UNIT 7 LIVESTOCK AND WILDLIFE

RESOURCES
Structure
7.0 Introduction
7.1 Objectives
7.2 Livestock and Wildlife Resources
7.2.1 Cattle
7.2.2 Buffalo
7.2.3 Sheep
7.2.4 Goats
7.2.5 Pigs
7.2.6 Camel
7.2.7 Equines

7.3 Livestock Production Status

7.3.1 Dairy Animal Dynamics
7.3.2 Production and Productivity
7.3.3 Dairy Animal Diversity
7.3.4 Declining Diversity

7.4 Dependence on Animal Resource

7.4.1 Livestock Population and Production System
7.4.2 Demand and Supply of Livestock Products
7.4.3 Livestock Productivity and Health

7.5 Sustainable Harvesting

7.5.1 Role of available Biotechnology
7.5.2 Reproductive Physiology
7.5. 3 Artificial Insemination
7.5.4 Embryo Transfer
7.5.5 Embryo Sexing and Cloning
7.5.6 Hormone Use
7.5.7 Animal Genetics and Breeding
7.5.8 Indicator Traits
7.5.9 Genetic Marker and Marker-assisted Selection
7.5.10 Transgenic Animals
7.5.11 Genetic Characterization of Animals

7.6 Issues and Challenges for Resource Supply

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Biotic Resources 7.7 Let Us Sum Up
7.8 Key Words
7.9 Reference and Suggested Further Readings
7.10 Answers to Check Your Progress

7.0 INTRODUCTION
Agriculture and dairying is the mainstay of the Indian economy. The agriculture
and allied sectors contribute nearly 14 per cent of the Gross Domestic Product.
The agriculture and livestock are the main source of employment in rural areas
and about 52 per cent of the population is engaged in agriculture and rearing of
livestock in our country. As per 19th livestock census (2012), the total livestock
population consisting of Cattle, Buffalo, Sheep, Goat, Pig, Horses and Ponies,
Mules, Donkeys, Camels, Mithun and Yak in the country is 512.05 million in
2012. Cattle contribute around 37.28% of the total livestock population. The to-
tal number of cattle in the country as per 12th livestock census is 190.90 million.
Total buffalo population has increased from 105.30 million to 108.70 million
showing a growth of 3.19% as compared to previous census. The female cat-
tle population has increased by 7.99% over previous census and total number
of female buffalo in 2012 was 92.5 million. Total sheep and goat contribute
around 12.71% and 26.40%, respectively of livestock and its population in the
country is 65 and 135.17 million, respectively (19th Livestock Census-2012).
Estimates for 2013-14 indicate that animal husbandry sector contributed 137.68
million tonnes of milk as compared to 132.43 million tonnes in 2012-13 re-
corded a growth of 3.96% (Annual Report, DAHD&F, 2014-15). The value of
output from livestock sector during year 2013-14 is about 21.58% of the value
of output from total agricultural and allied sector. Total number of indigenous
breeds now in the country is 202, which include 50 for cattle, 19 for buffalo,
34 for goat, 44 for sheep, 7 for horses & ponies, 9 for camel, 10 for pig, 3 for
donkey, 1 for yak, 19 for chicken, 2 for duck, 1 for geese and 3 of dog.

7.1 OBJECTIVES
After reading this unit, you will be able to:
●● understand the status of livestock and wildlife resources;
●● explain the production status of domestic animals;
●● describe sustainable livestock rearing;
●● explain the dependence of human being on animal resources and
●● describe issues and challenges for the development of livestock.

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 Livestock and
7.2 LIVESTOCK AND WILDLIFE Wildlife Resources
RESOURCES
7.2.1 CATTLE
The cattle of the Indian sub-continent are characterised by the presence of
prominent hump, long face, upright horn, looping ears, dewlap and slender legs.
Variation in body size and conformation among Indian cattle breeds are partly
due to adoption and partly due to their function. The Indian cattle on the basis
of their utility have been classified as dairy, draught and dual purpose type.
There are currently 50 recognised breed of cattle which have been classified as
follows.
A. Milch breeds
Gir, Sahiwal, Red Sindhi and Tharparkar; last three have their breeding tract
now in Pakistan and only small institutional herds and a few animal with pri-
vate breeders are available.
B. Dual purpose breeds
Nimari, Dangi, Hariana, Rathi, Ongole, Kankrej, and Mewati (Koshi).
C: Draught Breeds
Nagori, Bachur, Kankatha, Malvi, Kherigarh, Hallikar, Amritmahal, Khillari,
Bargur, Kangayam, Ponwar, Siri, Gaolao and Krishna Velley.
In addition to above defined recognised breeds, numerous other cattle breeds/
strains have been reported by the state governments. These are Panganur, Red
Kandhari, Vechur, Bhangari, Denani, Lohani, Rojhan, Bengal, ChittgongRed,
Nepalese Hill, Kachcha, Siri, Tarai, Lulu, Sinhala, Umblacherry, Ganga tiri
etc. Some of these breeds are now found in Pakistan and Bangladesh after the
partition of the country in 1947.

The recognized breeds have sizeable population and herds, most of these herds
have been established by central/state governments. Some of these breeds
are also maintained in sizeable numbers in gaushalas/Pinjrapoles and state
agricultural universities and by private breeders. Mewati (Koshi), Vechur,
Kankatha, Kherigarh, Bargur, Ponwar, Siri and Panganur breed of cattle are
threatened to extinction. Out of the unrecognised breeds Umblacherry is being
promoted by Tamil Nadu and Gangatiri by Uttar Pradesh. Accordingly farms
for these breeds have been established by the state governments.

National Bureau of Animal Genetics Resources (ICAR-NBAGR), Karnal

has taken up programmes for evaluation of various lesser known breeds viz.
Kangayam, Vechur and Panganur as well as well-known breeds of cattle
viz. Hariana, Gir, Ongole and Rathi through survey in their home tract in
collaboration with various state institutions. Preliminary surveys of Panganur
cattle in their native environment indicate that only a few animals are now
available in East Godavari district of Andhra Pradesh. Management practices
reveal that these animals roam freely and subsist essentially on waste materials.
The coat colour of this breed is white although cow with red and white or black
and white patches are also available. Detailed information about this breed is in 127
Biotic Resources the process of collection. Similarly Vechur has been surveyed and evaluated on
station by the Kerala Agricultural University. The breed had its origin in high
ranges of Kerala. Average body weight of cows is 114 kg. and for bull 173 kg.
Average daily milk yield is 2.4 kg. with 7% fat. Crossbreeding of these cattle
with exotic breeds has led to its virtual extinction from its home tract.

Selection programmes through progeny testing of sires for milk in Sahiwal,

Tharparkar, Gir, Ongole and Hariana have been taken up. More breed are likely
to be added in near future. Semen of bulls of these breeds is being made available
to different agencies involved in the improvement programme of these breeds
from a central source. Around 1000 breedable females of each of these breeds
spread over three to four locations are included in the programme and 10-15
bulls are being tested in each cycle. Similarly State Department of Animal
Husbandry, Gujarat has taken up progeny testing programme in Kankrej and
Gir under the National bull production programme. The programme has been
taken up by associating herds of state government and some selected gaushalas
in the state.

A number of new breed have been evolved from crossbred base involving
different exotic and native cattle breeds. These are Sunandini in Kerala, Karan
Swiss and Karan Friese in Haryana and Frieswal Military Farms spread all
over the country. These have been evolved by K.L.D.B., ICAR-N.D.R.I. and
Military Farms, respectively. The latter project has been taken up by Project
Directorate on cattle of ICAR. in collaboration with the Military Farms. Bulls
of these breeds arising from the institutional herds breeding programmes are
being made available for use in genetic improvement of cattle.

7.2.2 BUFFALO
Both riverine and swamp types of buffaloes are available in India. Swamp
buffaloes are found principally in part of Assam. Riverine buffaloes are
distributed throughout India and have been developed primarily for milk
production. Important recognised breeds are Murrah and Nili Ravi in Punjab,
Haryana, Western U.P. and Rajasthan; Surti, Zaffrabadi and Mehasana in
Gujarat; Bhadawari in U.P. and Nagpuri and Pandarpuri in Maharashtra.
Mehasana breed has been evolved as a result of breeding Surti and Surti type
non-descript buffaloes with Murrah in Gujarat. Similarly graded Murrah in
the coastal area of Andhra Pradesh has been named as Godawari and have
performance comparable to Murrah. Breeding tract of Nili-Ravi has now gone
to Pakistan but a few thousand animals of this breed are available in areas
of Punjab bordering Pakistan. Murrah has been used as the major improver
breed for grading non-descript and other low producing buffalo throughout
the country. The animals of this breed have also been exported to a number
of south east Asian countries, Australia, Mediterranean and Latin American
countries to be raised as pure bred or for crossbreeding swamp/ riverine type
local buffalo. Some of the other buffalo found in small numbers belong to
less known breeds such as Toda in Nilgiri hills of Tamil Nadu, Marathwadi in
Maharashtra and Sambalpuri, Kalahandi and Palakhamandi in Odisha which
need to be properly described, evaluated and steps taken for their conservation
and improvement.
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7.2.3 SHEEP Livestock and
Wildlife Resources
Different breeding strategies have been adopted in different region for improving
wool quality production and body weight in sheep. Major emphasis has been
on improving apparel wool production and only to a limited extent improving
carpet wool production and also increasing mutton production. Northern
region emphasis is on breeding for apparel wool involving crossing of better
quality carpet wool breed with exotic fine wool breeds. In north-western region
emphasis is on improving carpet wool production. For eastern and north eastern
region emphasis is to improve quality and quantity of carpet wool through
grading with better indigenous carpet wool breeds and crossing with exotic fine
wool breeds. In southern peninsular region selection among better indigenous
mutton breeds such as Nellore and Mandya, and grading-up of inferior mutton
breeds with these breeds, has been adopted.

Although there are more than 44 descript breed of sheep, majority of sheep
population (75%) are non-descript. There is a large intermixing among the
breed in the region where two or more breeds exist. Some of the sheep breeds
from the adjoining areas have been named as separate breeds although they may
be similar genetically eg. Madras Red in Tamilnadu, Red Nellore in Andhra
Pradesh and Ganjam in Odisha have similar conformation and utility and could
have the same origin.

The country had been divided into four agro-ecological regions for development
of sheep. Region wise breeds of sheep are:
1. NORTH-WESTERN ARID

Chokla Magra Malpura

Nalli Jaisalmeri Sonadi
Marwadi Pugal Pathanwadi
Muzaffarnagari Jalauni Hissardale

2. SOUTHERN PENINSULAR REGION

Deccani Bellary Neliore

Mandya Hassan Mecheri
Coimbatore Vembur Kilakarsal
Nilgiri Ramnad White Madras Red
Tiruchi Black Kenguri

3. EASTERN REGION

Chhota Nagpuri Shahabadi Bolangir

Ganjam Tibetan Bonpala

4. NORTH TEMPERATE REGION

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Biotic Resources
Gaddi Rampur Bushair Poonchi
Karnah Gurez Kashmir Merino
Changthangi Bhakarwal

Breeds that are getting endangered for extinction because of declining numbers
are Gurej, Karnah, Bhakarwal, Poonchi (J&K), Nilgiri in Nilgiri hills of Tamil
Nadu, Muzzafarnagari in U.P., Chokla and Jaiselmeri in Rajasthan, Munjal in
Punjab, Changthangi, Bonpala in north-eastern region and Mandya in Karnataka
because of extensive crossbreeding with fine wool breeds. Another breed more
recently rediscovered is Garrole found in West Bengal and is highly prolific
and is adapted to marshy areas and possibly has contributed to development
of prolific strain of Merino sheep breed in Australia. These breeds would need
immediate attention for conservation.

7.2.4 GOATS
Total goat population has been declined by 3.82% over the previous census
and as per the 19th livestock census (2012) total goat population in the country
is 135.17 million. It contributes 26.40% of total livestock population. It owes
the ability to live under the most diverse condition of natural habitat and its
flexible integration into dissimilar socio-economic situation for having quite
definite physiological characteristics associated with high economic viability.
There has been no serious attempt for description, evaluation, conservation and
genetic improvement of goat breeds. Perhaps goat is most neglected species
with respect to their evaluation and genetic improvement. Little development
effort for improvement of goat has been made by Central/State governments
except a few which have been maintained goat breeding farm for production
of bucks which has been placed in state veterinary dispensaries for providing
natural service to farmer’s doe.

Distribution of some important goat breeds in the four agro-ecological regions

of the country is as follows:

1. NORTH-WESTERN ARID AND SEMI ARID REGION

Sirohi Marwadi Beetal

Jhakrana Barbari Jamnapari
Mehsana Gohilwadi Zalawadi
Kutchi Surti

2. SOUTHERN PENINSULAR REGION

●● Sangamneri
●● Malabari
●● Osmnabadi
●● Kannaiadu
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3. EASTERN REGION Livestock and
Wildlife Resources
●● Ganjam
●● Black Bengal
4. NORTH TEMPERATE REGION
●● Gaddi
●● Changthangi
●● Chegu

Changthangi and Chegu breeds have coarse outer coat and fine under coat
called Kashmere or Pashmina. The breeds of goat which produce substantial
quantity of milk are Jamnapari, Beetal, Surti and Jharkhana and are found in the
north-western region of the country. The southern and eastern regions mainly
possess dual purpose breeds viz milk and meat. There are few goat breed which
produce, sizeable quantity of milk which is drawn for family consumption and
to a limited extent for sale. The high prolific meat breeds are found in eastern
region that is Black Bengal and its variants.

7.2.5 PIGS
Indian wild pig is found in Sivaliks and Tarai area and throughout northern
India. From India they appear to have spread throughout the Mediterranean
region to Europe. It is 1.5 long from nose to vent, 86 cm high at shoulder and
weight over 236 kg. It has a long snout, short ribs and long legs, is rusty in
colour when young and with advance in age becomes dark chestnut brown with
the hair tinged with grey at extremely active and when provoked may attack
human beings. It is highly prolific and breeds in all seasons. Andaman Island
wild pig is found in the forests of the Andaman Islands. Eastern region wild
pig is found in dense moist forests of Sikkim, Nepal, Bhutan and other north-
eastern regions showing large variation in size and coat colour in pigs in this
region.

In the last three decades exotic breeds of pigs have been introduced for
crossing with indigenous pigs and a large percentage are now crossbreds. The
exotic breeds introduced predominantly are Landrace, Large White Yorkshire.
Indigenous pigs and their crosses with exotic breeds need detailed evaluation
before long term breeding policies are designed. Indigenous pigs in Central
region are becoming endangered due to extensive crossbreeding with large
white Yorkshire in that area. It is necessary that detailed survey for description
and evaluation of indigenous types of pigs are undertaken and steps are taken
for their preservation, conservation and genetic improvement.

7.2.6 CAMEL
Camel in India is mostly single humped, although some double humped camels
are also present in Nubra valley of Jammu and Kashmir. Indian camel is used
for ploughing, transport and also contributes to milk, hair and hides. Major
concentration is in Rajasthan followed by Haryana, Gujarat, Punjab and Uttar
Pradesh. Camels have shifted from traditional breeding area to other non-
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Biotic Resources traditional areas along with the families breeding them. Immediate efforts are
needed to multiply the number of double humped camels before they get extinct
from India, although their number is very large in adjoining areas of Tibet. The
important camel breeds in India are Bikaneri, Jaisalmeri, Kachchi and Mewati.
Other breeds of camel are Marwadi, Mewari, Sindhi and Shekhawati. The other
types of camel breeds are due to inter-mixing of major breeds.

7.2.7 EQUINES
Among the equines, horses have been in great demand owing to their speed,
agility, intelligence and elegance. The ownership of high quality pedigreed
horses was in the past regarded as a status symbol and hence these animals
received patronage from royalty and the people of socially elite strata. In India,
as in other parts of the world, horses are on decline mainly due to introduction
of motorised transport. However, in the remote hilly regions, equines still
occupy a pre-eminent position. These are being used by military as well as para-
military forces and civilian population. In rural India, horses drawn carriages
still provide a cheap mode of transport for short distances.

There are six descript indigenous breeds of horses viz. Marwari, Spiti, Manipuri,
Kathiawari, Bhutia and Zanaskari. Tibetan ponies are also available in limited
numbers. The population of horses and donkeys has shown a declining trend,
however the population of mules has increased due to their greater demand for
carting of the goods and for high mountainous supplies for defence forces.

Zanaskari horses inhibit Ladakh Valley in Jammu and Kashmir. These can carry
50-60 kg. load with a rider on steep hills. The number is limited due to their
crossing with local ponies. Marwari breed has its native tract in Marwar region
of Rajasthan and the population is dwindling due to widespread crossbreeding.
The horse owners prefer thorough breeds for race and sport, which has caused
decline in population of Marwari horses. Spiti horses are bred by sherpas and
are noted for endurance but are unsuitable for plains. Manipuri horses have been
traditionally bred in Manipur and other adjoining states in north-east. These are
believed to be descendants of Asiatic wild horses. Kathiawari horses have their
lineage from Arab horses which came ashore from the ship wrecks and later
bred with wild ponies. These are generally thin animals and can subsist on low
feed intake. Bhutia is a cosmopolitan breed which might have been evolved
from Chinese ponies. They mostly have dark solid colour.

For the systematic development of equines, Equine Development Board was

constituted in 1981. It is expected to bring proper co-ordination among breeders,
users, scientists and other concerned with equine development and to advice the
government on all matters related to equine development. The wild ass is still
found in the Rann of Kutch and the desert of Rajasthan. The important types of
asses are small grey and large white. Large white is the type most commonly
found in Kutch. A few exotic breeds of asses have been imported from Italy,
Spain and France by the army mainly for mule breeding. Major efforts on the
improvement of equines, especially horses and mules, have been maintained by
the Defence Ministry in many equine breeding studs.

Whole genome markers made selection of genetically superior animals at very

132
early age and at the same time with 80% accuracy in predicting breeding value. Livestock and
The SNPs-chip analysis is very popular in livestock in predicting the breeding Wildlife Resources
potential at early age. However advancement in the era of genomics will help in
collecting more and more information about the animal biology but along with
modern improved technologies important concerns like ethical, environmental,
animal welfare and social values must be addressed.

WILDLIFE RESOURCES IN INDIA

Ecologically and biogeographically the Indian subcontinent is one of the most

fascinating regions in the world. On this subcontinent, we have rainless desert
and rainiest place on earth, the hottest place on the earth and permanently
snowbound heights of Himalayas. The great varieties of ecological conditions
thus prevailing allow this landmass to support a great diversity of wildlife,
including hot desert form like wild ass and cold desert forms like the Tibetan
antelope, animals of open scrublands like the blackbug and grassy swamp like
the rhinoceros, animals of deciduous forest like the gaur and of tropical rain
forest like the macaque.

India has rich and diversified fauna. In our country there are about 75,000 species
of animals of which 340 are mammals, 1200 birds, 420 reptiles, 140 amphibians,
2000 fishes, 5000 insects, 4000 mollusks and the other invertebrates. Apart
from handful of major farm animals such as cattle, buffalo, sheep, goat, camel,
Yak, pig and poultry, India has amazingly wide verity of wild animals native to
country.

The important wild species of Indian fauna are Elephant, Rhinoceros, Musk
deer (Kasturi), Barking deer (Kotra), Spotted deer (Cheetal), Hog deer
(Hogriran), Mouse deer (Indian Chevrotain), Swamp deer (Barasingha),
Dancing deer (Sambur), Four horned antelope (Chausingha), Blue bull (Nilgai),
Bison (Wild buffalo), wild goat, wild ass, Lion, Tiger, Leopard, Striped hyena,
Nilgiri langur, Lion tailed macaque, Rhesus monkey and Indian giant squirrel
etc. Indian subcontinent is the home tract of Bengal and Indochinese tigers,
pythons, wolves, foxes, bears, crocodiles, wild dogs, snakes, antelopes species,
verities of bison and Asian elephant. These diversified verities of species of
wild fauna in India are preserved in more than 120 national parks, 18 bio
reserve and more than 500 wildlife sanctuaries all over the country. Some of
the most bio diversified region of the world is found in India, and hosts 4 out of
35 biodiversity hotspot in Western Ghats, Eastern Himalayas, Indo-Burma and
Nicobar islands. Indian subcontinent is the home tract of number of rare and
threatened species. Therefore, wildlife management in the country is essential
to preserve these species. In terms of mega biodiversity India ranks seventeenth
in world. According to available research on mega biodiverse countries, India
along with other sixteen mega diverse countries is home to about 65-70% of the
world’s bio diversity. India is lying within the Indomalaya ecozone, is the home
to about 7.6% of all mammalian, 12.6% of avian, 6.2% of reptilian and 6% of
flowering plant species.

WILDLIFE AN IMPORTANT RESOURCE FOR HUMAN BEINGS AS

PROTEIN SOURCE
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Biotic Resources The tribal and peasants used to depend heavily on wild meat as a source of
protein throughout the Western Ghats region. Barking deer, chital, sambar,
mouse deer, porcupine, blacknaped hare, wild pig, gaur, field mice, peafowl,
jungle fowl, spurfowl, quails and partridges of the panshet valley were the
major source of proteins. A staggering diversity of livestock and wild animals
served them as regular supply of meat. The natural animal communities of any
region are so evolved that the total community leaves none of the vegetational
resources unexploited. The diversified natural communities acting as a whole
can maintain for greater production of animal flesh than the cattle, Buffalo,
Sheep and Goat which more or less cover total livestock range in India. The
wild animals are also hardier and are resistance to drought and disease.

IVORY AND MUSK

Many products of wild animal, apart from meat, have served varieties of purposes
since time immemorial. As hide, bone, teeth, horns, antlers, hooves, tails, bile,
feathers, musk and ivory are some of the product that serve various purposes at
many aspects of life. Ivory, peacock feather and musk have been important items
in India’s foreign trade since ancient time. Today India’s wildlife based trade
includes ivory articles, peacock feathers, hill mynas and many other live birds
and above all the rhesus macaque. The rhesus monkey of north India is now a
key experimental animal for biomedical research. About two million of these
have been exported from India over the four decades earning crores of foreign
exchange. This export in such a large number has been possible because of the
protection of vast population of monkeys of our countryside by the religious
tolerance of our masses whose field and houses are regularly raided by them.

WILDLIFE TOURISM

Wildlife tourism is a major business in certain part of India, with its rich wildlife
that also has great potential for development in this direction. Much of our
wildlife now survives free of all fear only in the vicinity of tourist lodges in our
major wildlife sanctuaries. Wildlife tourism therefore needs to be continued
and further strengthened. On the contrary we need to emulate the example of
Tanzania which is seriously encouraging visits to its greater national parks by
rural school children, on whom depend the future of wildlife of any country.

AS GENE BANK

The Indian subcontinent and adjacent lands have been a source of variety of
cultivated plants and domesticated animals. The importance of preserving the
genetic diversity of wild ancestors and relatives of these plants and animals
has been realised only recently, therefore we must maintain the stocks of wild
animals as gene banks. This particularly applies to our very rich wild fauna of
family Bovidae, which includes gaur, mithun, banteng, wild buffalo and wild
yak.

SCIENTIFIC VALUES

The future development of three existing areas of modern biology, namely,

ecology, animal behaviour and socio-biology depends critically on the
134 availability of population of higher mammals in their natural setting means
in environments approximating those under which they have evolved. The Livestock and
phenomenon of male infanticide discovered in our Hanuman langur is a striking Wildlife Resources
example of how such observations can lead to major new scientific insights.
Our larger social mammals, the chital, the elephant, the hoolock gibbon would
all make it possible for us to understand and control human social behaviour.
Preservations of their population in their natural conditions is therefore of
utmost important.

Check Your Progress 1

Note: a) Use the space given below for your answers.
b) Check your answers with those given at the end of the unit
1. Write total no of cattle and buffalo breeds in India?

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2. Explain the distribution of goat breeds according to agro-ecological regions
of India.

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3. Write total number of species wise indigenous breeds?

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7.3 LIVESTOCK PRODUCTION STATUS

India ranks first in milk production, globally, producing about 15 per cent of the
total milk. The country witnessed phenomenal growth in dairy sector, improving
the milk production from 17 million tonnes in 1950-51 to 187.7million tonnes
in 2018-19 (Basic Animal Husbandry Statistics, DAHD&F, GoI). Present
growth in milk is about almost 4-5 per cent annually and nearly maintained
for last two three decades, and is two times higher than global milk production
growth of 2.4 per cent. With present pace, according to an estimate, the milk
production of the country may reach up to 190 million tonnes by year 2020.
However, changing food pattern and growing purchasing power of country side
as well as increasing export opportunities may lead to more demand of the milk 135
Biotic Resources in coming days. As per Technology Vision (2020) by Technology Information,
Forecasting and Assessment Council, Department of Science & Technology,
Govt. of India, we were around 37 million tonnes short in milk production in
year 2010.

Milk is the largest among different agricultural commodities including wheat and
paddy. In livestock sector itself, about two third of total value of output comes
from milk only. Value of output by milk is more than two times of aggregated
values of meat, egg, manure and wool. Further, the share of livestock in general
and milk in particular in total agricultural GDP is increasing consistently for
last 3-4 decades.

Table 7.1: Value of Output from Livestock sector - At current prices in Rs.
Crore

Item 2015 - 16 2016 - 17 2017 - 18 2018-19

Milk 5,60,823 6,29,259 7,07,601 7,72,705

Meat 1,71,636 2,06,691 2,22,655 2,42,629

Wool and Hair 541 628 611 745

Eggs 26,657 29,777 32,513 36,691

Dung 48,478 53,754 59,825 65,383

Source : National Accounts Statistics-2018, Central Statistical Organisation,

GoI

7.3.1 DAIRY ANIMAL DYNAMICS

In India, dairy animals include cattle and buffalo mainly. India possesses the
largest number of dairy bovines, cattle and buffaloes in the world. Cattle
population is second largest, marginally behind the Brazil, and buffalo
population is the largest in the world. Combined population of both is around
300 million in country as per 19th livestock census, 2012. After independence,
cattle population has been increased by one-quarter, but the population share
among the total livestock deceased from 53 to 37 per cent. On other side,
buffalo population has been increased by almost two and half times, with
increasing share in total livestock as well as bovine population. The shares of
cattle and buffaloes are 37.3 and 21.2 per cent of total livestock at present. In
contrast, buffalo population has an annual growth of around 1.5 per cent in the
country. This phenomenon of change in population dynamics is attributed to
higher productivity, quality milk with higher fat content to the larger extent,
and easier disposal of buffaloes for slaughter. This trend of increasing buffalo
population may continue in coming future also.

136
 Table 7.2: Bovine population (in million) trend after independence Livestock and
Wildlife Resources
Live- 1951 1961 1972 1982 1992 2003 2007 2012 Annual growth
stock (%)
2003-07 2007-12
Indig- 155 175 178 183 188 164 166 151.2 0.68 -8.94
enous
cattle
Cross- - - - 8.0 15.2 22.6 33 39.7 6.04 20.18
bred
Total 155 175 178 192 204 187 199 190.9 1.46 -4.10
cattle
Buffalo 43 51 57 70 84 96 105 108.7 1.47 3.19
Total 198 226 235 262 288 283 304 299.9 - -
Bovines

Most obvious change observed in cattle population in emergence of crossbred

cattle during last four decades. Initiation of large scale cross breeding
programmes in 70s after operation flood in the country has led to the emergence
of crossbred, although, this change seems more rapid in last two decades.
During year 2007-2012, the annual growth rate of crossbred cattle has been
increased up to 20 per cent against the decrease of indigenous cattle by 9 per
cent. There is significant decline in indigenous cattle, and a major proportion of
indigenous cattle have been transformed into the crossbreds in lieu of increasing
production demand. Changing utilization patterns like drafting also affected the
indigenous cattle populations particularly for the draft breeds. The population
of breedable bovines has been increased, overall. The number of milch cows
and buffaloes and number of animals in milk has increased by 6.75 and 4.51 per
cent during 2007-2012.

7.3.2 PRODUCTION AND PRODUCTIVITY

In country, the production of milk has been increased broadly due to increase
in number of bovines in milk as well as increase in productivity. About 51
per cent of total milk production is contributed by buffaloes followed by 24
per cent by crossbred cattle significantly in last four decades, specifically after
emergence of crossbred. Moreover, about half of the total milk is contributed
by buffaloes, which are one-third of the total bovine population in country.

The average milk productivity of cattle and buffalo, both is increasing

continuously. During 2012-13 average milk yield of crossbred cows, indigenous
cows and buffaloes is 7.02, 2.36 and 4.80 Kg/day, respectively was recorded.
For last 25 years, bovine milk production is increasing 3.8 per cent compound
annual growth rate. Highest growth in milk production is observed in crossbred
cattle with about 8 per cent followed by buffaloes with 4.0 per cent. Indigenous
cattle recorded merely 1.8 per cent annual growth rate in milk production.
Despite of increase in productivity, the overall productivity of Indian milch
animals is around 1000 kg/year against the world average of 2200 kg/year.

Further, there is wider disparity in milk production and productivity across

the different regions of the country. Northern region of India has highest, on
other side; eastern states are poor in milk production as well as productivity.
Punjab, Haryana, western Uttar Pradesh and parts of Rajasthan state have
137
Biotic Resources very good gene pool of cattle and buffaloes with high milk production. In
Punjab and Haryana, about 50-80 per cent cow population is crossbred with
8-10 kg average milk productivity. Milk productivity of buffalo of this
region is about 7-9 kg per day. The resource rich farmers in this region have
capacity to maintain purebred exotic cattle and crossbreds with higher level
of exotic inheritance. Although other part of Uttar Pradesh is highly potent
and resourceful, however, the region has very large numbers of bovines as
non-descript and low producing. In Northern Himalayan states viz. Himachal
Pradesh, Uttarakhand and Jammu & Kashmir, majority of cows and buffaloes
are non-descript, but overall productivity is moderate. The livestock sector in
Rajasthan and Gujarat states of West central region is growing at a fast pace.
Although region has proportionately larger population of non – descript cattle
and buffalo, however both of the states are growing very fast. At present, milk
productivity is about 8-9 kg/day for crossbred cattle. Madhya Pradesh and
Maharashtra states also possess a very large population of non-descript animals.
At present, animals of these states have medium productivity. Tamil Nadu
and Kerala states have shown tremendous improvement in milk production
in recent years, may be attributed to high crossbreeding and improvement in
resources. Around 70-80% cows are crossbred cattle in the region with 7-9 kg/
day milk productivity. Andhra Pradesh and Karnataka are also fast growing
states in dairy sector with a large proportion of bovines have moderate to high
productivity. Eastern states viz. Bihar, Jharkhand, Chhattisgarh, Odisha and
West Bengal remain underdeveloped in livestock sector for quite long time,
despite plenty of resources available in the region. There is a large proportion
of low yielding cattle and buffalo population. About 75 to 95 per cent cattle and
buffaloes are non-descript in these states; although milk productivity in these
states has been increased in recent times. North –East region is overall poor in
milk production as it possesses very less number of milch animals with low to
moderate productivity.

7.3.3 DAIRY ANIMAL DIVERSITY

A vast animal diversity in form of thousands of livestock breeds has been
generated through interaction of several complex factors, more importantly
artificial selection as per human needs and adaptation to different agro-
climatic conditions. Each livestock breed or population is an unique gene pool.
Presently, there are more than seven thousand breeds of different livestock
species, worldwide. With largest livestock population, India also possesses
the largest livestock diversity in the world, reflecting through a total of 151
registered farm animal breeds with 39 breeds of cattle and 13 of buffalo. In
addition, numerous lesser known populations of dairy animals, which have
not been properly studied and documented. Among two types of domesticated
cattle, the taurine humpless (Bos Taurus) cattle is distributed in Europe, West
Africa and Northern Asia and the indicine humped (Bos indisus) or zebu
cattle is distributed in southern Asia and Africa. There is marked differences
genetically in between the different breeds of these two groups, because of
adaptation to markedly different environments and possibly due to distinct
lineages. Zebu cattle are well adapted to tropical, subtropical, arid and semi-arid
regions, and show distinct stronger herd instinct, lower basal metabolic rate and
water requirements, larger and more active sweat glands and resistance to ticks
138
and internal parasites than taurine animals. In country, there are 39 registered Livestock and
breeds of indigenous cattle. All the Indigenous cattle breeds have been further Wildlife Resources
cataloged into milch, draft and dual-purpose breeds primarily based on their
utility. Among these, four breeds are milch type, 22 draft type and remaining
breeds are dual type.
Most of the Indian native cattle breeds can survive in extremes of agro-climatic
conditions and are known for its adaptability to high temperature, powerful
draught capacity and resistance to tick borne diseases. Only 6 per cent of
cattle account under well-defined indigenous cattle population, mostly found
in the north-western region of the country. Country possesses some of the
well-known cattle milch breeds namely Gir, Sahiwal, Tharparkar, Kankrej,
Red Sindhi and Rathi. The average lactation milk yield of these breeds vary
between 1500 to 2300 litres, which can be used as improver breed to upgrade
our native low yielders. Important native breeds like Ongole, Gir, Sahiwal had
attracted several countries including Brazil, USA, Argentina, Mexico to import
this germplasm for increasing resistance to diseases and heat in their native
breeds. Various loci known to influence production and adaptive traits have
revealed genomic distinctness in Indian cattle and buffaloes, showing existence
of specific allelic profile. Indian dairy cattlebreeds viz. Tharparkar, Rathi, Gir
seems to possess discrete genetic structure. Molecular studies show that the
grey cattle of southern region, generally used for draft purposes, seem to have
higher diversity as compared to red or brown cattle breeds of central North-
North-Western region. Studies further indicate that the southern breeds are
more primitive.
Table 7.3: Lactation milk yield (LMY) of cattle and buffalo breeds/
synthetic populations

Bovine Breed/population Average LMY (kg)

Indigenous Cattle Sahiwal 2325
Red Sindhi 1839
Gir 2110
Kankrej 1745
Tharparkar 1748
Rathi 1559
Crossbred Cattle Karan Fries 3686
Karan Swiss 3075
Frieswal 3355
Buffalo Murrah 1751
Nilli-Ravi 1850
Jaffarabadi 2238
Mehsana 1988
Banni 2857
Surti 1285
139
Biotic Resources The country possesses the rich germplasm of buffalo. Some best buffalo
breeds of the world are found in India. There are 13 registered buffalo breeds-
Murrah, Nili-Ravi, Jaffarabadi, Mehsana, Nagpuri, Pandharpuri, Bhadawari,
Surti, Toda, Banni, Chilika and Kalahandi. Murrah is acknowledged as best
breed in the world and imported by many countries. Nilli Ravi, Jaffarabadi,
Mehsana, Surti, Banni are also high producing breeds and preferred by farmers
in their native tracts. Bhadawari is known for high fat in milk. Breeds like
Chilika, Toda are very unique. Tolerance to high salinity as well as keeping
quality of milk in Chilika are few examples. Higher immune modulation has
been seen in Toda buffalo of Nilgiri. Banni buffalo of Kachchha region of
Gujarat is well known for good milk production in extensive grazing system.

Our native cattle and buffalo breeds are well known for their adaptability
to the hot environment and survive in the extreme agro-climatic conditions.
Milk obtained from indigenous milch cattle and buffalo breeds is rich in beta
casein A2 allele which is considered to be safe for human consumption. It
has been reported that milk with beta casein A1, produced by number of the
exotic breeds may increase the risk for cardiovascular and other diseases in
human. Crossbred cattle populations of the country are found to possess high
frequency of A1 allele in their milk. Study shows, about half of the crossbred
bulls in India are either heterozygous or homozygous for the A1 allele, which
may be due to extensive use of semen from few exotic males having A1 allele.
Contrastingly, all indigenous milch cattle breeds and buffaloes are found to be
fixed with A2A2 genotype.

7.3.4 DECLINING DIVERSITY

Vechur, Punganur, Krishna, Valley, Bargur, Ponwar, Binjharpuri, Red Sindhi,
Sahiwal, Tarparkar, Amritmahal, Kassagode Dwarf of cattle breeds and
Chilika, Toda, Bhadawari, Nili-Ravi of buffalo breeds are declining in their
native tracts. The reasons behind the decrease of most of the indigenous cattle
and buffalo breeds vary in general, but most evidently are decreasing utility,
increasing pressure for production, low productivity. Consistently high demand
with changing production scenario has derived the preference for highly
specialized breeds, which has attributed to the loss of genetic diversity of the
livestock in general, and of indigenous breeds in particular. Low productivity
of indigenous livestock can be adjudged as biggest reason for threatening of
a breed. This also hampers the conservation efforts as such breeds cannot be
maintained by the stock keepers unless these breeds become more economical
or if any compensation for the rearing is given by the government. It is well
evident that there is high rate of loss in the indigenous livestock biodiversity in
the country. Still, a large number of livestock breeds with unknown population
status may be at risk.

7.4 DEPENDENCE ON ANIMAL RESOURCE

Livestock as one of the fastest growing parts of agricultural economy is
considered as a great global asset with a value of at least $1.4 trillion. (Thornton
P.K. 2010). The livestock sector has significant socioeconomic impact as it
contributes 40% of global agricultural output and supports livelihoods of 600
140 million small holder farmers directly in the developing world. In the global
market, out of the five highest value commodities, four are of livestock origin, Livestock and
namely cow milk, cattle meat, pig meat and chicken meat. The livestock market Wildlife Resources
employs at least 1.3 billion people globally. (Thornton et al 2006). Livestock
is recognized as a valuable financial asset for poor livestock keepers beyond
its direct role in food and income generation. Livestock contributes around
12.9% of global calories and 27.9% of protein directly through provision of
meat, milk, eggs and also contributes to crop production through the provision
of transport and manure (FAO 2009). Powerful forces of economic change
are transforming the livestock sector in many rapidly growing developing
countries.

Production of livestock especially pig and poultry, is becoming more

intensive, geographically concentrated, vertically integrated and linked with
global supply chains. This growth and transformation of the sector offers
many opportunities for agricultural development, poverty reduction and food
security gains. Opportunities in this sector can only be explored by ensuring
that sound animal health is sustained, improving per animal productivity
and disease control. Significant livestock productivity gaps persist between
developed and developing nations largely due to poor animal health and other
husbandry challenges. For the increased realization of the growth potential of
the global livestock market, multinational and local animal health organizations
are now focused like never before on providing solution to existing animal
health problems

7.4.1 LIVESTOCK POPULATION AND PRODUCTION

SYSTEM
Global livestock production with a massive population of 3.87 billion ruminants
and 23 billion poultry is the largest user of world’s land (FAOSTAT 2013). This
land use can further be divided in direct use of approximately 26% land for
grazing and indirectly 33% for fodder and feed grain production (Steinfeld et
al., 2006).
Table 7.4: Livestock population 2013
Country Cattle and Buf- Sheep and Poultry Birds
faloes Goats ( in ,000)
World 1,694,132,318 2,178,436,192 23,960,904
Southern Asia 455,794,076 492,237,371 2,692,363
India 329,770,000 237,500,000 977,500
Source: FAOSTAT 2013

Table 7.5: Livestock Population (In million)

Species 2007 2012 2019
Cattle 199.08 190.9 192.49
Buffaloes 105.34 108.7 109.85
Sheep 71.56 65.07 74.26
141
Biotic Resources
Goats 14.054 135.17 148.88
Pigs 11.13 10.29 9.06
Mithun 0.26 0.30 0.38
Yaks 0.08 0.08 0.06
Horses & ponies 0.61 0.63 0.34
Mules 0.14 0.2 0.08
Donkeys 0.44 0.32 0.12
Camels 0.52 0.4 0.25
Total Livestock 529.70 512.06 535.78

Source: [Link]
cy-briefs/20th-livestock-census

This massive livestock population is not evenly distributed across the globe.
Differences in geographical environments, scale and type of animal husband-
ry practices, level of linkage with the market and the rural economy bring
great diversity in the livestock sector. A classification of livestock production
system was therefore suggested by FAO (SOFA 2009). Livestock produc-
tion systems can be categorised as grazing system (extensive and intensive),
mixed-farming system (irrigated and rain fed system) and industrial system.
Developing countries’ mixed crop-livestock system, most of them small hold-
ers, supply the largest proportion of livestock products as illustrated in the
table below.

142
 Table 7.6: Livestock Production Systems (SOFA 2009) Livestock and
Wildlife Resources

Live- Type Climatic Area Products

stock condi-
Produc- tions
tion Sys-
tem
Grazing Extensive Most of Dry tropics and 7% of global
system grazing the dry continental cli- beef
system areas of mates of southern 12% of sheep
the world Africa, central, and goat meat
that are eastern, and west- 5% of global
marginal ern Asia, Austra- milk
for crop lia and western
produc- North America
tion
Intensive Te m p e r- Most of Europe, 17% of global
grazing ate zone North America, beef and veal
system of the South America, 17% of global
w o r l d parts of Oceania sheep and goat
where and some part of meat
h i g h the humid tropics 7% of global
quality milk
grassland
and fod-
der pro-
duction
can sup-
port larg-
er num-
bers of
animals
Mixed Rain fed Te m p e r- Temperate re- 48% of global
farming ate re- gions of Europe beef production
system gions and the Ameri- 33% of Mutton
cas, sub humid production
regions of trop- 53% of milk
ical Africa and production
Latin America
Irrigated East and South One third of
Asia world’s pork,
mutton, milk
One fifth of the
beef

143
Biotic Resources
Industri- At least Intensive Europe, North 52.8% of poul-
al system 90% of and of- America, East try meat
their feeds ten found and South east 52.8% of pork
are pur- near ur- Asia, Latin production
chased ban cen- America. 35.7% of egg
from other tres production
enterprises. 3.9% beef and
0.1% mutton

7.4.2 DEMAND AND SUPPLY OF LIVESTOCK PRODUCTS

As per the 2015 Revision of World Population Prospects from the United Na-
tions Secretariat, the population is projected to reach 7.76 billion in 2020, 8.5
billion in 2030 and 9.73 billion in 2050. The estimated growth in consumption
of livestock products from 2010 to 2050 varies between 105 to 173%. The in-
crease in meat consumption in developing countries will surpass the consump-
tion in developed countries.
Table 7.7: Livestock products 2013
Meat Cat-
Egg pro- Meat Sheep
Coun- Milk Produc- tle and Meat Poul-
duction and Goat
tries tion (tonnes) Buffalo try (tonnes)
(tonnes) (tonnes)
(tonnes)
World 753,925,417 71,919,540 66,330,818 13,770,643 105,636,805
Southern
177,508,885 5,270,427 5,061,751 2,033,644 5,426,584
Asia
India 124,850,000 3,600,000 2,631,751 896,800 2,258,000

The projected total consumption of poultry meat in 2050 will be 463.8 million
tonnes out of which 330.4 million tonnes will be consumed in developing coun-
tries (FAO 2006c). Furthermore, in 2050, the poultry meat will be consumed
2.3 times more than 2010. The report also projected about 1.4 to 1.8 times more
consumption in other livestock products. However as per the recent report,
World Agriculture towards 2030/2050 The 2012 Revision, the earlier projected
growth in consumption is reviewed and raised some concerns on consumption
patterns. In spite of difference in projections of consumption, livestock is con-
sidered as a potential solution for nutritional security. According to estimates,
approximately 925 million people were undernourished in 2010 representing
roughly 14% of the world’s population of 6.8 billion and approximately 2 bil-
lion people were malnourished. Livestock products provide essential micronu-
trients that are not easily obtained from plant based foods.

144
7.4.3 LIVESTOCK PRODUCTIVITY AND HEALTH Livestock and
Wildlife Resources
The gap in animal productivity is significant in developing and developed na-
tions. For example some developing country regions have gaps of up to 430
% in milk production. The gap in productivity is due to differences in animal
husbandry practices, health, nutritional and farm management. Animal diseases
are one of the important reasons. The potential of smallholder livestock keepers
to fulfil the needs for global livestock products can be explored by reducing
endemic animal diseases and by lowering zoonotic disease transmission. En-
demic livestock diseases adversely impact livestock productivity in developing
countries.
Zoonotic diseases also pose a serious concern on livestock production systems.
A deadly dozen zoonotic diseases each year kill 2.2 million people and sick-
en 2.4 billion. During 1998-2009, the total cost (conservative estimates) of 6
outbreaks excluding SARS (Nipah virus in Malaysia, West Nile fever in USA,
HPAI in Asia and Europa; BSE in US, Rift Valley Fever in Tanzania, Kenya
and Somalia and BSE in UK) was 38.7 billion USD. A conservative estimate on
total cost due to SARS, was 41.5 billion USD during 2002-2004 (World Bank
2012)
Check Your Progress 2
Note: a) Use the space given below for your answers.
b) Check your answers with those given at the end of the unit
1. Write a short note on status of cattle and buffalo population after
independence of India?

......................................................................................................................

......................................................................................................................

......................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................
2. Write a short note on milk production status of India?

......................................................................................................................

......................................................................................................................

......................................................................................................................

......................................................................................................................
3. Mention the name of cattle and buffalo breeds whose population is
declining. What are the reasous for it?

......................................................................................................................

......................................................................................................................
145
Biotic Resources ......................................................................................................................

......................................................................................................................

7.5 SUSTAINABLE HARVESTING

The exploding world population, environmental degradation, limited natural
resources and climate changes are posing a greatest challenge to the food
security of the human population. It is estimated that about 870 million people
have been undernourished and 98% of these live in developing countries.
In India the situation is more pathetic where about 17.5% (217 million) of
population is undernourished and the country stands at 63 rank of 69 nations in
Global Hunger Index (IFPRI, 2005).

Developing countries are facing challenges to rapidly increase agricultural

productivity to help feed their growing populations without depleting the natural
resource base. Biotechnology is regarded as a means to meet both objectives
through addressing the production constraints of small-scale or resource-poor
farmers who contribute more than 70% of the food produced in developing
countries.

7.5.1 ROLE OF AVAILABLE BIOTECHNOLOGY

Among agricultural and allied fields, animal production and health have
probably benefitted the most from biotechnology. But successful application of
biotechnology has generally been limited to developed countries. Some of the
roles of biotechnology in livestock industry are discussed as following.

7.5.2 REPRODUCTIVE PHYSIOLOGY

One of the challenges for genetic improvement is to increase reproduction
rates. Several reproduction techniques are available. The commonest of these
are artificial insemination (AI), embryo transfer and associated technologies.
Measurement of progesterone in milk or blood which is a widely used technique
for monitoring ovarian function and for pregnancy tests is also an important
technology for managing the reproductive function of the animal.

7.5.3 ARTIFICIAL INSEMINATION

No other technology in agriculture, except hybrid seed and fertiliser use,
has been so widely adopted globally as AI. Progress in semen collection and
dilution, and cryopreservation techniques now enables a single bull to be used
for up to 100,000 inseminations a year. This implies that a very small number
of top bulls can be used to serve a large cattle population. In addition, each bull
is able to produce a large number of daughters in a given time thus enhancing
the efficiency of progeny testing of bulls. The high intensity and accuracy of
selection arising from AI can lead to a four-fold increase in the rate of genetic
improvement in dairy cattle relative to that from natural mating.

7.5.4 EMBRYO TRANSFER (ET)

146 Although not economically feasible for commercial use on small farms at
present, embryo technology can greatly contribute to research and genetic Livestock and
improvement in local breeds. The principal benefit of embryo transfer is the Wildlife Resources
possibility to produce several progeny from a female, just as AI can produce
many offspring from one male. Increasing the reproductive rate of selected
females has the following benefits: genetically outstanding animals can
contribute more to the breeding programme, particularly if their sons are being
selected for use in AI; the rate of genetic change can be enhanced with specially
designed breeding schemes which take advantage of increased intensity of
female selection combined with increased generation turnover; transport of
embryos is much cheaper than that of live animals; risk of importing diseases is
avoided; facilitates rapid expansion of rare but economically important genetic
stocks; and the stress to exotic genotypes can be avoided by having them born
to dams of local breeds rather than importing them as live animals.

Embryo transfer is still not widely used despite its potential benefits. In
developing countries this is mainly due to absence of the necessary facilities
and infrastructure. Even in developed countries, cost considerations still limit
the use of commercial embryo transfer in specialised niches or for a small
proportion of best cows in the best herds.

7.5.5 EMBRYO SEXING AND CLONING

Although embryo sexing may not have dramatic effects on rates of genetic
gain it can considerably increase efficiency. Clones may be produced by
embryo splitting and nuclear transfer. However, some studies have concluded
that cloning of embryos will not increase rates of genetic progress in the
nucleus, but that it offers considerable advantages in increasing the rate of
dissemination of tested superior genotypes in commercial populations. Other
potential applications of cloning include efficient evaluation of genotype x
environment interactions and testing and/or dissemination of transgenics.
From a research standpoint, production of identical siblings should, by
eliminating variability among animals, greatly reduce the size and hence the
cost of experiments.

7.5.6 HORMONE USE

Use of hormonal assays to monitor reproductive function can be rewarding for
both research purposes and commercial livestock operations. Reproduction
can also be manipulated using hormonal treatments. But while hormonal
treatments have produced desirable results in some countries, lack of
awareness about their use and the fact that they are not economically viable
under most prevailing production circumstances limit their use.

7.5.7 ANIMAL GENETICS AND BREEDING

Genetic improvement of livestock depends on access to genetic variation and
effective methods for exploiting this variation. Genetic diversity constitutes
a buffer against changes in the environment and is a key in selection and
breeding for adaptability and production on a range of environments.

In developed countries, breeding programmes are based upon performance

147
Biotic Resources recording and this has led to substantial improvements in animal production.
Developing countries have distinct disadvantages for setting up successful
breeding programmes: infrastructure needed for performance testing is
normally lacking because herd sizes are normally small and variability
between farms, farming systems and seasons are large; reproductive
efficiency is low, mainly due to poor nutrition, especially in cattle; and
communal grazing precludes implementation of systematic breeding and
animal health programmes.

7.5.8 INDICATOR TRAITS

Indicator traits are characteristics which are genetically correlated to traits
of economic importance and are easier to measure than the latter. Such traits
are usually not the target of genetic improvements but provide an indirect
means of improving a targeted trait.

7.5.9 GENETIC MARKERS AND MARKER-ASSISTED

SELECTION
A genetic marker for a trait is a DNA segment which is associated with, and
hence segregates in a predictable pattern as, the trait. Genetic markers facilitate
the "tagging" of individual genes or small chromosome segments containing
genes which influence the trait of interest. Availability of large numbers of such
markers has enhanced the likelihood of detection of major genes influencing
quantitative traits. The method involves screening the genome for genes with
a large effect on traits of economic importance through a procedure known as
linkage analysis. The chances of major genes existing for most traits of interest,
and of finding them are considered to be high. The process of selection for a
particular trait using genetic markers is called marker assisted selection (MAS).
MAS can accelerate the rate of genetic progress by increasing accuracy of
selection and by reducing the generation interval. However, the benefit of MAS
is greatest for traits with low heritability and when the marker explains a larger
proportion of the genetic variance than does the economic trait.

7.5.10 TRANSGENIC ANIMALS

A transgenic animal is an animal whose hereditary DNA has been augmented
by addition of DNA from a source other than parental germplasm through
recombinant DNA techniques. Transfer of genes or gene constructs allows for
the manipulation of individual genes rather than entire genomes. There have
been dramatic advances in gene transfer technology in the last two decades
since the first successful transfer was carried out in mice in 1980. Successful
production of transgenic livestock has been reported for pigs, sheep, rabbits
and cattle. The majority of gene transfer studies in livestock have, however,
been carried out in the pig. Although transgenic cattle and sheep have been
successfully produced, the procedure is still inefficient in these species.

Transgenesis offers considerable opportunity for advances in medicine and

agriculture. In livestock, the ability to insert new genes for such economically
important characteristics as fecundity, resistance to or tolerance of other
environmental stresses would represent a major breakthrough in the breeding
148 of commercially superior stock.
7.5.11 GENETIC CHARACTERISATION OF ANIMALS Livestock and
Wildlife Resources
Developing countries are endowed with the majority of the global domestic
animal diversity - landraces, strains or breeds. Some livestock breeds in these
countries are in immediate danger of loss through indiscriminate crossbreeding
with exotic breeds. The importance of indigenous livestock breeds lies in their
adaptation to local biotic and abiotic stresses and to traditional husbandry
systems. However, most of these animal genetic resources are still not
characterized and boundaries between distinct populations are unclear. In such
cases breeds are defined on the basis of subjective data and information obtained
from local communities. Reliance on these criteria as the basis for classification
for utilization and/or conservation may be misleading.

7.6 ISSUES AND CHALLENGES FOR

RESOURCE AND SUPPLY
●● Long term planning
●● Effective collaboration
●● Infrastructure development and utilization
●● Knowledge and technology sharing
●● Mechanism/ Modality
●● Bioinformatics
●● Identification and listing
●● Prioritizing for conservation
●● Creation of database
●● Regeneration of endangered breed
●● New breed development
●● Supporting the in-vivo population
●● DNA studies and genomic mapping
●● Developing VISION 2050

7.7 LET US SUM UP

The ever increasing population of the world will require 70-100% more food by
mid of this century, so the animal scientists have to adopt some latest interventions
to provide improved animal with little or no impact on environment and animal
welfare. Selective breeding has been the source of improvement in livestock
but molecular genetics revolution in the last decade of twentieth century led
to emergence of genomic improvement in animal. Molecular genetics did not
influence the breeding strategies by providing genetic maps, individual genes
and QTLs related to performance trait in domestic livestock species. QTLs
detection in animals led the shift from the conventional selective breeding to
marker assisted selection.
149
Biotic Resources Check Your Progress 3
Note: a) Use the space given below for your answers.
b) Check your answers with those given at the end of the unit
1. Write a short note on Embryo transfer technology?

......................................................................................................................

......................................................................................................................

......................................................................................................................
2. Write a short note on transgenic animal?

......................................................................................................................

......................................................................................................................

......................................................................................................................
3. Define Indicator traits.

......................................................................................................................

......................................................................................................................

......................................................................................................................

7.7 KEY WORDS

Livestock; wild life resources; livestock production, marker-assisted selection;
embryo transfer technology

7.8 REFERENCE AND SUGGESTED FURTHER

READINGS
●● 19th Livestock Census-2012,
●● Annual Report, Department of Animal Husbandry, Dairying & Fisheries
(DAHD&F), 2014-15,
●● International Food Policy Research Institute (IFPRI).
●● Annual report | 2005
●● Basic Animal Husbandry Statistics, DAHD&F, GoI

7.10 ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

Check Your Progress 1
Your answer should include the following:
1. Total 50 cattle and 19 buffalo breeds are registered till December 2021.
2. Distribution of some important goat breeds in the four agro-ecological
regions of the country is as follows:
150
1. NORTH-WESTERN ARID AND SEMI ARID REGION Livestock and
Wildlife Resources
Sirohi Marwadi Beetal
Jhakrana Barbari Jamnapari
Mehsana Gohilwadi Zalawadi
Kutchi Surti
2. SOUTHERN PENINSULAR REGION
●● Sangamneri
●● Malabari
●● Osmnabadi
●● Kannaiadu
3. EASTERN REGION
●● Ganjam
●● Black Bengal
4. NORTH TEMPERATE REGION
●● Gaddi
●● Changthangi
●● Chegu

3. Total number of indigenous breeds now in the country is 202, which include
50 for cattle, 19 for buffalo, 34 for goat, 44 for sheep, 7 for horses & ponies, 9
for camel, 10 for pig, 3 for donkey, 1 for yak, 19 for chicken, 2 for duck, 1 for
geese and 3 of dog.

Check Your Progress 2

Your answer should include the following:

1. After independence, cattle population has been increased by one-quarter, but

the population share among the total livestock decreased from 53 to 37 per
cent. On other side, buffalo population has been increased by almost two and
half times, with increasing share in total livestock as well as bovine population.
The shares of cattle and buffaloes are 37.3 and 21.2 per cent of total livestock
at present.

2. India ranks first in milk production, globally, producing about 15 per cent
of the total milk. The country witnessed phenomenal growth in dairy sector,
improving the milk production from 17 million tonnes in 1950-51 to 187.7million
tonnes in 2018-19 (Basic Animal Husbandry Statistics, DAHD&F, GoI).

3. Vechur, Punganur, Krishna, Valley, Bargur, Ponwar, Binjharpuri, Red Sindhi,

Sahiwal, Tarparkar, Amritmahal breeds of cattle breeds and Chilika, Toda,
Bhadawari, Nili-Ravi of buffalo breeds are declining in their native tracts. The
reasons behind the decrease of most of the indigenous cattle and buffalo breeds
vary in general, but most evidently are decreasing utility, increasing pressure
for production, low productivity. 151
Biotic Resources Check Your Progress 3

Your answer should include the following:

1. The principal benefit of embryo transfer is the possibility to produce several

progeny from a female, just as AI can produce many offspring from one
male. Increasing the reproductive rate of selected females has the following
benefits: genetically outstanding animals can contribute more to the breeding
programme, particularly if their sons are being selected for use in AI; the rate
of genetic change can be enhanced with specially designed breeding schemes
which take advantage of increased intensity of female selection combined
with increased generation turnover; transport of embryos is much cheaper than
that of live animals; risk of importing diseases is avoided; facilitates rapid
expansion of rare but economically important genetic stocks; and the stress to
exotic genotypes can be avoided by having them born to dams of local breeds
rather than importing them as live animals.

2. A transgenic animal is an animal whose hereditary DNA has been augmented

by addition of DNA from a source other than parental germplasm through
recombinant DNA techniques. Transfer of genes or gene constructs allows for
the manipulation of individual genes rather than entire genomes. There have
been dramatic advances in gene transfer technology in the last two decades
since the first successful transfer was carried out in mice in 1980. Successful
production of transgenic livestock has been reported for pigs, sheep, rabbits
and cattle.

3. Indicator traits are characteristics which are genetically correlated to traits of

economic importance and are easier to measure than the latter. Such traits are
usually not the target of genetic improvements but provide an indirect means of
improving a targeted trait.

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