ANGULAR MODULATION

In an analog signal, three properties can vary: amplitude, frequency, and phase.
Previously, we studied amplitude modulation. In this note, we will address the
frequency modulation (FM) and phase modulation (PM) Frequency and phase modulation,
they are both forms of angular modulation.

Generally, both forms of angular modulation are simply referred to as FM when, in

In reality, there is a clear (though subtle) difference between the two.

There are several advantages to using angle modulation instead of amplitude modulation, such as
such as noise reduction, improved system fidelity, and more efficient power usage.
However, FM and PM have several important disadvantages, which include requiring a bandwidth
of very wide bandwidth and more complex circuits, both in the transmitter and in the receiver.

Angular modulation has been known since 1931 as an alternative to amplitude modulation. The
Mayor E. H. Armstrong successfully developed the first FM radio system in 1936 (who also
developed the superheterodyne receiver) and, in July 1939, in Alpine, New Jersey, began the first
FM signal broadcasting. Currently, angular modulation is widely used for the
commercial radio broadcasting, television sound transmission, two-way mobile radio
cellular telephony and microwave and satellite communication systems.

The purpose of this text is to present the basic concepts of frequency and phase modulation.
and how they relate to one another, to show some of the most used circuits to produce the
waves with angular modulation and compare the performance of angular modulation with modulation
in amplitude

Angular modulation

It is said that angular modulation exists when the phase angle PHI of a sine carrier wave,
varies with respect to time due to the action of an information signal.

Be a carrier signal

vc  t  Vccos  t vc  t  Vccos c t 0

With this analytical expression of the function vcone can know exactly the shape and value of
the function at any moment since PHI(t) varies linearly with time and that variation is
constant, that is to say:

d  t
c const.
dt
and it is precisely wcthe angular frequency (and constant) of the analyzed signal.

What would happen if the variation of the angle PHI over time were not linear? For example, if:

2t2
1  t
1 t 3
vc  t  Vccos 1 t  it is no longer as visualizable as before and it makes no sense to talk about speed
angular or frequency of the wave, since it is not constant. It can be said that this wave has a
instantaneous phase and what will be:

d  t
1
i
dt

Having clarified these concepts, we can now define angular modulation by saying that 'it is the process of
modulation in which the modulating signal imposes variations in the phase angle of the wave
carrier.

 t f vm  t 

Where

vm  t  Vm you m t
Vmpeak amplitude of the modulating signal (volt)
wmangular velocity of the modulating signal (radians/second)
fm modulating signal frequency (hertz)

In short, the mathematical expression of a wave with angular modulation can be:

v t  Vccos c t (t) (1)

With
v(t) = wave with angular modulation;
Vcpeak amplitude of the carrier (volt)
ωccarrier frequency in radians - that is, angular velocity, 2πfc(t)
θ(t) = instantaneous phase deviation (radians)

Basically, the difference between frequency modulation and phase modulation lies in which property of the
the carrier (frequency or phase) is varying directly with the modulating signal and which
property is varying indirectly.

Whenever the carrier frequency is varying, the phase is also varying, and
vice versa. Therefore, FM and PM must occur when any of the forms of the
angular modulation. If the carrier frequency varies directly according to the signal
modulating, results in an FM signal. If the phase of the carrier varies directly according to the
modulating signal results in a PM signal. Therefore, direct FM is indirect PM and PM
direct is the indirect FM. Frequency and phase modulation can be defined as follows
way

Direct frequency modulation (FM): varying the frequency of the amplitude carrier
constant in a directly proportional form, to the amplitude of the modulating signal, with a relationship
igual a la frecuencia de la señal modulante.

Phase Modulation (PM): varying the phase of a carrier with constant amplitude
directly in proportion to the amplitude of the modulating signal, with a relationship equal to the
modulating signal frequency.

Page 2 of 15
In figure (1) the waveform for a sinusoidal carrier can be seen in which there is
producing angular modulation. The frequency and phase of the carrier are changing
proportionally, to the amplitude of the modulating signal(vm).Therefore, we can say that it appears
a change in frequency (Δf), called frequency deviation and a change in phase (ΔΔ) called
phase deviation.

The frequency deviation is the relative shift of the carrier frequency in hertz and the
phase deviation is the relative angular displacement (in radians) of the carrier with respect to
a reference phase. The magnitude of the deviation in frequency and in phase is proportional to the
amplitude of the modulating signal (vmand the relationship in which the deviation occurs is equal to the frequency of
the modulating signal (fm).

Every time the period (T) of a sinusoidal carrier changes, its frequency also changes, and if the
changes are continuous, the resulting wave is no longer a simple frequency. We will see that the shape of
the resulting wave contains as spectral components the frequency of the original carrier (sometimes
called the carrier's resting frequency) and an infinite number of pairs of lateral frequencies
on both sides of the carrier, separated by an integer multiple of the signal frequency
modulating.

Figure (2) shows a sinusoidal carrier in which the frequency (f) is changed (shifted) in a
time period. The shading corresponds to the peak-to-peak change in the carrier period (Δt).

Page 3 of 15
Mathematical analysis

The difference between FM and PM is more easily understood by defining the following four terms:
with reference to equation (1):

Instantaneous phase deviation. The instantaneous phase deviation is the instantaneous change in phase.
of the carrier, at a moment in time, and indicates how much the phase of the carrier is changing with
regarding its reference phase. Mathematically it is

instantaneous phase deviation=θ(t)radians (2)

Instantaneous phase. The instantaneous phase is the precise phase of the carrier at a specific moment in time, and it
show mathematically how
fase instantánea = ωct + θ(t) (3)

Instantaneous frequency deviation. Instantaneous frequency deviation is the change

instantaneous in the carrier frequency and is defined as the first derivative with respect to the
instantaneous phase deviation time. Therefore, the instantaneous phase deviation is the
first integral of the instantaneous frequency deviation. In terms of equation 2, the deviation
instantaneous frequency is mathematically represented as

instantaneous frequency deviation = θ'(t) rad/sec 4

The prime (') is used to denote the first derivative with respect to time.

Instantaneous frequency. The instantaneous frequency is the precise frequency of the carrier, in a
instant of time, and it is defined as the first derivative with respect to time of the instantaneous phase.
In terms of equation 3, the instantaneous frequency is mathematically represented as

d c t  t ' rad
ωi(t) = frecuencia instantánea =  (t)
dt
c
s

By substituting a2πfc for ωcgives us the instantaneous frequency

fi(t)=2πfc+θ´(t) rad/sec or fc+ θ’(t)/2π [Hz]

Then, phase modulation can be defined as angular modulation in which the deviation
The instantaneous phase, θ(t), is proportional to the amplitude of the modulating signal. Likewise, the
Frequency modulation is the angular modulation in which the frequency deviation
snapshot, θ'(t), is proportional to the amplitude of the modulating signal.

For a modulating signalm(t), phase modulation and frequency modulation will be

phase modulation = θ(t) = Kvm(t) rad (5)

frequency modulation = θ'(t) = K1vm(t) rad/s (6)

where K and K1they are constants and they are the sensitivities of the phase modulators and of
frequency, respectively. The deviation sensitivities are the transfer functions of
output versus input for the modulators.

The sensitivity of deviation for a phase modulator is

Page 4 of 15
 radians
K
volt
and for a frequency modulator

radians
seg radians
K1
volt [Link]

Phase modulation is the first integral of frequency modulation, therefore of the

From equations (5) and (6) it follows:

 t ' dt 1m
K v
t  dt K1v m  t  dt

We can conduct a comparative analysis of phase modulation (PM) waves and modulation.
of frequency (FM).

PM unity FM unit

The resulting signal when modulating in The resulting signal when modular in
phase, by definition is: frequency, by definition is:

vc  t  Vccos c t Kvm  t  volt vc  t  Vccos c t K1vm  t (8) volt

(7)

The instantaneous frequency will be:

d dvm  t  rad/seg d
 K 1v m  t 
rad/seg
I c K i c
dt dt dt

If we modulate with a signal of

simple frequency

vm  t  Vm you m t volt vm  t  Vm cos m t volt

It will result:
K1Vm
vc  t  Vccos c t KVm you m t volt vc  t  Vc cos c t you m t volt
m

i c  KVm m cos m t rad/seg i c  K1Vm cos m t rad/seg

K1Vm
m1modulation index
KVm m modulation index radians m
Sin
the phase unit
frequency

K Vm m max rad/seg K1Vm max rad/seg

For FM, it is common to show the index of

modulation in the following way:
Page 5 of 15
 max 2f max f max
m1 Sin
m 2 fm fm
unit

Carrier

b) Modulating signal

c) Frequency modulated wave

d) Phase modulated wave.

With FM, the maximum frequency deviation (change in the carrier frequency) occurs during
the maximum negative and positive points of the modulating signal (that is, the frequency deviation
it is proportional to the amplitude of the modulating signal

With PM, the maximum frequency deviation occurs during the zero crossings of the modulating signal.
(that is, the frequency deviation is proportional to the slope or first derivative of the signal
modulating)
For frequency and phase modulation, the rate (speed) at which changes occur
frequency is equal to the frequency of the modulating signal.

Similarly, it is not apparent in equation (1) whether an FM or PM wave is represented.

It could be either one. However, the knowledge of the modulating signal will allow for a
correct identification. If θ(t) = Kvm(t) is a phase modulation and if θ'(t) = K1vm(t) is a modulation
of frequency. In other words, if the instantaneous frequency is directly proportional to the
amplitude of the modulating signal, it is a frequency modulation, and if the instantaneous phase is
directly proportional to the amplitude of the modulating frequency, it is a phase modulation.

Observing expressions (7) and (8), we see that although the frequency modulation process is the
final result of a modification of the wave phase, we must take into account that such
modification results according to the integral of the modulating.

In other words, to generate FM we can use two methods:

Page 6 of 15
1. Modify the carrier frequency (oscillator) directly proportional to the variations.
of the amplitude of the modulator.

2. Work on the carrier phase (aside from the oscillator) with the integral of the modulating signal.
EXAMPLE 1

Determine the peak frequency deviation (Δ f) and the modulation index (m) for a modulator
of FM with a deviation sensitivity K1= 5 kHz/V and a modulating signal vm(t) = 2 cos(2π 2000t)

(b) determine the peak phase deviation (m) for a PM modulator with a sensitivity of
deviation K = 2.5 rad/V and a modulating signal vm(t) = 2 cos(2n2000t)

Solution

The peak frequency deviation is simply the product of the deviation sensitivity and
peak amplitude of the modulating signal, that is:

5KHz
f 2V 10KHz
V
The modulation index is determined by

f10KHz
m 5
f m2KHz

The peak phase displacement for a phase-modulated wave is the modulation index and it
find how

m KVm 2.5rad 2V 5rad

V

En el ejemplo l, el índice de modulación para una portadora modulada, en frecuencia, es igual al índice
of phase modulated carrier modulation. If the amplitude of the modulating signal changes, the
The modulation index for modulated waves, in frequency and in phase, will change proportionally.
However, if the frequency of the modulating signal changes, the modulation index for the wave
modulated, in frequency, will change inversely proportionally, while the index of
modulation of the modulated wave, in phase, is not affected. Therefore, under identical conditions, FM and
PM cannot be differentiated for a single frequency modulation signal; however, when the
the frequency of the modulating signal changes, the PM modulation index remains constant, while
that the FM modulation index increases as the frequency of the modulating signal decreases,
and vice versa.

Modulation percentage.

The modulation percentage for a phase modulation wave is determined differently.

that with an amplitude modulated wave. With angular modulation, the percentage of modulation
It is simply the relationship of the frequency deviation actually produced to the maximum deviation.
of frequency allowed by law, established in percentage form. Mathematically, the percentage of
modulation is

f(actual)
modulation% 100
F([Link])

Page 7 of 15
For example, in Argentina, the CNC limits the frequency deviation for transmitters in the band of
commercial FM broadcasting at ±75 kHz. If a modulating signal produces ±50 kHz of deviation.
frequency, the modulation percentage will be:

50KHz
modulation% 100 67%
75KHz

ANALYSIS OF THE WAVE SPECTRUM WITH ANGULAR MODULATION.

With angular modulation (FM-PM), the component frequencies of the modulated wave (spectrum)
they have a more complex relationship with the components (spectrum) of the modulating signal than with the
amplitude modulation (AM). In a frequency or phase modulator, a modulating signal of
simple frequency produces an infinite number of side frequency pairs and, therefore, a
infinite bandwidth. Each side frequency shifts from the carrier an integer multiple of the
modulating signal frequency. However, most of the side frequencies can
ignore them since they are of insignificant amplitude.

Modulation by a single frequency sinusoid.

If we modulate with a simple frequency signal such as:

vm  t  Vmcos m t

the equation of the wave with frequency modulation will result:

vc  t  Vc cos c t  mcos( m t) (9)

In the previous equation, the components of the individual frequency that form the modulated wave do not
they are obvious. However, the identities of Bessel functions can be applied directly for
solve this problem.

An identity as such is

n
cos(  mcos ) n 
J(m)cos
n
n  (10)
2

whereJn(m) is the Bessel function of the first kind of order n with argument m. If the identity
(10) applies to equation (9), vc  t  it can be written as

n
v(t)
c
V c n  J(m)cos
n
t nc t m 11
2

Expanding equation (11), for the first four terms, results in

v(t)
c
V c J 0
(m)cos t J(m)cos
c 1

c m
  t  J 1(m)cos 
c

m  t  ...
2 2
(12)

....J2(m)cos  c2 m  t  J 2(m)cos  c m  t  ...

Equations (11) and (12) show that with angular modulation, a modulating signal of
unique frequency, produces an infinite number of side frequency sets, each
Page 8 of 15
displaced from the carrier by a multiple of the modulating signal frequency. A set of
lateral bands include an upper and lower lateral frequency (fc± fm, fc ± 2 fm, fc± nfm, etc.)
The successive sets of sidebands are called first-order sidebands, bands
second order laterals, etc. and their magnitudes are determined by the coefficients J1(m), J2(m), etc.,
respectively.

Table (1) shows the Bessel functions of the first kind for various values of the index of
modulation. We see that a modulation index of 0 (no modulation) produces zero frequencies.
lateral, and the larger the modulation index, the greater the number of sets of
lateral frequencies produced. The values shown for Jnthey refer to the amplitude of the carrier
not modulated. For example, J20.35 indicates the amplitude of the second set of frequencies
lateral is equal to 35% of the amplitude of the unmodulated carrier (0.35 VcIt can be observed that
the amplitude of higher order frequencies quickly becomes insignificant as the
the modulation index decreases below one. For higher values of m, the value of
Jn(m) starts to decrease rapidly as soon as n = m.

As the modulation index increases from zero, the magnitude of the carrier Jo(m)
decreases. When m is approximately equal to 2.4, Jo(m) = 0 and the component of the carrier
tends to zero (this is called the first zero of the carrier) This property is often used to
determine the modulation index or establish the sensitivity of the deviation of a modulator
FM.

The carrier reappears as m increases to more than 2.4. When m reaches 5.4, the component of
the carrier disappears again (this is called the second zero of the carrier) The others
increases in the modulation index will produce additional zeros of the carrier at intervals
newspapers.

Figure 3 shows the curves for the relative amplitudes of the carrier and several sets of
lateral frequencies, for values of m, up to 10. It can be observed that the amplitude, of the carrier and
the lateral frequencies vary in a periodic proportion that resembles a damped sine wave.
The negative values for J(m) simply indicate the relative phase of that frequency set.
lateral.

In table (1), only the important lateral frequencies are mentioned. A lateral frequency does not
consider important, unless it has an amplitude equal to or greater than 1% of the amplitude of the
unmodulated carrier (Jn From table (1), it can be observed that as m increases,
The number of important lateral frequencies increases. Consequently, the bandwidth of a
angular modulation wave is a function of the modulation index.

Page 9 of 15
EXAMPLE 2

For an FM modulator with a modulation index m = 1, a modulating signal vm(t) = Vmyou

(2π1000t), and an unmodulated carrier vc(t) = 10sin(2π5 x105t), determine:

The number of sets of significant lateral frequencies.

(b) Their amplitudes.
(c) Show the frequency spectrum displaying its relative amplitudes.

Solution

(a) And table 1, a modulation index of 1 yields a reduced carrier component and three
significant lateral frequency sets.

(b) The relative amplitudes of the carrier and side frequencies are Jo= 0.77(10)=7.7V ;
J1=0.44(10)=4.4V J2=0.11(10)=1.1V ; J3=0.02(10)=0.2V

The frequency spectrum will be:

Bandwidth requirements

Returning to the sources, in 1922, J. R. Carson mathematically verified that for a signal
Given modulation, a frequency modulation wave cannot fit into a bandwidth.
narrower than an amplitude modulation wave.

Page 10 of 15
From the previous analysis and in example 2, it can be observed that the bandwidth of a wave of
Angular modulation is a function of the frequency of the modulating signal and the modulation index.

With angular modulation, several sets of sidebands are produced and, consequently, the
bandwidth can be significantly wider than that of a modulation wave in
amplitude with the same modulating signal.

La forma de onda de salida del modulador en el ejemplo 2 requiere 6 Khz. de ancho de banda para
pass the carrier and all the important side frequencies. A double sideband modulator
conventional AM requires only 2 kHz of bandwidth, and a single sideband system.
of only 1 kHz.

Angular modulation waveforms are generally classified as low, medium index.

the high. For the case of the low index, the peak phase deviation (modulation index) is less than 1
rad, and the case of high index occurs when the peak phase deviation is greater than 10 rad. The indices
of modulation, greater than 1 and less than 10, are classified as a medium index.

From Table 1, it can be observed that with low index angular modulation, the majority of the
The signal information will be loaded by the first set of sidebands, and the minimum bandwidth of
The required bandwidth is approximately equal to double the frequency of the highest modulating signal.
For this reason, low-index FM systems are sometimes called narrowband FM.

For a high index signal, a method can be used to determine the bandwidth called
quasi-stationary. With this method, it is assumed that the modulating signal is changing slowly.
For example, for an FM modulator with a deviation sensitivity K12 kHz/V and a signal
modulating 1 Vp, the peak frequency deviation A f = 2000Hz.
If the frequency of the modulating signal is very slow, the bandwidth is determined by the deviation.
from the peak-to-peak frequency (2Δf).
Therefore, for very small index modulation, the frequency spectrum is similar to the
double sideband AM and the minimum bandwidth is approximately:

BW = 2fm (hertz) (13)

The actual bandwidth required to pass all the important sidebands for a wave of
angular modulation is equal to two times the product of the highest modulating signal frequency and
the number of significant sidebands determined by the functions of the Bessel table.
Mathematically, the rule to determine the minimum bandwidth for a modulation wave
angular using the Bessel table is

BW = 2(n x fm(hertz) (14)

where n = number of significant sidebands

fmmodulating signal frequency (hertz)

Carson established a general rule to approximately calculate the bandwidth for the
angular modulation systems, regardless of the modulation index.
This is called the Carson's rule. Simply put, Carson's rule approximates the bandwidth.
of an angular modulation wave such as double the sum of the peak frequency deviation and the
maximum frequency of the modulating signal. Mathematically, this is known as Carson's rule.

B = 2[Δ f + fm(max)(hertz) (15)

where Δf = maximum frequency deviation (hertz)

fm(max)= highest frequency of the modulating signal (hertz)

Page 11 of 15
Carson's rule is an approximation and provides transmission bandwidths that are a
a little narrower than the bandwidths determined using the Bessel table and the equation
The Carson rule defines a bandwidth that includes approximately 98% of the
total power in the modulated wave. The actual bandwidth required is a function of the shape of
wave of the modulating signal and the desired quality of the transmission.

Deviation relationship.

For a predetermined FM system, the minimum bandwidth is the largest when it is obtained
the maximum frequency deviation with the maximum frequency of the modulating signal (that is, the
higher frequency modulation occurs with the maximum permitted amplitude) By definition, the
deviation ratio (DR), is the modulation index of the worst case and is equal to the maximum
deviation of frequency divided by the maximum frequency of the modulating signal. The index of
worst-case modulation produces the widest output frequency spectrum. Mathematically, the
deviation relationship is

f max
R


(16)
f m max 
where
R = deviation ratio (unitless)
Δf(max)maximum frequency deviation (hertz)
fm(max)= máxima frecuencia de la señal modulante (hertz)

For example, for the sound portion of a commercial TV broadcast band station, the
maximum frequency deviation, established by the CNC, is 50 kHz and the maximum frequency of the
The modulating signal is 15 kHz. Therefore, the deviation ratio for a broadcasting station
of television is

50KHz
R 3.33
1,5KHz

This does not mean that when a modulation index of 3.33 occurs, the width also occurs.
largest bandwidth, at the same time. It means that when a modulation index of 3.33 occurs
For a maximum frequency of the modulating signal, the largest bandwidth occurs.

EXAMPLE 3

Determine the deviation ratio and bandwidth for the worst-case modulation index.
(wider bandwidth) for an FM broadcast band transmitter with a
peak frequency deviation of 75 KHz and a maximum modulating signal frequency of 15 KHz.

(b) determine the deviation ratio and maximum bandwidth for the equal modulation index,
with only half of the peak frequency deviation and modulating signal frequency.

Solution

The deviation relationship is found by substituting into equation (16).

75KHz
R 5
15KHz

From table 1, a modulation index of 5 produces eight significant sidebands. Substituting

In equation (14) it results:
Page 12 of 15
 BW 2 8 15KHz 240KHz

(b) Para una desviación de frecuencia de 37,5 KHz y una frecuencia de señal modulante fm = 7,5 KHz,
the modulation index is:

37.5KHz
m 5
7.5KHz

and the bandwidth is

BW 2 8 7.5KHz 120KHz
From example 3 it can be observed that, although the same modulation index (5) is achieved, with two
different frequencies and amplitudes of the modulating signal, two different widths were produced
band.
An infinite number of combinations of the modulation signal frequency and deviation of
frequency will produce a modulation index of 5. However, the case produced of the maximum
the frequency of the modulating signal and maximum frequency deviation will always produce the bandwidth of
largest band.

At first, it may seem that a higher modulation index, with a lower modulating signal,
it would generate a greater bandwidth because more sets of sidebands are produced, but
recuerde que las bandas laterales estarían más cerca una de otra.

For example, a modulating signal of 1 KHz, which produces a frequency deviation of 10 KHz, has
a modulation index of m = 10, and produces 14 significant sets of sidebands.
However, the side bands are only displaced from each other by 1 kHz and, therefore, the total
The bandwidth is only 28,000 Hz [2(14 x 1000)].

Potencia promedio de una onda de modulación angular

One of the most important differences between angular modulation and amplitude modulation is the
power distribution in the modulated wave. Unlike AM, the total power in a wave of
angular modulation is equal to the power of the unmodulated carrier (that is, the sidebands
they do not add power to the composed modulated signal). Therefore, with angular modulation, the
power that was originally on the carrier without modulation is redistributed between the carrier and its
side bands. The average power of an angular modulation wave is independent of the
modulating signal, modulation index, and frequency deviation. It is equal to the average power of
the unmodulated carrier, regardless of the modulation depth. Mathematically, the
average power of the unmodulated carrier is

Vc2
Pc watt (17)
2R
where
Pccarrier power (watt)
Vcpeak tension of the unmodulated carrier (volt)
R = load resistance (ohm)

The total instantaneous power in an angular modulation carrier is

v(t) 2
pt watt (18)
R

Page 13 of 15
  t
When substitutingvfor Vc cos c t (t) resulta:

Vc2
pt cos2 c t (t) 19
R

and expanding will result in

Vc2 1 1
pt  cos 2 c t 2 (t) (20)
R2 2

In equation 20, the second term consists of an infinite number of components, of frequency
lateral sinusoidal, at a frequency equal to twice the carrier frequency (2ωc)
Consequently, the average value of the second term is zero, and the average power of the wave
with modulation it is reduced to

Vc2
Pt watt(21)
2R

As we can see, equations (17) and (21) are identical, so the average power of the
The modulated carrier power must be equal to the average power of the unmodulated carrier. The power of
The modulated carrier is the sum of the powers of the carrier and the frequency components.
lateral, seen this way will be:

Pt P cP P P
1
...P2 3 n

Vc2 2 V1 2 V2  2 V3 2 Vn 

2 2 2 2
Pt     ...
2R 2R 2R 2R 2R

where

Pttotal power
P1, P2, P3... = power of the sideband sets

ANGULAR MODULATION TRANSMISSION QUESTIONNAIRE

1. Define angular modulation.

2. Defina FM directo y FM indirecto.
Page 14 of 15
3. Defina PM directo y PM indirecto.
4. Defina desviación de frecuencia y desviación de fase.
5. Defina fase instantánea, desviación de fase instantánea, frecuencia instantánea y desviación de
instantaneous frequency.
6. Define deviation sensitivity for a frequency modulator and for a modulator of
phase.
7. Describe the relationship between the instantaneous carrier frequency and the modulating signal for
FM.
8. Describe the relationship between the instantaneous carrier phase and the modulating signal for FM.
9. Describe the relationship between frequency deviation and the amplitude and frequency of the signal.
modulating.
10. Define carrier oscillation.
11. Defina índice de modulación para FM y para PM.
12. Describe the difference between a direct frequency modulator and a phase modulator.
directly.
13. How many sets of sidebands are produced when a carrier is modulated, in
frequency, for a single input frequency.
14. What are the requirements for a lateral frequency to be considered significant?
15. Defina modulación de índice bajo, mediano y alto.
16. Describe the meaning of Bessel's table.
17. Mention Carson's rule for determining bandwidth.
18. Define deviation relationship.
19. Describe the relationship between the power of the unmodulated carrier and the power of the wave.
modulated.

Page 15 of 15