall,

students’ ability to use coordinative conjunctions is still considered adequate (Syafitri,

Arasuli, & Sembiring, 2017, p. 60-62).

2.5.2 Indicators of Students’ Ability in Using Conjunctions

application in the written compositions of EFL students still shows various problems.

This can be seen from the findings of a number of studies that reveal various mistakes

made by students in using conjunctions. Several researchers in Indonesia have examined

these errors and found several types of errors, such as the use of non-functional

conjunctions, the inappropriate use of cohesive devices, and ambiguous conjunctions. In

addition, there may be other types of errors that have not been fully identified in existing

studies (Wibawati & Musthafa, 2019, p. 56). Based on these findings, it can be

concluded that students’ mastery of conjunctions still needs to be improved through more

focused and systematic writing instruction.