PHYSICS PROJECT REPORT
Newton’s laws of Motion
Submitted by: Kamaleshwar JS
Class : XI A
Roll no: 11A06
Subject: Physics
Academic Year: 2025 - 2026
Foundations of Newtonian Mechanics
Three fundamental quantities:
(i) Mass,
(ii) Motion &
(iii) Force
Excerpts from Newton’s Principia (Book 1 )
Mass
The quantity of matter is the measure of
the same arising from it’s density and bulk
conjointly.
Motion
The quantity of motion is the measure of the
same arising from the velocity and quantity
of matter conjointly.
Force (Definiton # 1)
The vis insita: an innate forces of matter, is a power
of resisting, by which every body, as much as in it lies,
continues in its present state, whether it be of rest, or
of moving uniformly forward in a right line.”
Force (Definition # 2)
An impressed force is an action exerted upon a body,
in order to change its state, either of rest, or of moving
uniformly forward in a right line.
These definitions gave rise to the famous
three laws: known as Newton’s laws of
motion.
Law 1
Every body continues in it’s state of rest or of
uniform rectilinear motion except if it is
compelled by forces acting on it to change that
sate.
Law 2
The change of motion is proportional to the applied
force and takes place in the direction of the
straight line along which that force acts.
Laws 3
To every action there is always an equal and
contrary reaction; or the mutual actions of any
two bodies are always equal and oppositely
directed along the same straight line.
By solving Newton’s laws we shall find r(t).
r(t) = 0: implies that the body is in rest for all time.
In general,
r(t)=(x(t), y(t), z(t)) or (r(t), (t), (t) )
Example
r(t) = (vxt + x0 ; 0; vzt + z0 − gt 2 / 2)
represents uniform motion in the x-direction
with vx as the velocity, in a state of rest in the
y-direction and is having a uniform velocity
vz and a free fall in the gravitational field.
Mechanics of particles
Classical Non-relativistic Relativistic
Mechanics (Special Theory
(Newton’s Laws) of Relativity)
Quantum Non- Relativistic
Mechanics Relativistic
(Dirac Equation)
(Schroedinger
Equation)
Newton’s first law of motion
1. Gives a definition of (zero) force
2. Defines an inertial frame.
Zero Force: When a body moves with constant velocity in a straight
line, either there are no forces present or the net force acting on the
body is zero Fi = 0. If the body changes its velocity, then there must
be an acceleriation, and hence a total non-zero force must be present.
Velocity can change due to change in its magnitude or due to change
in its direction or change in both.
Inertial frame: If the relative velocity between the two reference
frames is constant, then the relative acceleration between the two
reference frames is zero, and the reference frames are
considered to be inertial reference frames. The inertial frame is then
simply a frame of reference in which the first law holds.
S’
dR
r r'
S
r ' = r − vt, v = Galilean transformation
R dt Is Earth an inertial frame?
The first law does not hold in an arbitrary frame. For example, it fails in the frame of a
rotating turntable.
Newton’s Second law of motion:
If any force generates a change in motion, a double force will
generate double change in the motion, a triple force will correspond
to triple change in the motion, whether that force is impressed
altogether and at once or gradually or successively.
Change of motion is described by the change in momentum of body. For a
point mass particle, the momentum is defined as p = mv
Suppose that a force is applied to a body for a time interval t . The impressed
force or impulse produces a change in the momentum of the body,
The instantaneous action of the total force acting on a body at a time t is
defined by taking the mathematical limit as the time interval t becomes
smaller and smaller,
m
1
ma m a
total
F
d
= (mv ) = m
dv
1 1 1 dt dt
m2 = a
2
ma 1 Inertial mass
2 2
F
m2 Inertial mass Gravitational mass
Newton’s third law of motion:
Consider two bodies engaged in a mutual interaction. Label the bodies 1
and 2 respectively. Let F1,2 be the force on body 1 due to the interaction
with body 2, and F2,1 be the force on body 2 due to the interaction with
body 1.
Gravitational force: F = −G m1m2 r̂ r̂ = −rˆ
12 12 12 21
r2
qq
Coulomb force: F = k 1 2 r̂ F = −F
12 12 12 21
r2
All real Forces arise due to interaction!
If the acceleration of a body is the result of an outside force, then
somewhere in the universe there must be an equal and opposite force
acting on another body. The interaction may be a complicated one, but as
long as the forces are equal and opposite, Newton's laws are satisfied.
Newton’s 3rd law emphasizes Conservation of Momentum
Validity of Newton’s laws
• Validity of the first two laws
- The first law is always valid (add a pseudo force).
- The second law F = 𝒑ሶholds but F and p
have different expressions in the
relativistic limit.
• The 3rd law is not valid in the relativistic
limit. Why????
Consider two positive charges
Momentum conservation is not valid
Application of Newton’s laws: Prescription
Step 1: Divide a composite system into constituent systems each of which can be
treated as a point mass.
Step 2: Draw free body force diagrams for each point mass.
Step 3: Introduce a coordinate system, the inertial frame, and write the equations of
motion.
Step 4: Motion of a body may be constrained to move along certain path or plane.
Express each constraint by an equation called constraint equation.
Step 6: Identify the number of unknown quantities. There must be enough number of
equations ( Equations of motion + constraint equations) to solve for all the unknown
quantities.
Example 1
Identify the constraints
EOM in x and y-directions
2
Velocity and acceleration in cylindrical polar
coordinates :
r = cosiˆ + sin ĵ + zk̂ = ˆ + zk̂
ˆ = cosiˆ + sin ĵ
ˆ = −sin iˆ + cos ĵ
ẑ = k̂
Example 2
A horizontal frictionless table has a small hole in its center. Block A on the table is
connected to block B hanging beneath by a string of negligible mass which passes
through the hole. Initially, B is held stationary and A rotates at constant radius ro with
steady angular velocity 0. If B is released at t = 0, what is its acceleration
immediately afterward?
Two movable bodies and their free body diagrams:
Cylindrical polar coordinate system.
Equations of motion:
Constraint equations:
Unknowns:
ar , a , z,T Four unknowns and four equations.
Immediately after B is released 𝑟 = 𝑟0 and θሶ = ω0
Example 3
Determine the acceleration vectors of all mobile bodies in
the following situation which are always in contact. All
surfaces are frictionless, pulley is massless, and the
string of length L is massless and inextensible.
Free body diagrams:
T
T T F m2
Fm2 M
m1 FMm2 M m2 g
Specification of coordinates:
x
x1
y
Equations of motion: Fm M = m2a2 x
2
m1a1x = T F − T − FMm2 = Max m g −T = m a
rd
3 law of motion: FMm = Fm M 2 2 2y
2 2
Constraint equations: x = x2 ax = a 2 x
x − x1 + y = L ax − a1x + a2 y = 0
Unknowns: T , F1 , F2 , ax , a1x , a2 x , a2 y
There are seven equations and seven unknowns.
Accelerations:
m2 F + (M + m2 ) g
a1x = ( M + m )( m + m ) + m m
2 1 2 1 2
a =a = F (m1 + m2 ) − m1m2 g
x 2x ( M + m )( m + m ) + m m
2 1 2 1 2
m2 ( M + m1 + m2 ) g − m2 F
a2 y = ( M + m )( m + m ) + m m
2 1 2 1 2
Example 4
Find the velocity of the mass at subsequent times.
Thank you