Here are expanded and complete 3-mark answers for each question:
1. Name some isotopes.
Isotopes are atoms of the same element with different numbers of neutrons,
resulting in different atomic masses but similar chemical properties.
Examples include:
Carbon Isotopes: Carbon-12 (stable) and Carbon-14 (radioactive), used in
carbon dating.
Uranium Isotopes: Uranium-235 and Uranium-238; both are used in nuclear
energy, with Uranium-235 being fissionable.
Hydrogen Isotopes: Protium (¹H), Deuterium (²H, used in heavy water), and
Tritium (³H, radioactive and used in fusion research).
2. Define binding energy.
Binding energy is the energy required to separate the nucleus of an atom
into its individual protons and neutrons. It represents nuclear stability:
Higher binding energy per nucleon generally means a more stable nucleus,
like in Iron-56.
It is measured in Mega electron Volts (MeV) per nucleon and is a key factor in
nuclear reactions, as seen in nuclear fission and fusion.
3. Ohm’s law & Kirchhoff’s law.
Ohm’s Law: States that the current (I) passing through a conductor is directly
proportional to the voltage (V) across it and inversely proportional to its
resistance (R), expressed as . It is fundamental in circuit analysis.
Kirchhoff’s Laws: Include:
Kirchhoff’s Current Law (KCL): The sum of currents entering a junction equals
the sum leaving it, used to analyze current flow in circuits.
Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law (KVL): The sum of voltages in a closed loop equals
zero, essential for calculating unknown voltages or currents in complex
circuits.
4. What is self-induction?
Self-induction is the property of a coil or circuit that induces an electromotive
force (EMF) within itself due to a change in current:
This EMF opposes the change in current as per Lenz’s Law, acting as a
natural resistance to current change.
It is quantified by self-inductance, measured in henries (H), and is crucial in
inductors and transformers.
5. What is mutual induction?
Mutual induction occurs when a changing magnetic field in one coil induces
an electromotive force (EMF) in a nearby coil:
The magnitude of induced EMF depends on the rate of current change in the
primary coil and the coupling between coils.
This principle is used in transformers for voltage conversion and in wireless
charging technology.
6. Define Fluorescence and Phosphorescence.
Fluorescence: The immediate emission of light by a substance after it
absorbs electromagnetic radiation, stopping almost instantly when the
excitation source is removed. It is used in fluorescent lamps and biological
imaging.
Phosphorescence: Emission of light that continues after the excitation source
is removed, as the energy is released more slowly. This property is seen in
glow-in-the-dark materials and certain minerals.
7. What is luminescence?
Luminescence is the emission of light by a substance not caused by heat,
which can result from chemical, electrical, or other energy sources. Types
include:
Fluorescence: Immediate, ceasing once excitation stops.
Phosphorescence: Delayed, continues after excitation ceases.
Chemiluminescence: Light from chemical reactions, as seen in glow sticks.
8. How X-rays are produced?
X-rays are produced in an X-ray tube when high-speed electrons from the
cathode strike a metal target (usually tungsten) at the anode:
This impact causes rapid deceleration, releasing energy as X-ray photons.
Two main types of X-ray production are bremsstrahlung (braking radiation)
and characteristic X-rays, both essential for medical imaging.
(UNIT - II)
9. Define Line focus principle.
The Line Focus Principle in X-ray tubes involves angling the anode target to
reduce the effective focal spot size, thereby enhancing image resolution:
A smaller apparent focal spot improves detail while spreading the heat load
over a larger area, reducing damage.
This principle is essential for achieving sharp X-ray images without
overheating the anode.
10. What is Space charge effect?
The Space Charge Effect occurs in X-ray tubes when a cloud of electrons
accumulates near the cathode, creating an electrostatic field that opposes
further electron emission:
This effect limits the current at low voltages, affecting the tube’s efficiency.
Managing this effect is important to ensure stable electron flow and
consistent X-ray production.
11. Properties of X-rays.
X-rays are a type of electromagnetic radiation with properties like:
High penetration power, varying based on energy and material density.
Ability to ionize atoms, which allows for both imaging and therapeutic
applications.
They travel in straight lines, are invisible to the eye, and cannot be deflected
by magnetic fields.
12. Define capacitance.
Capacitance is the ability of a system to store electric charge per unit
voltage, calculated as :
Measured in farads (F), capacitance represents energy storage within an
electric field.
Capacitors, which are designed to have high capacitance, are used in various
electronic circuits for storing energy, filtering, and timing applications.
13. Define half value layer.
The half-value layer (HVL) is the thickness of a material required to reduce
the intensity of an X-ray or gamma-ray beam by half:
HVL indicates the material’s attenuation property, with thicker or denser
materials having lower HVLs.
HVL is an important parameter for radiation protection and dose optimization
in medical imaging.
14. Name some Beam Restricting Devices.
Beam restricting devices are used to reduce the area exposed to radiation,
minimizing patient dose and scatter, and improving image quality. Examples
include:
Collimators: Adjustable lead shutters that shape the X-ray beam.
Diaphragms and Cones: Fixed devices that limit the beam’s spread.
Cylinders: Metal tubes that restrict the beam to a defined circular area,
useful in dental imaging.
15. What is eddy current?
Eddy currents are loops of electric current induced within conductors by a
changing magnetic field:
These currents produce their own magnetic fields that oppose the original
field, creating resistance and heating.
Eddy currents are useful in applications like induction heating, metal
detectors, and non-destructive testing.
16. Define Anode Heel effect.
The Anode Heel Effect refers to the uneven intensity of X-rays across the
beam, with higher intensity near the cathode side:
This occurs due to the angled anode, causing more absorption on the anode
side.
The effect is useful for imaging body parts with varying thickness, such as
placing the thicker part of the anatomy near the cathode side.
17. What are filters? Name some filters.
Filters in radiology are materials placed in the path of the X-ray beam to
absorb low-energy photons, which reduces patient dose and improves image
quality. Examples include:
Aluminum: Commonly used to filter low-energy X-rays.
Copper and Tin: Often combined in high-energy applications to improve
filtration.
18. Write a short note on inherent filter.
Inherent filtration is provided by materials already present within the X-ray
tube, such as the glass envelope, oil, and housing, which naturally absorb
low-energy photons:
Inherent filtration typically provides about 0.5 mm of aluminum equivalency.
Combined with added filters, it helps to reduce unnecessary radiation
exposure to patients.
19. What are Grids? Name its Types.
Grids are devices used to reduce scatter radiation in radiographic imaging,
which enhances image contrast. Types include:
Linear Grids: Contain parallel lead strips that allow X-rays from one direction.
Focused Grids: Lead strips angled to match beam divergence, allowing better
scatter reduction.
Cross-hatched Grids: Two perpendicular linear grids, providing superior
scatter reduction.
(UNIT - III)
20. What is Grid ratio?
Grid ratio is the ratio of the height of the lead strips to the distance between
them in a grid, defined as :
A higher grid ratio provides better scatter removal but requires precise
alignment.
Common grid ratios are 8:1 and 12:1, chosen based on imaging needs and
scatter conditions.
21. What is air gap technique?
The air gap technique reduces scatter radiation by increasing the distance
between the patient and the image receptor:
This allows scatter to dissipate before reaching the detector, improving
image contrast.
The technique is often used in chest radiography and can be an alternative
to using a grid.
22. What is Photo Stimulable Phosphor?
Photo Stimulable Phosphor (PSP) materials store X-ray energy, which is later
released as visible light when stimulated by a laser:
PSP is the primary technology used in computed radiography, where the
emitted light is captured and digitized