Define the following:
- Power Factor:
𝑷
𝑭. 𝑷 = = 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝝓
𝑺
Power factor is a dimensionless quantity that indicates how effectively
electrical power is being converted into useful work in an AC power
system. It is defined as the ratio of real (active) power to apparent power.
- Balanced 3 phase source – Balanced 3 phase load
Balanced Three-Phase Source:
A balanced three-phase source is a power source in which the three phase
voltages:
• Have equal magnitudes
• Are separated by 120° electrical
• Have the same frequency
• Are sinusoidal and symmetrically generated
Balanced Three-Phase Load:
A balanced three-phase load is one in which:
• The impedances of all three phases are identical (same
magnitude and phase angle)
• The phase currents are equal in magnitude
• The phase currents are 120° apart
• The neutral current is zero (in a Y-connected system)
- Magnetic flux density – Magnetic field strength – B/H
curve
𝝓
𝑩= 𝒖𝒏𝒊𝒕: 𝒕𝒆𝒔𝒍𝒂 (𝑻)
𝑨
Magnetic flux density(B), denoted by 𝐵, represents the amount of
magnetic flux passing through a unit area perpendicular to the direction
of the magnetic field.
𝑵𝑰
𝑯= 𝒂𝒎𝒑𝒆𝒓𝒆 𝒑𝒆𝒓 𝒎𝒆𝒕𝒆𝒓 (𝑨/𝒎)
𝒍
Magnetic field strength(H), denoted by 𝐻, represents the magnetizing
force produced by electric currents or permanent magnets.
The B–H curve is a graphical representation showing the relationship
between magnetic flux density (B) and magnetic field strength (H) for a
magnetic material.
- Generator principle – Motor principle – Transformer
principle
Electrical generator
is a machine which converts mechanical energy (or power) into
electrical energy (or power).
The energy conversion is based on the principle of the production of
dynamically (or motionally) induced emf.
Motor Principle
➢ A machine that converts DC power into mechanical power
➢ Its operation is based on the principle that when a current carrying
conductor is placed in a magnetic field, the conductor experiences a
mechanical force
Transformer principle
using an alternating current (AC) in a primary coil to create a changing
magnetic field in a soft iron core, which then induces a proportional
voltage in a secondary coil, stepping voltage up or down while keeping
power constant
- Application of DC motors(series/shunt)
DC series motors develop very high starting torque and have variable
speed, making them suitable for heavy starting loads.
Typical applications:
• Cranes and hoists
• Elevators
• Winches
• Rolling mills
• Automobile starter motors
DC shunt motors provide nearly constant speed over a wide range of
loads.
Typical applications:
• Lathes and machine tools
• Fans and blowers
• Centrifugal pumps
• Conveyors
• Printing presses
- Ideal transformer- Actual transformer
Ideal Transformer
An ideal transformer is a theoretical model that assumes perfect energy
transfer with no losses.
Assumptions:
• Zero winding resistance (no copper losses)
• No core losses (no hysteresis or eddy current losses)
• No leakage flux (all flux links both windings)
• Efficiency = 100%
Ideal relations:
𝑽𝟏 𝑵𝟏 𝑰𝟏 𝑵𝟐
= =
𝑽𝟐 𝑵𝟐 𝑰𝟐 𝑵𝟏
Actual Transformer
An actual transformer accounts for real-world losses and non-idealities.
Characteristics:
• Finite winding resistance → copper losses
• Core losses (hysteresis and eddy current losses)
• Leakage flux exists → leakage reactance
• Efficiency < 100%
- No load current in transformer
The no-load current of a transformer is the current drawn by the
primary winding when the secondary winding is open-circuited and
the rated voltage is applied to the primary.
𝑰𝒐 = 𝑰𝒎 + 𝑰𝒄
𝐼0 = no-load current
𝐼𝑚 = magnetizing current (produces core flux)
𝐼𝑐 = core-loss (working) current (supplies hysteresis and eddy current
losses)
- Objective on tests which are carried on transformers
1. Determine transformer efficiency
2. Determine voltage regulation
3. Evaluate core (iron) losses
4. Evaluate copper losses
5. Obtain equivalent circuit parameters
- The method by which energy is transferred to/from
the armature of DC machines
In DC machines, energy is transferred to or from the armature through
the interaction between a magnetic field and a set of electrical
conductors, a process governed by the direction of current flow and
electromagnetic induction.
Motor Action (Electrical to Mechanical): Electrical energy is supplied
to the armature from an external source. The current flowing through the
armature conductors within the magnetic field creates a mechanical
force (Lorentz force) that spins the armature, transferring energy from an
electrical form into mechanical motion.
- The method by which energy is transferred to the
rotor of IM
1. The Rotating Magnetic Field
The process begins in the stator.
When AC current flows through the
stator windings, it creates a magnetic
field that rotates around the rotor.
2. Magnetic Flux Cutting
As this magnetic field rotates, its flux
lines "cut" across the stationary rotor
bars. This relative motion between the
magnetic field and the conductors is
the basis for electromagnetic
induction.
3. Induced Rotor Current
According to Faraday's Law, the
cutting of magnetic flux induces a
voltage, and consequently a current, in
the short-circuited rotor bars.
4. Torque and Rotation
Finally, the induced current in the rotor
bars interacts with the stator's magnetic
field to produce a force (Lorentz
force). This force creates a torque that
causes the rotor to turn in the same
direction as the rotating magnetic field.
Mention the formula for the following:
- Real power – Reactive power- Apparent power-
Complex power
Real Power: 𝑷 = 𝑽𝑰𝒄𝒐𝒔𝝓 = 𝑰𝟐 𝑹 (𝑾)
Reactive Power: 𝑸 = 𝑽𝑰𝒔𝒊𝒏𝝓 = 𝑰𝟐 𝑿𝑳 (𝑽𝑨𝑹)
Apparent Power: 𝑺 = 𝑽𝑰 = √𝑷𝟐 + 𝑸𝟐 (𝑽𝑨)
Complex Power: 𝑺 = 𝑷 + 𝒋𝑸 = 𝑽𝑰∗
- Power losses
Cupper Losses: 𝑷𝒄𝒖 = 𝑰𝟐 𝑹
Core Losses: 𝑷𝒄𝒐𝒓𝒆 = 𝑷𝒉𝒚𝒔𝒕𝒆𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒊𝒔 + 𝑷𝒆𝒅𝒅𝒚
- Voltages and currents in 3 phase delta connection
Star connection:
𝑽𝑳 = √𝟑𝑽𝒑𝒉
𝑰𝑳 = 𝑰𝒑𝒉
- Voltages and currents in 3 phase star connection
Delta Connection:
𝑽𝑳 = 𝑽𝒑𝒉
𝑰𝑳 = √𝟑𝑰𝒑𝒉
- Magnetic reluctance – MMF
𝒍 𝒂𝒎𝒑𝒆𝒓𝒆
𝑺= [ ]
𝝁𝒐 𝝁𝒓 𝑨 𝒘𝒆𝒃𝒆𝒓
- EMF equation of DC generator
𝑷∙𝝓∙𝑵 𝒁
𝑬𝒈 = × 𝒗𝒐𝒍𝒕𝒔
𝟔𝟎 𝑨
- Types of DC generators – Voltage Regulation
𝑽𝒏𝒍 − 𝑽𝒇𝒍
𝑷𝒆𝒓𝒄𝒆𝒏𝒕 𝒓𝒆𝒈𝒖𝒍𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏𝒔 = × 𝟏𝟎𝟎
𝑽𝒇𝒍
𝑽𝒏𝒍 : Terminal voltage at no-load
𝑽𝒇𝒍 : Terminal voltage at full load
- Back EMF equation of DC motor
𝝓∙𝒁∙𝑵 𝑷
𝑬𝒃 = ×
𝟔𝟎 𝑨
- Torque/power – speed/flux- speed/back emf
𝝓∙𝒁 𝑷
𝑻= × 𝑰𝒂 × ( )
𝟐𝝅 𝑨
𝑬𝒃
𝑵∝
𝝓
- EMF equation for transformer
𝑬 = 𝟒. 𝟒𝟒𝒇𝑵𝝓𝒎
- Synchronous speed - % slip
𝟏𝟐𝟎×𝒇
Synchronous speed: 𝑵𝑺 =
𝑷
𝑵𝑺 −𝑵𝒓
% slip: %𝑺 = × 𝟏𝟎𝟎
𝑵𝑺