ANALOG DEVICES: CURRENT
MEASUREMENTS
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One way to measure a DC electrical current is to use an
analog device that responds to the force exerted on a
current-carrying conductor in a magnetic field.
ANALOG DEVICES: CURRENT
MEASUREMENTS
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Similarly, a current loop in a magnetic field experiences a
torque if the loop is not aligned with the magnetic field, as
illustrated in Figure 6.2. The torque on a loop composed of
N turns is given by
ANALOG DEVICES: CURRENT
MEASUREMENTS
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D’Arsonval movement: In this arrangement, the uniform
radial magnetic field and torsional spring result in a steady
angular deflection of the coil that corresponds to the
existing current through the coil.
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ANALOG DEVICES: CURRENT
MEASUREMENTS
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Most devices that use the D’Arsonval movement employ a
pointer whose deflection increases with the magnitude of
current applied.
– This mode of operation is called the deflection mode.
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A typical circuit for an analog current measuring device, an
ammeter, is shown in Figure 6.4.
ANALOG DEVICES: CURRENT
MEASUREMENTS
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A galvanometer is a measuring device used to detect a
current flow in a circuit.
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It is a highly sensitive D’Arsonval movement calibrated
about zero current.
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The highest sensitivity of commercial galvanometers is
approximately 0.1 mA/division for a galvanometer with a
mechanical pointer.
ANALOG DEVICES: CURRENT
MEASUREMENTS
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Errors inherent to the D’Arsonval movement include
hysteresis and repeatability errors due to mechanical friction
in the pointer-bearing movement, and linearity errors in the
spring that provides the restoring force for equilibrium.
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Also, in developing a torque, the D’Arsonval movement
must extract energy from the current flowing through it.
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This draining of energy from the signal being measured
changes the measured signal, and such an effect is called a
loading error.
Alternating Current
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An AC current can be measured in any number of ways.
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One technique, found in common deflection meters, uses
diodes to form a rectifier that converts the time-dependent
AC current into a DC current.
– This current then can be measured with a calibrated
D’Arsonval movement meter as previously described.
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An accurate measuring solution for large AC current is the
Hall effect probe.
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Hall effect: A voltage that is developed from any current-
carrying conductor placed perpendicular to a magnetic field.
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The unknown current within a wire is used to generate a
magnetic field that develops a measurable voltage across a
Hall-effect sensor.
ANALOG DEVICES: VOLTAGE
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MEASUREMENTS
The D’Arsonval movement can be calibrated in terms of
voltage by using an appropriate known fixed resistor and
through Ohm’s law relating it to the measured current.
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The circuit shown in Figure 6.6 can also be used to measure
an AC voltage if the input voltage is rectified prior to input
to this circuit.
Oscilloscope
Oscilloscope
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It is used to measure and to visually display voltage
magnitude versus time for dynamic signals over a wide
range of frequencies
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The visual image provides a direct means to detect the
superposition of noise and interference on a measured
signal, something non-visual metering devices cannot do.
Potentiometer
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The potentiometer is a device used to measure DC voltages
that are in the microvolt to millivolt range.
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Equivalent to a balance scale, a potentiometer balances an
unknown input voltage against a known internal voltage
until both sides are equal.
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A general purpose component found in the potentiometer
circuit is the voltage divider circuit.
Potentiometer Instruments
●
A simple potentiometer measuring instrument can be
derived from the voltage divider circuit as shown in Figure
6.10.
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Any current flow through the galvanometer, G, would be a
result of an imbalance between the measured voltage, Em,
and the voltage imposed across points A to B, EAB.
● The voltage EAB is adjusted by moving the sliding contact A;
ANALOG DEVICES: RESISTANCE
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MEASUREMENTS
Resistance measurements may range from simple continuity
checks, to determining changes in resistance on the order of
10-6 V, to determining absolute resistance ranging from 10-5
to 1015 V.
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Ohmmeter Circuits: A simple way to measure resistance is
by imposing a voltage across the unknown resistance and
measuring the resulting current flow where R = E/I.
Bridge Circuits
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A variety of bridge circuits have been devised for measuring
capacitance, inductance, and, most often, resistance.
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A purely resistive bridge, called a Wheatstone bridge,
provides a means for accurately measuring resistance.
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When the current flow through the galvanometer, is zero,
the bridge is in a balanced condition.
Null Method
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If the resistance R1 changes due to a change in the measured
variable, the resistance R2 can be adjusted to compensate so
that the bridge is once again balanced.
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An advantage of the null method is that the applied input
voltage need not be known, and changes in the input voltage
do not affect the accuracy of the measurement.
Deflection Method
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In an unbalanced condition, the magnitude of the current or
voltage drop for the meter portion of the bridge circuit is a
direct indication of the change in resistance of one or more
of the arms of the bridge.
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The voltage drop from B to C
Deflection Method
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Let
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Then,
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Usually,
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Then,
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The deflection bridge requires a meter capable of accurately
indicating the output voltage, as well as a stable and known
input voltage.
LOADING ERRORS AND IMPEDANCE
MATCHING
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A loading error is the difference between the value of the
measurand and the indicated value brought on by the act of
measurement.
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Loading effects can be of any form: mechanical, electrical,
or optical.
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When the insertion of a sensor into a process somehow
changes the physical variable being measured, that is a
loading error.
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If the output from one system stage is in any way affected
by the subsequent stage, then the signal is affected by
interstage loading error.
LOADING ERRORS AND IMPEDANCE
●
MATCHING
Under deflection conditions, some energy must be removed
from the circuit to deflect the pointer.
– This reduces the current in the circuit, bringing about a
loading error in the measured resistance.
●
On the other hand, under null balance conditions, there is no
perceptible pointer deflection, and so a negligible amount of
current is removed from the circuit.
– There is then negligible loading error.
Loading Errors for Voltage-Dividing Circuit
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Consider the voltage-divider circuit shown in Figure 6.15
for the case where Rm is finite.
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The resistances Rm and R1 form a parallel loop, yielding an
equivalent resistance,
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The equivalent resistance for the entire circuit,
Loading Errors for Voltage-Dividing Circuit
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The current flow from the voltage source is then
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the output voltage is given by
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Then,
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In the ideal case where Rm tends to infinity
ANALOG SIGNAL CONDITIONING: FILTERS
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A filter is used to remove undesirable frequency information
from a dynamic signal.
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Filters work by performing a well-defined mathematical
operation on the input signal as specified by their transfer
function.
ANALOG SIGNAL CONDITIONING: FILTERS
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The sharp cutoff of the ideal filter cannot be realized in a
practical filter.
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All filter response curves contain a transition band over
which the magnitude ratio decreases relative to the
frequency from the passband to the stopband.
ANALOG SIGNAL CONDITIONING: FILTERS
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Characteristics of a real filter can be optimized to meet one
of the following:
– Maximum magnitude flatness over the passband,
– A linear phase response over the passband, or
– A sharp transition from the passband to stopband with steep
roll-off.
ANALOG SIGNAL CONDITIONING: FILTERS
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No one filter can meet all three, characteristics but we can
design for any one of them.
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For example, Butterworth filters and Bessel filters.
Butterworth Filter Design
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A Butterworth filter is optimized to achieve maximum
flatness in magnitude ratio over the passband.
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By applying Kirchhoff’s law about the input loop,
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A filter is designed around its cutoff frequency fc , defined
as the frequency at which the signal power is reduced by
one-half.
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This is equivalent to the magnitude ratio being reduced to
0.707.
Improved Butterworth Filter Designs
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With its simplicity, the RC filter begins to roll off well
before the cutoff frequency;
– the roll-off is not very sharp, and the phase shift response is
not linear, leading to potential signal distortion.
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But the flatness in the passband can be extended and the
roll-off slope of a filter improved
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This is done by adding reactive elements, such as by
alternating inductors (L) and capacitors (C), to the circuit as
shown in the resulting LC ladder circuit of Figure 6.30.
Improved Butterworth Filter Designs
Improved Butterworth Filter Designs
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In the case where
Butterworth high-pass filter
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The capacitors and inductors have been swapped
Bessel Filter Design
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A Bessel filter will sacrifice a flat gain over its passband
with a gradual initial roll-off in order to maximize a linear
phase response over portions of the passband.
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GROUNDS, SHIELDING, AND CONNECTING
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WIRES
The type of connecting wires used between electrical
devices can have a significant impact on the noise level of
the signal.
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Some simple rules help to keep noise levels low:
– keep the connecting wires as short as possible,
– keep signal wires away from noise sources,
– use a wire shield and proper ground, and
– twist wire pairs along their lengths.
Ground and Ground Loops
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The voltage at the end of a wire that is connected to a rod
driven far into the soil would likely be at the same voltage
level as the earth—a reference datum called zero or earth
ground.
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Earth acts like a sink which can absorb huge amounts of
current.
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Also limits build up of static electricity.
Shields
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Long wires act as antennas and pick up stray signals from
nearby electrical fields.
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A shield is a piece of metal foil or wire braid wrapped
around the signal wires and connected to ground.
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The shield intercepts external electrical fields, returning
them to ground.
Connecting Wires
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Twisted pairs of wires consist of two electrically insulated
conductors twisted about each other along their lengths.
– The intertwining of the wires offers some immunity to noise
with that effectiveness increasing with the number of twists
per meter.
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Coaxial cable consists of an electrically insulated inner
single conductor surrounded within an outer conductor
made of stranded wire and a metal foil shield.
– In general, current flows in one direction along the inner wire
and the opposite direction along the outer wire.
– Any electromagnetic fields generated will cancel.
Connecting Wires
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Optical cable is widely used to transmit low-level signals
over long distances.
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This cable may contain one or more fiber-optic ribbons
within a polystyrene shell.
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A transmitter converts the low-level voltage signal into
infrared light.
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The light is transmitted through the cable to a receiver,
which converts it back to a low-level voltage signal.
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The cable is virtually noise-free from magnetic fields and
harsh environments and is incredibly light and compact
compared to its metal wire counterpart.