International Journal of Tourism and Hospitality Management Volume 4, Issue 2, December 2021

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ADOPTED RESEARCH DESIGNS BY TOURISM AND HOSPITALITY
POSTGRADUATES IN THE LIGHT OF RESEARCH ONION
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AYMAN SAFI ABDELHAKIM
RAGHDA MOHAMED BADR
FACULTY OF TOURISM AND HOTELS , FAYOUM UNIVERSITY, EGYPT

ABSTRACT
Background: Research design is the explicit techniques used to identify,
choice, process, and analyze data about a research topic. All researchers
must adopt and justify a specific research design and methodology.
Aim: This study aims to explore the adopted methodologies by tourism and
hospitality postgraduates, in order to shed the light on the importance of
teaching a comprehensive research methods modules for postgraduates.
Methodology: A qualitative research design based on an interpretivist
philosophical worldview was adopted to analyze the methodological
contents of tourism and hotel-related theses (N=188) undertaken at
Fayoum University.
Findings: While most theses (94.2%) did not consider/refer explicitly or
implicitly to the adopted philosophy, only 5.8% (n=11) of them mentioned
their philosophy, including Positivism and pragmatism. In addition, 100%
of the theses adopted the cross-sectional as a time horizon while data
collection.
Implications: The findings of this study may be valuable for teaching
comprehensive and effective modules on research methods for tourism and
hospitality postgraduates.
Limitations: This study was limited to theses conducted at the Faculty of
Tourism and Hotels, Fayoum University. The future research may extend
the sampling process to include a wider range of the postgraduates' theses.

KEYWORDS: Postgraduates, Theses, Methodologies, Approach,

philosophies, tourism, and hospitality, Fayoum.
1. INTRODUCTION

The research design has been defined as ‘‘the arrangement of conditions

for collection and analysis of data in a manner that aims to combine
relevance to the research purpose…’’ (Selltiz et al., 1959:25). It involves
the choices regarding the types of questions that need to be asked to
generate the required data, the methods of data collection, sampling, data

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analysis, as well as piloting and revision of research questions (Cooper and

Schindler, 1998). In addition, a research design deals with different aspects
of the research procedure, from philosophical assumptions to data analysis
(De Lisle, 2011). Creswell (2009: 5) defined research design as, “the plan
or proposal to conduct research, involves the intersection of philosophy,
strategies of inquiry and specific methods.”
So, it is a systematic plan to study a scientific problem since it defines the
study type (e.g., descriptive) and sub-type (e.g. systematic review),
research question, hypotheses, variables, data collection methods, and a
statistical analysis plan (Gorard, 2013). Hence, the key purpose of all
research designs is to obtain accurate and trustful evidence for answering
the research question. This role is emphasized by De Vaus, (2001: 9)
stating, ‘‘the function of the research design is to ensure that the evidence
obtained enables us to answer the initial question as unambiguously as
possible.’’
In social science, research designs fall under three major categories:
quantitative, qualitative, and mixed method (Creswell, 2009). However,
classifying social research design into sequential stages is a debatable issue
amongst many social science research methodologists, e.g. (Tashakkori
and Taddlie, 1998, 2010; Crotty, 1998; Denzin and Lincoln, 2005; Bryman
and Bell, 2007; Saunders, Lewis, and Thornhill, 2009; Cooper and
Schindler, 2008; Creswell, 2009). To rationalize the general research
design of this study, three examples of social research design models are
discussed.
The first model of social research design is proposed by Crotty, (1998)
who separated epistemology and theoretical perspectives by identifying
four chronological stages. These stages are epistemology, theoretical
perspective, methodology, and methods. According to Crotty (1998), the
choice of epistemology leads the researcher to choose the appropriate
theoretical perspective, which will, in turn, inform the methodology and
finally the related set of methods, which include both data collection and
data analysis.
The second model proposed by Saunders et al. (2019) argued that research
design involves six layers of the “research onion” as a research design
model (see Figure 1). The layers of the research onion are philosophies
(e.g., positivism), approaches (either inductive or deductive), strategies or
methodologies (e.g., case study), choices or the type of methods used (e.g.
mono method), time horizon (e.g. longitudinal) and techniques and
procedures (these include data collection and data analysis techniques).
Finally, Creswell, (2009) suggested a three-component framework for
designing any research. Creswell's framework considers the
interconnection of worldviews or philosophies (e.g., constructionism),

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strategies or methodologies of inquiry (e.g., mixed methods strategies, i.e.,

sequential), and research methods (e.g. data collection, i.e. questionnaire).
To summarize, there is substantial overlap between all research designs.
Regardless of this, the research design stages and phases are primarily
reliant upon the type of research required whether it is qualitative or
quantitative, or mixed methods. This study adapts by Saunders et al.
(2016) framework research design as its general framework design as
shown in Figure 1.
In recent decades, tourism and hospitality research has been deloped
increasingly in developing countries. Many studies were conducted within
Egyptian tourism and hospitality context (see, for example, Sobaih &
Jones, 2015; Wafik, et al., 2017). Some studies have established in a
scientific approach. In addition, several methods build a theoretical base to
study the future. Nevertheless, new approaches were not added to these
studies. There is a gap in the adopted research methodologies and design
by tourism and hospitality postgraduates and researchers. So, the research
onion model if it is used for the futures studies, it can serve as an empirical
approach to build up methodology and develop the future research design.
Consequently, this study aims to analyze the adopted methodologies by
tourism and hospitality postgraduates. The main research question guided
this study was:
To what extent have tourism and hospitality postgraduates adopted clear
research deigns/ methodology for their theses?
This question can be answered using content analysis. Content analysis can
be effectively used as a tool for qualitative as well as quantitative research
(Graneheim & Leman, 2004). Content analysis in tourism and hospitality
research has been applied to a variety of data and various depths of
interpretation (e.g., Cheng & Edward, 2017). This study will contribute to
the theory on the research methods in tourism and hospitality in developing
and emergent contexts, including Egypt. It is also expected to underline
the significance of teaching comprehensive courses or modules on research
designs and methodologies for postgraduates.

2. REVIEW OF LITERATURE
2.1 RESEARCH PHILOSOPHY
Research philosophy outlines the research, allows researchers to clarify the
used methods, and understands the expectations that support the research
techniques. It varies with the research goals and the way to attain these
goals (Masadeh, 2012; Rubin & Rubin, 2012). Many studies used
dissimilar categorizations, descriptions, and categorizations of research
philosophies concerning the research methods like ontology, epistemology,

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and axiology (Mkansi & Acheampong, 2012). The study philosophies start
in the tourism research from its proposal phase to conclusion (Altinay et
al., 2015). Based on Saundras onion model (2016) there are five
philosophies as follows:
2.1.1 POSITIVISM
Positivism appeared in the 19th century by French philosopher Auguste
Comte (Bergin et al., 2008). Then, Whitehead and Russell outspread the
conception of traditional Positivists (Downward & Mearman, 2004).
Downward & Mearman, (2004) and Rubin & Rubin (2012) agreed that the
Positivist claims impartial realism, which is observed and measured
without prejudice. It embraces concepts and theories that institute world
understanding with the basis of truth . Rubin & Rubin (2012) and Nunkoo
(2018) previewed that Positivist implies fixed reality which is measurable,
and there is just one truth, one external reality. Positivists presuppose that
knowledge is neutral, inductive, and can be obtained by quantitative
methods, which are independent of human perception. Accordingly,
positivists excluded non-experimental methodologies from being scientific
because they have insufficient observations (Downward & Mearman,
2004). Positivists assess their research success by measuring how their
findings match several researchers to minimize qualitative human practices
into quantified statistical figures (Majeed, 2019). In tourism and hospitality
research, the quantitative approaches popularity can be expounded that
research appeals to various notions, concepts, and theories from many
fields such as marketing, sociology, and management, which are affected
by the positivistic paradigm (Kaushik & Walsh, 2019).
2.1.2 CRITICAL REALISM
Critical realism (CR) developed from the term’s transcendental realism and
critical naturalism (Bergin et al., 2008). It is an applicable comparatively
philosophical paradigm to be an alternative to positivism, interpretivism,
and pragmatism paradigms (Lawani, 2020). It appeals to combine and
resolve ‘ontological realism, epistemological relativism, and judgmental
rationality (Bergin et al., 2008). Wikgren (2005) and Gorski (2013) agreed
that CR assumed that outside realism occurs in both natural and social
science, and their relations are seen as complex phenomenon analysis
Critical realists consider the social world ontology to explain a conceptual
framework to be discussed and afford suitable principles (Kemp, 2005). In
this vein, Easton (2010) and Fletcher (2017) assumed that CR looks for
measuring the fundamental causal relationships between social actions to
get an improved understanding to propose strategic recommendations for

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the social problems. Ontologically, CR supposes that realism is stratified

into three fields: the real, the actual, and the empirical (Lawani, 2020(.
2.1.3 INTERPRETIVE
The German sociologist Max Weber is the promoter of Interpretivism
(Chowdhury, 2014). Interpretivism is based on studying behavior as it
exists naturally (Gale & Beeftink, 2005a). It emphasizes people’s character
nature and their contribution to both cultural and social life (Chowdhury,
2014). Gray (2014), Saunders et al. (2019), and (Ma, 2020) agreed that
interpretivist aims to have several explanations and understandings about
social life from different human views. It is mostly used in qualitative
research that encompasses interpretive descriptive research, description
review, and case study (Addis & Podestà, 2005). As the interpretive
inquire, watching, listening, feeling, asking, recording, and examining
(Gale & Beeftink, 2005). It is described as an umbrella term including
numerous diverse schools of thought (Dean, 2018). Accordingly,
interpretive researchers not simply explore the attendance or
nonattendance of a causal relationship but also the ways to be manifested.
Hence, it goes beyond what has happened to get how it has happened
(Chowdhury, 2014).
2.1.4 POSTMODERNISM
In the second half of the nineteenth century, philosophers like Kierkegaard,
Nietzsche, and Heidegger began to doubt the absolute truth. They have
reviewed the development idea, depending on whether it results from a
theory that can be historicized and dubitable, undoubtedly not absolute
(Addis & Podestà, 2005). Kroeze (2012) and Forghani et al. (2015)
asserted that postmodernism is one of the mental currents that had
tremendous significance in and impact on numerous areas, including
education. Hence, postmodernism is a philosophical trend that rejects
modern western philosophy, handling the denial, destruction,
deconstruction, and devastation of all the current concepts and beliefs. In
epistemology, postmodernism is deprived of any signifying activities,
believing that everything is just a language game (Zhang & Hui, 2016;
Farhan, 2019). Postmodernism became a noticeable philosophy in
Literature, Art, Philosophy, and Architecture. Postmodernism is concerned
with the collective consciousness democratization of and also
postmodernism signifies the triumph of individuality (Packwood & Sikes,
1996; Forghani et al., 2015; Farhan, 2019).

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2.1.5 PRAGMATISM
Pragmatism arose out of the carnage of the Civil War as an approach of
suspicion toward absolutist ideologies (Maddux & Donnett, 2015). It is an
alternative to abstract and rationalistic science (Goldkuhl, 2004). It affirms
that the individual is mainly active in the creation of their world (Maddux
& Donnett, 2015). Goldkuhl (2004), Lincoln et al. (2011), and Kaushik &
Walsh (2019) affirmed that paradigm is used to apply the philosophical
assumptions in social research and to set the fundamental beliefs that
control the research actions, which appears as fundamental something to
study. Pragmatism also refuses to be engaged in metaphysical concepts
like truth and realism. As a substitute, it consents that sole or numerous
authenticities can be open to empirical inquiry (Creswell et al., 2007).
Accordingly, Pragmatists have a deep sense of justice (Kaushik & Walsh,
2019).
2.2 APPROACHES TO THEORY DEVELOPMENT
The theory is defined in numerous ways reliant on dissimilar philosophical
attitudes. As it is a systematic customary of statements about a common
performance or structure expected to grasp through a considerably wide
range of detailed examples. In other words, it is a hypotheses network of
progress to be conceptualized and explained on a particular social or
natural spectacle. Hence, every hypothesis grants a declaration about the
link between two or more variables as being the building blocks of theories
(Gill and Johnson, 2002; Pathirage et al., 2008). Saunders et al. (2016)
differentiate three core approaches to theory development which are
inductive, deductive, and abductive.
2.2.1 DEDUCTIVE APPROACH
The deduction is the unidentified specific identification, comes from its
similarity to a set of identified evidence (Rothchild, 2006), by testing
hypothesis, which starts with a traditional concept and checks if this can be
applied to cases. Accordingly, Hyde (2000), Pathirage et al. (2008),
Soiferman (2010) and Bergdahl & Berterö (2015) asserted that deductive
research initiates with the general and finishes with the specific. In other
words, it goes ahead from theory to data.

Hence, the deductive approach involves conceptual or theoretical structure

development by applying practical observation (Ali & Birley, 1999;
Pathirage et al., 2008). Though, the quantitative approach is a detective and
depends on phenomena reality (Aslam et al., 2012). This may be difficult
for articles with no research debating or discussing strategy but diverge
from assumption (Kovács & Spens, 2005).

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2.2.2 INDUCTIVE APPROACH

Inductive is constructing process, initiating with cases observations, and
looking for establishing generalizations about the phenomenon under
examination (Hyde, 2000). Hence, Pathirage et al. (2008), Soiferman
(2010), and Bergdahl & Berterö (2015) agreed on inductive research
starting from data to theory or specific to the general. Induction mainly
uses qualitative methods (Kovács & Spens, 2005) which begin from
observations to generalizations (Butnaru, 2015). The inductive method
creates theories instantaneously; hence it cannot rationalize knowledge and
cannot be used in theories and hypothesis formulation (Haig, 2005; Hibbert
et al., 2014; Bergdahl & Berterö, 2015). Preliminarily, tourism appeals to
practical studies or investigation to raise the phenomena interpretation and
analysis to extract the hypothesis or theories (Aslam et al., 2012).
2.2.3 ABDUCTIVE APPROACH
Charles Saunders Peirce presents many fundamental abduction
descriptions (Reid, 2018) as abduction is an alternative to scientific
implication judgment (Brandt & Timmermans, 2021). It is a process of
creating a descriptive proposal with a new idea (Tan et al., 2018), a review
of an existing theory, or a new theory development (Brandt &
Timmermans, 2021). The abductive approach rises from the vision that the
most outstanding science progresses neither tracked the outline deduction
nor pure induction (Kovács & Spens, 2005). Hence, it generates a
hypothetical proposal which is then explained by deduction and
empirically proved through induction beliefs through continuous review of
the deduction and induction process (Kaiser et al., 2014; Tan et al., 2018).
Abduction initiates with an unexpected, irregular, or unexpected
observation in the shed of current theories and then regulates the
implications of discovery (Haig, 2005; Brandt & Timmermans, 2021).
Briefly, conception integration is a significant portion of abduction as it
does not happen in the context of a steady language because the new
hypotheses formation relates with the new theoretical development (Yu,
2006).
2.3 RESEARCH METHODOLOGICAL CHOICE
The qualitative research origins start from social and cultural
anthropology, history, psychology, philosophy, and sociology (Haradhan,
2018). It is designated as a naturalistic or explanatory approach (Mogensen
et al., 1998). Hence, Qualitative research has been a distinctive approach in
social science as it offers a clear realization of human behavior, feeling,
attitudes, and capabilities. Accordingly, the positivist, interpretivism, and
critical paradigms are used in it (Haradhan, 2018; Bowen et al., 2017;

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O’Cathain, 2019). Its nature is to be inductive, and its hypotheses are from
data analysis instead of stating it at the outset (Mogensen et al., 1998;
Haradhan, 2018).
Qualitative research contains an extensive variety of methods (Mogensen
et al., 1998) concerned with ‘what’ ‘why’ and ‘how’ questions to have in-
depth interpretation. Hence, observational, semi-structured and in-depth
interviews, focus groups, logic, ethnography, comparative study, and open-
ended questionnaires (Mogensen et al., 1998; Polkinghorne, 2005; Njie &
Asimiran, 2014; Haradhan, 2018; Vizcarguenaga-Aguirre & López-
Robles, 2020). While as Quantitative research explains a phenomenon
issue by data gathering in numerical form and analyzing with mathematical
systems, particularly statistics (Apuke, 2017).
Quantitative research is designed with allocated variables and hypotheses.
The collected data supports or rejects the allocated paradigms (Maxwell,
2004). It also shows which tool is efficient for the study purpose to
propound rules and facts that can stand on their own regardless it is true or
not (Daniel, 2016). Cohen (2011) debates that quantitative research is used
in epistemology and ontology regarding human behavior which can be
controlled (Yap & Wong, 2007). Accordingly, quantitative approaches use
theory to generate data (Daniel, 2016).
Saunders et al. (2016) delimit research selections to the quantitative and
qualitative research methods, in addition to the simple or complex mix of
both or mono methods use (Melnikovas, 2018). The Mono method is
chosen when the research is dedicated to qualitative or quantitative data
gathering (Melnikovas, 2018); while mixed methods have been crossbred,
and combined (Bowen et al., 2017). As mixed methods are chosen when
quantitative and qualitative methods are utilized in the same research to
attain different aims and offset the mono method limitations. It can be
either mixed-method design or mixed model design (Jorgenson & Vesaas,
1962; Mik-meyer, 2020). While multi-method choice requires the usage of
qualitative or quantitative methods, although the research is focused on one
of them (Saunders et al., 2007; Melnikovas, 2018).
2.4 RESEARCH STRATEGIES
Research strategies are collecting data systems of the research projects or,
either practical or hypothetical research (Hernández et al., 2016). Each
one can be used for investigative, explanatory, and descriptive research. It
may also be used for either the deductive approach or the inductive
approach (Yin 2003). Several methods and techniques adopted are
according to the problem, objectives research (Kapur, 2018). It also faces
numerous challenges because of the methodological limits for the

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strategy's examination and analysis (Hernández et al., 2016). According to

Saundras (2016), there are various strategies such as:
2.4.1EXPERIMENT
The experiment strategy has remained exempt from paradigm changes in
knowledge psychology during the past century (McDonough, 2017). An
experiment is an examination where a hypothesis is tested methodically
(Buchanan, 1981). The simplest experiments are attentive to a relation
among two variables (WEBB, 1949). An independent variable (the reason)
is operated, and the dependent variable (the result) is deliberated; any extra
variables are controlled (Buchanan, 1981). While complex experiments
consider the changing size and the comparative importance of two or more
independent variables. Therefore, Experiments is usually used in
exploratory and explanatory research to get the answer to ‘how’ and ‘why’
questions (McDonough, 2017).
2.4.2 SURVEY
The survey strategy is mostly used in the social sciences to empirically
study the individualities and interrelations of psychological and
sociological variables (Roberts, 1999). It collects information from some
individuals over their responses to several questions. The sampling goal is
to get an adequate sample that represents the population of interest (Ponto,
2015). Accordingly, survey studies small and large populations by
choosing the samples chosen from it to find out the relative prevalence,
interrelations, and distribution of psychological and sociological variables
(Roberts, 1999; Kapur, 2018). Hence, surveys can be used in quantitative
research by using numerically rated items questionnaires or in qualitative
research by using open-ended questions, or both strategies by using mixed
methods (Ponto J, 2015).
2.4.3 ARCHIVAL DATA
Archival data strategy is concerned with data gathering and storing for
later planned use (Das et al., 2018). It does not contain direct interaction
with alive objects and moral subjects (Subotić, 2021). Archival data may
contain count data, office records, histories, educational archives, company
annual reports, personnel files, and survey responses which are carried out
at diverse times (Das et al., 2018). Accordingly, it depends on the
obtainability and access of its methods and the competence and support of
the archival staff (Hodder, 2017; Subotić, 2021). Hence, an archival data
strategy permits answering research questions that are concerned with the
past and fluctuations over time (Gilliland & McKemmish, 2004). In the

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social sciences, archival data techniques have been considered a

noninvasive technique of collecting mandatory data (Das et al., 2018).
2.4.4 CASE STUDY
In the social sciences, case study strategy has been mostly used and it is
also valuable in practical fields (Starman, 2013). It is used to explore
practical phenomena in real-life situations. It can be used to describe and
explain compound fundamental relations in real-life involvements. (Yin,
1994; Starman, 2013; Hernández et al., 2016). It is also limited to a solo
setting, subject, or occasion. Accordingly, there are diverse types of case
studies which are life-history case studies, interview case studies,
observational case studies, organizational case studies, and multi-site and
relative case studies (Kapur, 2018).
2.4.5 ANTHROPOLOGY
Anthropology strategy describes and explains the social world over the
first field study (Wacquant, 2002). As it presents social life narratives
which is complex and based on a static variable and another socially
constructed one (Tavory & Timmermans, 2009). The anthropologist exists
with the local community and gathers life detailed accounts of the
traditions and local people behaviors (Palmer, 2001). Anthropology is
engrained in the inductive approach. It emanates from the field of
anthropology (Wacquant, 2002). Ethnographic research has a flexible
ability to cover a wide extent of Topics (McGranahan, 2015). Nash (1996)
states that the first tourism study was by Nunez of weekend tourism in a
Mexican village, in the 1960s. Since, then, tourism has grown from an
activity to a severe business which is both academically and commercially
(Palmer, 2001).
2.4.6 ACTION RESEARCH
Action research strategy is concerned with the resolution study of
significant social or administrative subjects together with those who
practice these subjects directly (Grogan et al., 2007). Hence, action
research is a correlation amongst three discourses which are on theory, on
practice, and an intermediating discourse on connecting those (Young,
2006). Accordingly, action research concentrates on, to some extent,
"actions", rather than "about action", and their condition explanation of this
(Bowes, 1996; Grogan et al., 2007). Accordingly, it moves social analysis
from a linear reason and result framework to a participating outline that is
inserted in the empirical complications of the research difficulties (Young,
2006). Action research supports the applicants to choose n the research

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agenda, endorse the research, assess the process, and benefit from the
outcome (Arrowsmith, 2006; Grogan et al., 2007).
2.4.7 GROUNDED THEORY
Grounded theory is concerned with gathering a logically reliable set of data
and investigating actions to discover theory or develop it (Reiter et al.,
2011). It begins with a methodical, inductive, comparative, and interactive
approach to collect and analyze data and contains developing categories of
examination which has emerged from successive analysis over theoretical
and deductive reasoning (Biles & Biles, 2010). This entails that the
researcher does not have to be attentive to hypotheses testing which is
taken from prevailing theoretical frameworks, but rather improves a new
theory (Dunne, 2011). Accordingly, it will answer the "What was going
on" question by making substantive or formal theory (Samik-ibrahim,
2000).
2.4.8 NARRATIVE INQUIRY
Narrative inquiry is extensively recognized as a practical strategy to
guiding qualitative research (Coulter et al., 2007). In social sciences
narrative inquiry is considered as a philosophical and theoretical approach
that turns the researcher to live stories, and as a practical strategy that
emphasizes the stories to gather data (O’ Toole, 2018). Biography,
autobiography, life story is considered as understanding experience tools
(Savin-Baden & Van Niekerk, 2007). In narrative inquiry, the data analysis
process encompasses the data synthesizing into clarification that needs
actions from the data to the developing plan, continually testing the story
with the database (Coulter et al., 2007). Accordingly, it is suitable for
positions when researchers target is to understand in combined and
temporally intelligible methods, complex social practices, and life as it is
existed (McMullen & Braithwaite, 2013).
2.5 TIME HORIZONS
Research Time horizons mean the periods to be studied or sequential
horizon of changing extent. The research time horizons design is
independent of research strategy or method. Saunders et al., (2007)
distinguish two basic time horizons:
2.5.1CROSS-SECTIONAL
Cross-sectional research usually uses the survey strategy. They try to
define the prevalence of a phenomenon to clarify its related factors.
However, they similarly use qualitative methods. Numerous case studies
are focused on interviews that have been conducted over a short period .

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2.5.2 LONGITUDINAL
The main strong point of longitudinal research is that it the capacity to
study any changes or improvements. However, the researcher can measure
control of the studied variables and assure that they are not impacted by the
research procedure itself (Hernández et al., 2016).
2.6 TECHNIQUES AND PROCEDURES
It contains the data collection and analysis, the used data either primary or
secondary, selecting sample, designing questionnaire, interviews making,
etc.

3. METHODOLOGY
STUDY DESIGN
This methodological study aimed to analyze the adopted methodologies by
tourism and hospitality postgraduates. It also explores the main
motivations and reasons for adopting a specific research
methodology/design. To achieve its aim, this study adopted a pure
qualitative research design based on "research onion" presented by
Saunders et al (2007). This research onion has main layers description
which are important to formulate an effective methodology especially in
social sciences. Therefore, it is obvious the layers of the research onion
guided the different sections of the paper. The adopted philosophy is
interpretivism, inductive approach, the methodological choice is mono

Figure 1. Research onion model (Saunders et al., 2016)

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method qualitative (document analysis), cross-sectional case study strategy

(Faculty of Tourism and Hotels, Fayoum University), and data were
analyzed using qualitative content analysis (See Figure 1).

STUDY SAMPLING
Although there are 9 governmental faculties that offer tourism and
hospitality postgraduate programs in Egypt, we purposefully chose the
Faculty of Tourism and Hotels, Fayoum University. Specifically, we
surveyed, and documentary analyzed all Master and Ph.D. theses awarded
by Tourism Studies and Hotel Studies departments. According to the
statistics of the postgraduate's office, 188 Masters and Ph.D. theses were
examined awarded from 2003 to 2020 (Table 1). Theses awarded by
Tourism Studies and Hotel Studies departments at Faculty of Tourism and
Hotels, Fayoum University were chosen due to pragmatic reasons and
access of documents (theses) as well as a timeline of the study.
DATA COLLECTION METHOD
Generally, Denscombe (2007: 133) emphasized that there are main four
methods used for data collection in social research (e.g., tourism and
hospitality. These are ‘‘questionnaires, interviews, observation, and
documents’’. This study employed mono qualitative method (documents,).
This study used document analysis (DA), which is occasionally identified
as, ‘‘documentary research method’’ or ‘‘the use of documentary sources
in social research’’ (Mogalakwe, 2009: 221). From a research methods
point of view, DA is a social research method used mainly in qualitative
research (Bowen, 2009). DA as a research technique has many advantages,
including information that already exists; rare biases about information;
presented different periods (historical data), and cost-effective. In contrast,
DA has some disadvantages, such as time-consuming; incomplete
information; might need to be clear; data restricted to what already exists,
and may not provide insight into participants’ thinking. In this study, a
range of 188 theses were considered.
Ethically, we considered the ethical issues. The access to the theses were
approved by Vice Dean for Postgraduate Studies and Research. The
investigation and analysis of the theses were carried out at the library, and
no photocopying was permitted. In addition, the analysis excluded any
authors' names or these topics. Therefore, there are no associations
between the authors of theses and their responses.

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DATA ANALYSIS
Qualitative data of this study included documents and structured
transcripts. For analyzing data, the content analysis (CA) technique was
adopted. This technique is commonly used to analyze non-statistical data
systematically. The main objective of CA is, “to provide knowledge and
understanding for the phenomenon under study” (Downe-Wamboldt,
1992:314). In addition, a word cloud was also used for visualization of the
topics of theses.
4. RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS
4.1. OVERVIEW OF DOCUMENTS (THESES) PROFILE

The analysis of these (documents) started with numbers per degree and
department. As it can be seen in table 1, most of the theses (56.9%) were
undertaken and awarded at tourism-related studies, and the minority (43%)
of them were conducted concerning the hotel/hospitality department.
Based on the level of degree, 68 % of the theses were masters (51.5%
tourism studies and 48.5% hotel studies), and 32% (n=75) of them were
Ph.D. theses (54.7% Tourism Studies and 45.3% Hotel Studies). These
findings exposed the increase of tourism and hospitality research in the last
decades. Many researchers have referred to the progress in tourism and
hospitality research worldwide (see, for example, Faulkner & Goeldner,
1998; Seyfi et al., 2019) and in Egypt as well (Wafik, et al, 2017). This is
an expected result due to the development of tourism and hospitality
education in Egypt (Abou-Shouk, et al., 2014).
Table1: An overview of the included theses.

Tourism Studies Hotel Studies

Criteria MSc. Ph.D. MSc. Ph.D.
F % F % F % F %
MSc. 66 100 - - 47 100 - -
Degree
Ph.D. - - 41 100 - - 34 100
Author's Male 24 36.4 15 36.6 36 76.6 26 76.5
gender Female 42 63.6 26 63.4 11 23.5 8 23.5
Languages English 4 6 10 24.4 43 91.5 30 88.23
of thesis Arabic 62 94 31 75.6 4 8.5 4 11.8
66 100 41 100 47 100 34 100
Total
188

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In addition, and according to the gender of authors, 53.7% of them were

males and mainly (60%) from hotel studies, and female authors were the
minority (46.3%) and mainly (78%) from tourism studies side. These
findings are important since gender equality is one of the highlighted
issues in tourism, including research (Boonabaana, 2014; Koseoglu, et al.,
2019; Morgan, & Pritchard, 2019; Wen, et al., 2020).

When it comes to the used academic language, although English is the

main academic language worldwide, most of the theses were written in
Arabic. Specifically, while the majority (93%) of the theses were written in
Arabic the tourism studies, the opposite in the case of hotel studies as 90 %
of them were written in English. This may be due to the nature of topics,
level of English, available references, and aspiration of the students and
supervisors. In addition, Arabic is one of the on the rise language in
tourism (Zin, et al., 2013). Furthermore, all these (documents) investigated
in the study were conducted between 2003 and 2020. While the fist
master's thesis was awarded in Hotel Studies in 2003, the first in the
tourism department was awarded in 2004.

Figure 2: The timeline of theses awarded by the tourism studies

department

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Figure 3: The timeline of theses awarded by the hotel studies

department

In the case of Ph.D., while the fist Ph.D. Theses were awarded in the
tourism department in 2007, the first in Hotel Studies was awarded in
2008. Additionally, there is understandable variation in several theses per
year as well as the degree. For example, while the maximum number of
tourism-related MSc theses was awarded in 2012 was 7; the same number
(n=7) of hotel studies MSc theses was awarded in 2012. The number
depends on the number of postgraduates per year and the duration between
registration and awarding the degrees (MSC and Ph.D.). It is worth
mentioning that the Fayoum faculty of Tourism was embellished in 1995
and the postgraduates’ studies started in 2001. Moreover, generally, there
is an increasing demand on conducting a postgraduate study in tourism and
hospitality in Egypt (Abou-Shouk, et al., 2014).
4.2 THE WORD CLOUD OF THE THESES TOPICS
A word cloud is an image made of words that together resemble a cloudy
shape (McNaught & Lam, 2010; DePaolo& Wilkinson, 2014). The
significance and implication of a word depends on its size in the word
clouds, e.g., how repeatedly it appears in topics of theses — its frequency.
In this study, we used word clouds to easily show immediate ideas of 188
topics of the theses as an image.

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Figure 4: Word cloud of MSc topics in Tourism Studies

Figure 5: word cloud of Ph.D. topics in Tourism Studies

Figures 4 and 5 represent the word clouds of topics of MSc and Ph.D.
conducted in the tourism studies department. From first sight the main
words, including tourism Egypt, impact, study, Fayoum, analytical,
governorate. This word reflected that the main idea bound the topics
studies. Similarly Figures 6 and 7 represent the word clouds of topics of
MSc and Ph.D. conducted in the hotel studies department. The important
words in the topics, including hotel, star- Five, Service, Food, impact,

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Cairo, Fayoum, Catering, Luxor, HACCP, Evaluation, Hospitality,

Comparative, System. Methodologically, the word clouds showed few
words, including case study, analytical, exploratory. All these are
Methodological reflective words.

Figure 6: Word cloud of MSc Hotel/hospitality theses

Figure 7: Word cloud of Ph.D. Hotel/hospitality theses

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4.3 THE ADOPTED METHODOLOGIES BY POSTGRADUATES

Table 2 summarizes the content analysis of documents (theses). In this
section of the results, we present the findings considering the "research
onion" as developed by Saunders. At the first layer of the research onion is
the "philosophy". While most theses did not consider/refer explicitly or
implicitly to the adopted philosophy, only 5.8% (n=11) of them mentioned
their philosophy. Exactly, 10 theses in hotel studies present explicitly their
philosophy (9 theses used positivism and 2 theses used pragmatism).
On approach level to the theory, 14 theses used the induction approach, 8
theses used the deduction approach and only 3 theses used the abductive
approach. The choice of the "approach" mainly depends on the research
design and the worldview of the authors. In the third layer
"methodological choice", the analysis exposed that the authors had
different methodologies. In more than three-quarters (76.5%) of the
theses, mono method quantitative (Questionnaire) was used, followed by
mixed-method simple (9%; n=17). The mixed-method simple included
questionnaires and observation or questionnaires and interviews.

When it comes to the fourth layer "strategy", 93% (n=175) of the theses
adopted the survey as strategy, followed by case study (9.6%, n=18), and
then Archival research (5.3%). The fifth layer is "Time horizon" where
100% (n=188) of the theses were conducted on the cross-section where
data were collected from respondents at one specific point in time. None of
the studies collected data on a longitudinal basis.

The final "sixth" layer is the "data collection and data analysis" where
100% (n=188) of the theses used a quantitative data approach, using SPSS
software. Different descriptive, inferential statistics analyses were used.
In addition, minority of the theses used complex and sophisticated
statistical analysis, including factor analysis and structural equation
modeling (SEM). Surprisingly, although the 4 theses used in-depth semi-
structured and structured interviews, the analysis of the qualitative data
was done as quantitative data. For example, one author reported that he
conducted 100 interviews for collecting data from managers, however, the
results did not include any analysis related to that huge number of
interviews.

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Table 2: The adopted methodologies by postgraduates

Tourism Studies Hotel Studies

Criteria MSc. Ph.D. MSc. Ph.D.
F % F % F % F %
Philosophy
Positivism 0 0 1 2.4 5 1.6 3 8.8
Critical 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Interpretivism 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Postmodernism 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Pragmatism 0 0 0 0 0 0 2 5.9
Approach to theory development
Deductive 0 0 0 0 5 1.6 3 8.8
Abductive 0 0 2 4.9 0 0 1 2.9
Inductive 12 18.2 1 2.4 0 0 1 2.9
Methodological choice
Mono method 27 57.4 28 82.5
61 92.4 28 68.3
quantitative
Mono method 0 0 0 0
1 1.5 3 7.3
qualitative
Multi-method 10 21.3 0 0
0 0 0 0
quantitative
Multi-method 0 0 4 11.8
0 0 2 4.9
qualitative
Mixed method simple 4 6.1 9 22 2 4.3 2 5.9
Mixed method complex 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Strategy(ies)
Experiment 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Survey 63 95.5 36 87.8 46 97.9 30 88.3
Archival research 5 7.6 5 12.2 0 0 0 0
Case study 5 7.6 8 19.5 1 2.12 4 11.8
Ethnography 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Action research 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Grounded theory 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Narrative inquiry 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0

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Time horizon
Cross-sectional 66 100 41 100 47 100 34 100
Longitudinal 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Techniques and procedures
Data collection and data
66 100 41 100 47 100 34 100
analysis
Total 188 (100%)
5. CONCLUSIONS, IMPLICATIONS, AND FUTURE RESEARCH
This study is the first in the Egyptian context to address the adopted
methodological issues by tourism and hospitality postgraduates in their
theses. This study contributes to the theory by providing a glance at the
research methodology in tourism and hospitality research. It also shed the
light on the importance of teaching comprehensive research methods
modules for postgraduates in different faculties of tourism and hotels.
This study has some limitations. Firstly, it was conducted on the theses
undertaken in faculty of tourism and hotel, Fayoum University. Secondly,
it used only mono qualitative "document analysis" in a pure qualitative
research design. Although the number of the documents (theses) achieved
the aim of the study, the future researchers may consider a wider range of
faculties and theses. In addition, the future researchers may prefer to use
multi-method quantitative (e.g., document analysis and interviews). We
trust that conducting interviews with postgraduates and supervisors may
enrich the argumentations on the motivations and barriers to adopting a
specific research methodology or design.

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