Iron Frame

Construction Industry Series

Iron Frame

Construction Industry Series

 File
Firjan - Federation of Industries of the state of Rio de Janeiro

President
Eduardo Eugenio Gouvêa Vieira

Superintendent of Firjan SESI / Regional Director of Firjan SENAI

Chief Operating Officer
Alexandre dos Reis

Gerência Geral de Educação

Manager
Regina Malta

Management of Professional Education

Manager
Edson Mello

Coordinator of the Division of Platforms and Educational Resources

Othon Gomes Lucas Neto

Coordinator of the Sectoral Development Division

in Vocational Education
Roberto da Cunha

Technical Team Update - 2020

Coordination
Marina Lacerda Paes dos Santos
Samuel Soares Barbosa
Zuleide Ponciano de S. Santos

Graphic Design and Publishing

Luis Gustavo Costa Gama

Received by the Jewelry School – Firjan Senai

This material is in accordance with
the new Orthographic Agreement.

[Link]
Graça Aranha Ave, 1
Downtown, Rio de Janeiro
Iron Frame

Civil Construction Series

Techniques for Executing Iron Framework
1st Ed. 2007; 2nd Ed. 2008.

SENAI-RiodeJaneiro
Directorate of Education

LuisRobertoArruda Professional Education Management

Carlos Bernardo Ribeiro Schlaepfer Construction Civil Reference Center

FTIECHNICAL

Elaboration:
Angela Elizabeth Denecke EducationAnalystofGEP
MarcelloMartins Technical Consultant
Roberto daCunha Construction Coordinator
Simone Dória Medeiros Technique in Education
VeraReginaCostaAbreu EducationAnalystofGEP

Materialforeducationalpurposes
Property of SENAI-RJ.
Reproduction, total and partial, with express authorization.

SENAI - Rio de Janeiro

Professional Education Management
RuaMariz e Barros, 678 - Tijuca
20270-903 - Rio de Janeiro - RJ
Tel:(021) 2587-1323
Fax: (021) 2254-2884
GEP@[Link]
Sumriver

Presentation
Amoment ago, the challenge began...
[Link]
[Link]......................................................11
[Link]............................................................................................13
3.1. Revisão ................................................................................................................... 13
[Link]
[Link] ................................................................................................................... 15
[Link]....................................................................17
4.1. Slabs ...................................................................................................................... 17
[Link] ...................................................................................................................... 18
4.3. Pillars 19
4.4. Foundations 19
4.5. Other structural elements................................................................................... 20
[Link]................................................................................20
5.1. Forms of plants
5.2. Framework Plants ................................................................................................ 22
[Link]....................................................................23
6.1. Nomenclature 23
[Link] in bars 24
6.3. Receipt 28
[Link] in bars 28
6.3.2. Processed steel 28
[Link] wire steel .................................................................................... 28
[Link] control of the material 28
[Link] in bars, pre-cut steel and pre-bent steel ........................................... 29
6.4.2. Welded screens 29
[Link] 29
[Link] in bars ................................................................................................ 29
6.5.2. Screens ............................................................................................................. 29
[Link] ...................................................................................................... 30
[Link] bars ................................................................................................ 30
[Link]-cut bars ........................................................................................ 30
[Link]-bent bars ....................................................................................... 30
6.6.4. Welded screens 30
[Link]............................................................................................................31
[Link]..................................................................................32
8.1. To take measures 32
8.2. To cut metal with scissors ................................................................................ 32
8.3. To cut metal with a manual machine .................................................................... 33
8.4. For straining with a beater .......................................................................................... 33
8.5. For grooving on the bench ........................................................................................... 34
8.6. To double ............................................................................................................. 34
8.7. To produce stirrups .............................................................................................. 36
8.8. To tie up 38
8.9. For storage
8.10. To transport .................................................................................................... 40

[Link]
[Link]................................................................................................42
 10.1. Rectangular section pillars ................................................................................... 43
10.2. Circular section pillar .......................................................................................... 44
[Link]
11.1. Massive slabs ...................................................................................................... 44
[Link] reinforcements 46
[Link] reinforcements .................................................................................. 46
[Link]-cast slabs .............................................................................................. 47
[Link] slabs ................................................................................................. 47
[Link]ás
[Link]...........................................................................50
[Link]........................................................................................51
[Link].....................................................................................53
 Presentation

Soon, Rio de Janeiro wil host a major event: the Pan American Games.
Americans,[Link]
international recognition of our state and, also, a great stimulus for tourism, which
provides many jobs. In addition, they will enable new investments to be made.
to modernize the infrastructure of our city, bringing benefits to the population and,
mainly, to allow the mobilization of many people around a single project.

mt
onsiathedstet
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rocethxanlspesaicT
ihenta
refer to the games, as well as provide the possibility to develop programs that
promote effective social improvements.

From this set of actions, we highlight here those related to the construction/maintenance of
living spaces; housing, access roads to the games and circulation within the village
Olympic, all essential for the success of the event.

Theexecutionofdailyactivitiesassimpleasaccesstowork,recreation,shopping,
services must find favorable conditions ensuring a social coexistence that expresses the
quality of life, not only for the city's inhabitants, but also for those who visit
to honor the event as participants in the games or as tourists.

In this perspective, to meet the specific needs of the construction sector, generated
due to the event, the creation of the Safe Urban Spaces Program became timely, which aims to
promote the vocational training of young people and adults in construction techniques. The Program is
consisting of eight distinct courses that will prepare professionals to work in the field of
civil construction.

This material complements this qualification; in it you will find resources to deepen your understanding.
studies. Do a careful reading, note your questions, reflections, and doubts. for
later, with the help of the teacher, to solve them.

We wish you success in the training.

Astroke of luck begins here

Environment...
Health and safety at work...
Whatdowehavetoseewiththat?
Beforewestartstudyingthismaterial,therearetwopointsthatdeserveemphasis:therelationship
between the production process and the environment; and the issue of health and safety at work.
nIdesiurstandbunsies aerhtefounodino
at fthemodenr [Link].
necessary and provide access to employment and income, but to meet these needs, they need
use resources and raw materials. The impacts on the environment very often result from
ofthetypeofindustryexistinginthearea,whatitproducesand,mainly,howitproduces.
Therefore,itisnecessarytounderstandthatallhumanactivitiestransformtheenvironment.
We are always taking materials from nature, transforming them and then throwing away what
"back" to the natural environment. To remove the necessary materials from the environment to
the production of goods disrupts the balance of ecosystems and risks the depletion of various
natural resources that are non-renewable or, when they are, their renewal is hindered by
extraction speed, almost always exceeding the nature's capacity to regenerate.
It becomes necessary, therefore, to outline short and long-term plans in order to reduce the impacts.
what the production process causes in nature. Furthermore, industries need to be concerned about
the recomposition of the landscape and to keep in mind the health of both its workers and the
population living around these industries.
We can conclude, then, that with the growth of industrialization and its concentration in
in certain areas, the problem of pollution has intensified excessively. The issue of
air and water pollution is quite complex, as polluting emissions spread from a
fixed point for a large region, depending on the winds, the course of the water and the others
environmental conditions, making it difficult to pinpoint the exact origin of the problem. However, it is
It is important to repeat that when industries deposit waste into the soil, when they release
untreated effluents in rivers, lagoons, and other water bodies cause damage sometimes
irreversible to the environment.
The indiscriminate use of natural resources and the continuous accumulation of waste show the failure
basic of our production system: it operates in a straight line. Raw materials are extracted
através de processos de produção desperdiçadores e que produzem subprodutos tóxicos.
Products with limited utility are manufactured that ultimately become waste, which accumulates in the
landfills. Producing, consuming, and disposing of goods in this way are obviously not attitudes
sustainable.
While natural residues (that cannot properly be called 'garbage') are
absorbed and reused by nature, the majority of waste left by industries does not
it can be used for any species of living organism and, for some, it can even be fatal.
The environment can absorb waste, redistribute it, and transform it. But, in the same way
that the Earth has a limited capacity to produce renewable resources, its capacity to
receivingwasteisalsorestricted,andthereceiptoftoxicwasteispracticallynon-existent.
It currently gains strength, the idea that companies must have ethical procedures that
consider the preservation of the environment as part of your mission. This means that if
theymustadoptpracticesthatincludesuchconcern,introducingprocessesthatreduceusage
ofrawmaterialsandenergy,reducewasteandpreventpollution.
Each industry has its own characteristics. But we already know that resource conservation is
It is important. There must therefore be an increasing concern about quality, durability,
possibility of repair and useful life of products. Companies need not only to continue

9
reducing pollution, as well as seeking new ways to save energy, improve the
effluents, reduce pollution, waste, the use of raw materials. Recycling and conserving energy are
essential attitudes in the contemporary world.
Itisdifficult,however,[Link]
different challenges and can benefit from its own vision of the future. Looking towards tomorrow,
we (the public, companies, cities, and nations) can decide which alternatives are more
efficient and, from there, work with them.
Unfortunately, both individuals and institutions will only change their practices when
believe that their new behavior will bring them benefits - whether financial, for their
reputation or for your security. Despite this, the change in habits is not something that
It can be imposed. It must be a choice of well-informed people in favor of goods and services.
sustainable. The task is to create conditions that improve people's ability to choose,
use and dispose of goods and services sustainably.
In addition to the impacts caused on nature, there are several harms to human health caused.
pollution of the air, rivers, and seas, as they are inherent to the production processes.
risks to health and safety of workers. Currently, workplace accidents are an issue
what worries employers, employees, and government officials, and the consequences ultimately affect
toeveryone.
Knowing this, we can affirm that, on one hand, it is necessary for employees to adopt a
safe behavior at work, using personal and collective protective equipment, and
On the other hand, it is the employers' responsibility to provide the company with these equipment, to guide on
its use, to oversee the conditions of the production chain and the adequacy of protective equipment.
Thereductioninthenumberofaccidentswillonlybepossibleaseachone–worker,employerand
government - take, in all situations, preventive measures capable of safeguarding the
security for all.
It should also be considered that each industry has its own production system, and therefore,
it is necessary to analyze it in its specificities, to determine its impact on the environment
environment, regarding health and the risks that the system poses to worker safety,
proposing alternatives that can lead to better living conditions for everyone.
From awareness, we move to action: the number of countries, companies and is growing more and more.
individuals who, already being aware of these issues, are developing actions that
they contribute to protecting the environment and taking care of our health. But this is not yet
sufficient. It is necessary to expand such actions, and education is a valuable resource that can and should be
used in such a direction. Thus, we start this material by talking to you about the medium
ambiente, saúde e segurança no trabalho,lembrando que, no seu exercício profissional diário,
you must act harmoniously with the environment, also taking care of safety and health
everyoneatwork.
Try to answer the question that starts this text: environment, health and safety at work
- what do I have to do with this? Then, it's time to take action. Each one of us is responsible.
Shallwedoourpart?

10
 [Link]
ReniofcredConcertSurtcutersaerersponbsielofrabsobrnigalhteloadsthatactonthem.
in a building, reservoirs or supports and their consequent distribution and transfer to the
yoursupportonly.
Its execution depends on many professionals who must work together.
The architect designs their project for then the structural engineer to carry out the calculations.
all the elements involved in the work, thus conceiving the structural project.
The project will include the specifications and details that will follow for the construction site, intended for
the entire construction team where the engineers, technicians, foremen, carpenters are located,
shipbuilders and other professionals involved in the construction of a structure.
Inorderfortheexecutionofareinforcedconcretestructuretobecarriedoutwithquality,all
The prescriptions contained in the project must be strictly followed, and in case of doubt the
the involved professional must communicate immediately with their superior in order to clarify and
resolve any potential problems.
The perfect execution of a structure will reflect on the quality of the work, and mainly on
the security of its users. All professionals involved in its construction must have
inmindtheimportanceofcorrectlyperformingyourservices,inviewofresponsibility
to care for lives and property.
The text of this workbook contains the basic information necessary for the formation of the builder.
you should closely attend the classes, taking the opportunity to clarify
all doubts. In this booklet you will also find valuable tips on how to avoid mistakes
frequent,improveyourproductivityandavoidworkaccidents.

[Link]
il onstruction
The worker must have a safety mindset, first seeking to eliminate the points of
risks; secondly, one should protect oneself and as a last resort signal the risk.
Thecompanycompetes:
− provide personal and/or collective protective equipment.
− promote training to workers.
.tioryftilbiiponsekaerndpaosetpurntsitpim
orheqfuim
netlousatusiseT
ofhepr
their custody and conservation, having to discern uneven and unsafe conditions.
According to NR6 of ABNT, the operator in their activities must use the following equipment
individual security measures:

− waterproof protective footwear against mechanical hazards and moisture,

− safety helmet against impacts and falling objects,
− safety belt for work at heights greater than 2m (two meters) where there is risk
ofdecline,
− protective gloves against abrasive or cutting materials,
− safety glasses against impact from particles and dust
− ear protection for locations where the noise level exceeds the established in NR-
15fromABNTinAnnexesIandII.

11
− trunk protectors, such as aprons, jackets, capes, and other special garments
protection for tasks where there is a danger of damage caused by origin risks
mechanical, thermal, meteorological and humidity.
− fall safety latch attached to the seatbelt connected to a safety cable
independent, for work carried out with vertical movement on suspended scaffolding
ofanykind,

Workers and employers must comply with NR18 of ABNT regarding the Conditions and
WorkEnvironmentintheConstructionIndustry.
In addition to the determinations regarding the activities of shipowners, NR18 advocates the use of
Collective Safety Equipment (EPCs), mainly the protective measures against
fallsfromheight,namely:

− closing the floor openings with resistant material,

− closing, with durable material, of the openings of the access openings to the boxes of the
elevators at least 1.20m in height, until the final placement of the doors.
− installation of guardrails on scaffolding, walkways, platforms, stairs, and around
openingsinfloorsorwallsandintheperipheryofthebuilding.
− installation of protection platforms on the 1st slab (main platform) above the level of
landandsequentiallyevery3slabs(secondaryplatforms).
− installation of perimeter netting of the construction from the main platform.
− installation of barriers (screens or plated scaffolding) to protect workers in
concrete areas and above this.
− installation of vertical posts and parapets for sealing the free openings of the stairs.

Regarding productivity criteria, it is necessary to establish a plan before acting, to know the
goals to achieve, demonstrate mastery regarding the methods and techniques to be used and organize
well at the workplace separating the necessary tools and materials and arranging them properly
suitable to facilitate the execution of the work.
The worker should try to act right the first time and produce the greatest amount possible.
observing the specified quality and within the expected deadline.
Byanalyzingtheresultsobtainedintheexecution,itisessentialtocomparetheachievedgoalwiththe
planned and from there correct any deviation, so that the problem does not occur again,
learning this way, with the mistakes eventually made.

ObservationoafctionS-security:
• Theaccidentdoesnothappenbychance:"Preventionisbetterthancure."

12
[Link]

3.1. Review
[Link],thefolds,the
Diameters require the shipowner to perform not only the four mathematical operations (addition,
subtraction, multiplication, and division), but also have knowledge of units and scales.
The numbers that do not have fractional parts are called integers (Ex.: 1 - 500 - 20,000 -
50.000) while the numbers that have a fractional part are called real (e.g.: 1.25 -
3.75 - 10,000.45
Let'sjustrecallthefouroperationsinvolvingrealnumbers:

1) 2,55 + 3,78 =
2) 4,70 – 1,23 =
3) 0,45 x 6 =
4) 6,48 ÷ 4 =

The above examples are common on the delayed work day, for example, operation number 2, can
exemplify the remaining length of a bar cut to 4.70 meters and bent in a
the ends with 1.23 meters. The remaining tip will have 3.47 meters. In this way, one sees the
The importance of mastering the four operations in carrying out tasks in the work.
Another important item to remember refers to the measures of angles. Many times some
bars need to be bent, and the calculating engineer will provide the bend length and the
respective angle.
In this case, the shipowner needs to know some notable angles, remembering that a rotation
A complete circle corresponds to 360.o.

Notableangles

13
Werememberwehavemanyemployeesonthepostponedworkday,itisaboutparallelismand
perpendicularity. Two lines are called parallel when there is no common point between them.
its extensions; if they had to meet each other, we would have to take them
for infinity, which is not our case.
o
Two lines are called perpendicular when they form a right angle (90) with each other. The figure
whatfollowsrepresentsthesetwotypesoflines.

Parallel lines Perpendicular lines

Notable figures

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olnfrctonreihnfporrier
When we previously did the example of the subtraction operation, we mentioned a bar.
cut steel with 4.70 meters. However, this measurement could be expressed in centimeters,
presenting a value equal to 470 centimeters. Note that it is very important to have
knowledge of which unit is being worked on in order to avoid mistakes due to exchanges.
The unit system used in Brazil is the Metric System, thus the basic unit of
Length is the meter, expressed by the letter 'm' immediately after the number. Starting from the
the basic unit has fractions or decimal multiples.

1millimeter(mm)=onethousandthofameter=1meter÷ 1000
Fractions 1centimeter(cm)=onehundredthpartofameter=1meter÷ 100
1 decimeter (dm) = one tenth of a meter = 1 meter÷ 10

1 meter = basic unit of the metric system

Multiples 1decameter(da)=tentimesthemeter=1meterx10
1hectometer(hm)=onehundredtimesthemeter=1meterx100
1kilometer(km)=athousandtimesthemeter=1meterx1000

From the previous summary, it becomes easier to understand the possible variations that occur with the
basic unit of the system. We limit ourselves to including only those that can involve a
professional at work. We remind you that one of the most common conversions within the construction site refers to
To convert meters to centimeters, you multiply the value by 100.
comma two places to the right or add two zeros after the number if it is an integer.
To convert centimeters to meters, the shipper must divide the value by 100 (go with the
comma two places to the left.

14
Observe the examples:
4.75 m = 475 cm
11 m = 1100 cm
1,50 m = 150 cm
0.45 m = 45 cm
For many years, the armors coexisted with another system of units of measurement that was
An inch. Each inch corresponds to 25.4 mm (2.54 cm) and its values were generally
expressed in fractions (e.g., ¼”, ½”, ¾”, etc.). However, this system should no longer be used,
since the metric system is official within technical literature. Out of habit, some
professionals still refer to the sizes of the bars in inches close to the equivalent value
inmillimeters.

[Link]
During our course, we wil get to know beter the plants that make up the various
drawings that make up the project.
These drawings are a scaled-down representation of what will be to size in the work.
the reduction that the drawings present must contain a factor of proportionality between each
unit represented in the drawing and its equivalent in true size. This factor is called
the name of scale.
All drawings presented in a structural plan must indicate what was the
scale that the designer used to graphically represent that element.
Imagine that a designer has to represent a steel bar measuring 10 meters.
length. It is obvious that it would be impossible to draw it to scale and he then resorts to
of a proportionality factor that he chose saying that each real meter of the bar
it will correspond to 1 centimeter in the drawing, that is, the bar in the drawing would be reduced by 100
timesitsnaturalsize.
This bar would appear in the drawing with a graphic length of 10 cm representing something.
What is the real size of 1000 cm (10 meters). Therefore, a line with 10 cm would represent
a bar with 1000 cm. If we divide both numbers by 10, we will find a ratio of 1
for 100.
This scale factor is represented as 1:100 (read as 1 to 100), where the first
number expresses the unit of drawing and the second the corresponding value in real size.
The instrument used for measurements of drawings with a scale factor is the
escalimeter, which usually has a triangular section presents six of the most common scales (1:125,
1:100, 1:75, 1:50, 1:25 and 1:20.

15
Let'sexercise:

Imagine that you are at a construction site, without a scale ruler, only with a "folding measuring tape" and you have
to determine the size of a bar expressed in the drawing at a scale of 1:50.
− Tomeasurethecorrespondinglinetothebar,youfind4.5cm.
− Then proceed to reason that each unit of measurement on paper corresponds to 50 units.
in true greatness.
− Therefore, each 1 centimeter on the paper corresponds to 50 centimeters of the actual bar.
− As you found 4.5 cm of paper, you should multiply by fifty to find the
measure in cm.
− Ready!The bar has 225 cm, that is: 2.25 m.

We mentioned the proportionality factor as a reduction factor, due to the fact that
in the overwhelming majority of structural drawings, the true dimensions are represented.
graphically in dimensions smaller than the real, however, nothing prevents us from having a
enlargement factor to represent a detail, such as a hole intended for gluing
of reinforcements for recovery or structural strengthening.
In this case, the scales are presented with the number relative to the true magnitude, less than
the drawing unit (Ex: 1:0.5 - 1:0.1).

16
 4. Knowing the Structural Elements

ontkow
am
styhieporitnli,teotfiuropatucrW
etngsteiarnohceutxe
type of structural element, but also its function within the set.
The following figure represents a typical three-dimensional view of a building structure.
We will find the four main elements that compose it: slabs, beams, columns, and
foundations.

Three-dimensional view of a structure

4.1. Slabs
They are plate elements, and they are characterized by having significant width and length.
thicker than the thickness. The slabs support the usage loads in a building.
It is about them that the loads from the people, the furniture, and the cladding will act.
floor, and of its own weight which has a considerable value. Just to give an idea, a slab
Solid with a thickness of 10 cm weighs the equivalent of 250 kg per square meter (square
1 meter by 1 meter.
Thesalbscanvayrniytpe,whcihcanbe:
− Massive-Theentirethicknessismadeofconcrete.
− Precast - There are precast beams that receive brick or styrofoam interlayers.
just a thin layer of concrete.
− Nervurada - A set of ribs is molded 'in situ'. They are usually slabs used.
in large openings.
− Stretched slab where cables are used inside, which will be tensioned later.
with the use of appropriate equipment.
− Mistas–Combineprevioussolutions.

The execution of slabs requires two professionals involved on the site, with a lot of criteria.
mainly, in what concerns its support.
Prefabricated panels must be checked if the adoption has been established by the manufacturer
counter-arrow, aiming to establish its leveling when the loading occurs.

17
 Observationandassurance:
A large part of work accidents occurs on precast slabs when the worker steps.
directly on the ceramic filling brick. Use boards arranged conveniently and
properly partitioned.
Youareneededatwork,notatthehospital.

[Link]
They are the elements that will support the slabs, will brace the columns and eventually deflect them from their
prism. Its main characteristic is having a length much greater than its width and
height.
ew
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interconnection between pillars. There may be situations where a beam receives none
beam, being in that position to secure pillars in one direction preventing them from
come to flame.
Similartoslabs,therearealsoprestressedbeams,commonlyusedinbridgesandviaducts;
however, its detailing falls outside the scope of this booklet, remaining only the citation for
Enriching general knowledge about the subject.
Theexecutionofabeamrequirestheprofessionalsinvolvedtobeverycarefulregardingits
alignment and leveling. One should also observe any variations in section as it occurs
the misaligned beams.
Thepartofthebeamthatextendsfromasupportwithoutanytypeofsupportexistingat
its other end is called the swing.

Pillar Viga Pillar

Balance
console

Beam with Balance

Vigas queinterligam fundaçõesisoladas são chamadasVigaBaldrame, enquanto aquelas que

They receive a pillar born in one of its spans are calledTransition Beams.

Transition Beam

When a beam is entirely above the slab, that is, its bottom face coincides with the face
The lower part of the slab, we say that this beam is inverted.

18
 When a beam is completely embedded inside the slab, or its width is greater than its
height, we say it is a Flat Beam.

4.3. Pillars
They are the vertical elements that will receive the loads from the beams. Basically, they are
elements that work with tablets.
On the pillars, the plumb line must be checked rigorously, as its real behavior depends on it.
beforetheloadrequests.
Current edifices must observe the variations in section among the pilars.
pavements, as well as the correct positioning of the waits on the upper pavement.
Letustaketheopportunitytomentionacommonitemamongallstructuralelements,
more predominantly in the pillars, and it should be a cause for concern among all professionals
involved in the execution of a structure. It refers to the covering, which is the layer of concrete
existing between the steel bars and the exposed face of the structural element.
This layer of concrete does not exist by chance or as an aesthetic complement to the face of the element.
This layer is intended to protect the steel bars against the phenomenon of corrosion (oxidation) and
must strictly follow the thickness provided by the designer.
We note that it is important in the pillars, especially those located on the floors.
from the buildings' garages, as they are constantly wet during the washing of floors and vehicles
driving aggressive elements into the concrete that will allow in the future the
establishment of corrosion. This fact becomes more critical in works located in environments
aggressive and near the sea.
Therefore, always be involved in the checking and maintenance of these thicknesses, putting
properspacers,astheyhaveagreatinfluenceonthelifespanofastructure.

4.4. Foundations
etaioprpraiheotdsoallarefnsartham setntlelaurtucrhtesetonrsaiT toundahef
distribution in the soil. Basically, they are subdivided into shallow foundations and deep foundations.
.nuosideontcraolnasctbheaingsytom icldoetlpousafnsraow
ilotundaS
flha
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drcan,glhefyhivleatonlsiecngsridoteftaolsI
continues can receive the loads of two or more pillars or even from a continuous wall
(very common in structural masonry).
nsueidheslvaiblaow thelseytolfltcironsm tistusotnhdeafsotm otecsanltetS te
project, since they are the results of the analysis of the soil's support capacity and its conditions
geotechnical.
dnebythaiow
nksaytoncdeplbam
ortdebueiholnsitE
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to ensure work without the risk of collapse.

Observethesigns
Securi
- ty:
Don't take risks! Sometimes a terrain may seem quite stable and yet it can break apart.
[Link]!
Score as conveniently as possible.

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satisfactory resistance capacity. They are characterized by piles and caissons.

19
 suarS
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and root. On top of the piles are the cap blocks which are reinforced elements.
designed to distribute equal shares, the loads of the pillars among the various piles contained in a
sameblock.
Open caissons are deep foundations with sections, usually circular, well
larger than the piles. The execution of this type of foundation requires a careful assessment of
soil engineer, as well as the procedures for wall containment along the
excavations.

4.5. Other Structural Elements

Twootherimportantandcommonlyusedelementsdeserveattention,namely:Structures
Decontamination and Reservoirs.
The first includes all retaining structures such as L-shaped walls, walls with buttresses,
stressed walls etc.
Theexecutionofsupportsmustalsobecarriedoutwithexpertiseinordertoavoidsurprises,suchas
slope sliding during the execution of the wall. The supervision of an engineer in
The location is essential for the perfect execution of this type of structure.
As for the reservoirs, it includes cisterns, water tanks, water towers, swimming pools and
[Link].
concreting as it constitutes vulnerable points for infiltrations.
Laterwewilltalkabouteachoftheseelementsindetail.

[Link]
For the correct execution of a concrete structure, it is necessary to have a good interpretation of the
[Link],therearetwotypesofplansinaStructuralProject.

5.1. Form Plants

The first type is the formwork, which apparently would be of interest to the carpenter, but
which should be analyzed by all professionals related to the work.
Its importance involves issues such as: the existing interferences between installations and
structures, the routing of the conduits in the trunking, the correct arrangement of the reinforcements
inyoursupport;thisandmanyotherpiecesofinformationcanbeanalyzedifoneisinpossessionof
from the shape plant.
[Link]
eprnlteaurtucrnm
T
ahetorefspltoam
lcifpr
of each of them, as well as their dimensions, section variations, levels, heights, and others
important information. It must also contain at least a drawing of a cross-section to be
defined by the designer, preferably showing a high ceiling.

Note:
Headroom - height difference between floors.

20
 In general, all calculators adopt the following abbreviation to designate an element
structuralbothintheformworkplanandinthereinforcementplan.
Pillar =P
Viga =V
Laje=L
Shoe = S
Block =B
Stake = E

Structural elements will always be identified with one of the previous prefixes, followed by
anumberthatwillidentifyitalongwiththeotherplantswhereitisfound.

Ex:P1= Pilar 1
V17=Beam 17

The way to number the structural elements will be at the designer's discretion, even though
typically, an increasing numbering is adopted, from top to bottom and from left to right
right.
The pillars are always numbered along their column. Thus, if there is continuity of
a pillar for more than one floor, all will receive the same numbering. Footings and blocks
they usually accompany the numbering of the associated pillar.
As for the slab beams, according to the calculations engineer's criteria, they can be numbered in a way
sequentially along the work, regardless of the floor in which they are located. In a building
very large, this method leads to very high numbers in the structural elements (e.g.: V735,
L432).
Another way to identify them is to number them similarly to how we do when
we number apartments, that is, all the units starting with 1 (e.g., V101, V102, V103) will be
on the first structural floor and so on.
It is also common to number sequentially only within the floor. In this case
a beam or slab can appear with the same number but on different floors,
requiringspecialattentionfromtheshipowners.
Based on the above, the professional must initially discover what style of identification has been adopted.
by the calculator, and then start assembling the element.

Tips:
heow
[Link],heaniopel
Question. Also observe if it refers to the correct pavement. Some floor plans in buildings.
repetitive ones are sometimes very similar to each other, but they can contain small
imperceptible details in a quick glance, which can lead to mistakes if it is changed.

21
 Thetypicalredesignhastheappearanceofthefigurethatfolows:

Typical figure of a shape

5.2. Plant Frames

The details of the reinforcements are contained in the reinforcement plans. Each element
structural has a particular detail where it is identified by the same nomenclature
adopted in the shape plan.
In these plants, the bars are represented by lines, properly reduced in size by
scale account that was previously studied.
Itiscommoninthedetailingofastructuralelementtohaveaviewatacertainscale.
it is a cut with another.
soadãnhesa,lqum
ónepioscdaroãpbntfgiasA
nvieaplesaor
vegetableorsulfite,whicharekeptinthecompany'sofficeorwiththeownerofthework.
These copies can be presented in two ways. The first is the photostatic copy (Xerox) in
[Link]-heliographicwhich
produced on a bluish paper with the written part in a darker shade of blue.
We are citing these differences because heliographic copies are extremely sensitive to light.
solar. When exposed to the sun, they become lighter until they lose legibility. Therefore, if it is
when operating with these types of copies, avoid leaving them open on the counters for too long,
trying to open them in the shade.

Note:
Some professionals have recently adopted, instead of a frame plan, to produce a
notebook where each element is detailed on a page.

22
6. The material is for concrete structures
In a reinforced concrete structure, the basic function of steel is to resist the stresses of
traction, that is, the bars work together with the concrete. This happens because the concrete does not
ithasenoughtensilestrengthtoabsorbthestressesrequiredinabuilding.
In fact, concrete (without reinforcements) is a material that has excellent behavior when
it is compressed after curing, while the bars have great properties when stretched
(stretched). Therefore, one complements the difficulty of the other, forming a set capable of
when appropriately sized, support the loads in a building and ensure its
stability.
Nessalogically, during the structural calculation, the regions subject to tensile forces
theymustbearmed.
For example, in the case of simply supported slabs, under the action of vertically directed loads
Top down, the reinforcement should be placed on the bottom face of the slab.
The solidary work of concrete with steel is possible thanks to the physical and chemical compatibilities.
that occur between the two materials:
− Physical compatibility - steel and concrete have similar deformations during the
thermal variations.
− Chemical compatibility - steel does not corrode with the alkaline environment of concrete.
Moreover, for the concrete and steel to work together, resisting the stresses to which
theyaresubmitted,theremustbeaadherencebetweenthetwomaterials.
This adhesion is guaranteed through mechanical linkage, provided by the roughness of the bars.
steelandalsobytheintroductionofdentsandbulgesonthesurfaceofthebars.
During execution, care must be taken to ensure that the reinforcements are completely covered.
by concrete, to prevent the corrosion of steel.

[Link]
In order to have an understanding of the terms mentioned here, we will use the following
definitions:
− Processedsteel-cutandbentsteelbars.
− Assembly-processofpositioningthereinforcementinitsfinallocation,inthestructure.
− Part - separable piece of the armor, with the geometric characteristics defined in the project
− structural. The association of various pieces generates the framework.
− Pre-assembly-itisthestageofprocessingthepiecesintheframework.
− Rebar-barsorwiresofsteel.

Notes:
Framework or Armor?
Formwork:asetofactivitiesrelatedtothepreparationandpositioningofsteelinthestructure.
Armor:associationofvarioussteelpieces,formingasetforaspecificpurpose.
structural component.
The use of processed steel or welded mesh increases service productivity. Consider
this factor to size your team and also to negotiate the cost of labor.
Even choosing to acquire pre-cut and bent steel (processed steel), it is important to maintain
in the work, a minimum stock of steel, with the usual sizes in the project, to supply some
eventuality.
Checkwiththestructuraldesignerthecriteriaconsideredforpredictinglosses.

23
 Howtobuyprocessedsteel?
In a previous stage before the order is placed, the contractor sends the structural designs to the supplier,
so that the parts can be registered.
In this way, for the specification of the processed steel, it is only necessary to indicate the floors and
thestructuralelementsthatwillbereinforced.

[Link] in Bars
.ssonecpritaulcofatlculsehm
ertrantleaurtucrratesntehastrbaleSt
carried out by the engineer, who obtains the steel sections and transforms them into number of bars and
their respective diameters (gauge).
They are the gauges (∅) that characterize the bars of current use in the structure. The bars
commercial standards established by NBR7480, with the following sizes in millimeters: 3.2 – 4.0 –
5,0 – 6,3 – 8,0 – 10,0 – 12,5 – 16,0 – 20,0 – 25,0 – 32,0 – 40,0.
Wewouldliketoremindyouthatformanyyears,thegaugeswereexpressedininchesandthat'swhy
Many construction masters still use the terminology established in the past.
to assist with any potential conversion needs, the table below provides approximate values
ininches,[Link],dosoonly
to convert the nomenclature. Please inform your colleagues who still use the
old nomenclature, where the correct unit of gauge is the millimeter, helping them in the task of
update.

6.3 1/4"

8.0 5/16 inch

10.0 3/8 inches

12,5 1/2”

16.0 5/8 inch

20.0 3/4 inches

25.0 1”

32 1 ¼ inches

Another relevant quantity regarding steel bars is their weight per linear meter. This is
important, as some suppliers sell the bars by weight and not by rods. In this case it is
It is necessary to know the weight corresponding to a linear meter of a certain gauge. This is
obtainedbymultiplyingitscross-sectionbythedensityofthematerial,whichis7.85kgf/dm3 .Com
In order to simplify this process, the table below provides the values of weight per linear meter.
forthemostcommongauges.

24
 Bitola(∅) Bufom
tre
(m
m) (kgfm
/)
5 0,160

6.3 0.250

8.0 0.40

10,0 0.63

12.5 1.00

16.0 1.60

20.0 2.50

25.0 4.00

32.0 6.30

Let'sapply:
It is desired to know the weight corresponding to 25 rods of 12 meters each, with diameter
10.0mm.

Solution:

i) Calculation of total length

12yardsx12meterseach=144meters.

ii) Calculation of weight

From the table, the weight per meter of the 10.0 mm gauge is 0.63 kgf/m, therefore the weight of 144 m
Itwillbeobtainedbymultiplyingthetotallengthbytheweightofonemeterofthebar.
P = 144 m x 0.63 kgf/m = 90.72 kgf

We mentioned in the above example that the rods are generally supplied at 12 meters of
length. They are presented folded in half, in order to fit in the standard chassis of the
trucks. However, at the buyer's discretion, straight bars are also provided,
they are called stretches. In this case, transportation must be done by special trailers.

Tips:
Under no circumstances replace any type of diameter or quantity of bars with values.
different from that established in the structural project, including those that you may consider the
favor of safety. In the calculation of a beam, the simple replacement of a bar by one of
upper diameter, may take it to a state of harmful cracking.

25
citsiretcarahcrehtonevahsla,rem
ateidriehotnotitidnai,srabletT
ehs
of the type of steel, which is associated with its strength. Thus, the designer will always specify
in the designs, the steel used in its calculation, which can be of four types regarding its
resistênciano ensaiode tração e de doistipos quanto à forma de fabricação.
Regarding resistance, the four classes are CA25 – CA40 – CA50 and CA60, with the last two being
themostcommon.
hem
t,eonlreiofatsgtnahesiT
C
[Link]
dhiStw
ri60eupilnsrota
It will be resistant; however, there will be less ductility in bending.
Regarding the manufacturing process, the bars are designated by classes A and B. Those of class A
they are produced by hot rolling and those of class B are manufactured by cold processes.
Werememberthatthisisimportant,asclassAsteelhasadifferentmechanicalbehavior.
class B steel.
Itshouldbenotedthatthemixingofsteelsisonlyallowedinbeamsandcolumnswhenoneclassandtypeareused.
theyareusedinlongitudinalreinforcementsandanotherclassandtypeintransversereinforcements.
As we have already mentioned, the graphical representation of a bar is expressed in the drawing by lines that
show your geometry. These lines have been reduced by the effect of scale, however we need
identify them with a name, in order to not confuse them with the others.
In this case, the bars that will appear in the drawings, in addition to the lines of the reduced geometry, will have
alsoanamethatmaybeofthefollowingtypesatthediscretionofthecalculator.

N1

Identification of the bar

Logically,besidesyouridentification,weneedtoinformhowmanybarsofthattherewillbe.
used in the structural element. Therefore, following the identification we will give a space or line
and we will put the amount of bars.

N1–2

1 2

Bar quantification

We have already defined your position and informed the quantity, now we need to inform the gauge and yours.
total length. Let’s imagine that our bar in the figure has a diameter of 10.0 mm and is 400
centimeters in length (4 meters). See how the figure turned out.

N1-2∅ 10.0 - 400

1 2∅ 10.0 - 400

Bar Qualification

Ready! We managed to identify a bar in the framing plan.

26
Butyoumayaskyourself,isthisbarstraight,andwhatiftherewerefolds?
In this case, the folds are quoted and the total length will be increased by them.
considering the respective arcs described in the folding, as we will see later.
A frame plant contains a large number of bars as we described.
previously. We need to organize them in the form of a single table containing the information
in order to produce the cut without the need to check each bar on the plan. This increases
excessively the production on site, as one team can carry out the cutting and another can perform the
developments independently. Our table will be called the Iron Frame.
thefollowingaspect:

With a unitary approach With total seasoning

(cm) (cm)
CA-50B 1 4 6.3 455 1820

CA-50B 2 6 6.3 480 2880

CA-50B 3 1 8.0 220 220

CA-50B 4 4 10.0 675 2700

CA-50B 5 2 12.5 690 1380

CA-60 6 18 5.0 110 1980

Explode an Iron Frame

The columnAinforms the type of steel used in the calculation, the column N presents the sequence of
numbering of the identification of the bars. The column Q refers to the quantity of bars, while the
column∅ show the gauge used in that armor.
Immediately, the column of Unitary Compriments provides us with the length that the reinforcement
it will be cut (including the folds), while the total printing corresponds to the product
bytheQuantityperUnitLength.
The total length is important, as it will be used in a second frame, complementary to
first, where a summary by diameter is presented, with its respective lengths and
currencies.
This makes the purchase process much easier. The appearance of the Summary Table is shown in the figure.
whatfollows:

What do you think about it?

∅ With p. Total (cm) Weigh(ktgf)
6.3 4700 1.75
8.0 220 0.88
10,0 2700 17.01
12.5 1380 13.80
5.0 1980 3.17
ToW
tal eigh(ktgf) 36.61
Exemplify a Summary Frame

27
WeremindthatintheSummaryTable,theresultisobtainedbysummingthelengths.
total of a same gauge Iron Frame. This result, however, does not take into account the
losses due to the fact that we will be cutting pieces from a rod with 12 meters and not
there is always a leftover or surplus that corresponds exactly to a value we need to use. For this reason
Some calculators already incorporate an additional loss of around 10% into this framework.

6.3. Receipt
[Link] in bars
For receiving steel in bars, check:
the quantity is checked;
. the length of the bars;
billet steel;
ifthetestscoverallthedeliveredslots;
if the manufacturer's name is printed on bars with a diameter greater than 10 mm;
thegeneralappearanceofthesteel,observingfordefectsorimpurities(cracks,peeling,corrosion);
If the amount of material is considerable, it is advisable to check the mass, through the
weighingofthetruckonaneutralscale,beforeandafterunloading.

6.3.2. Processed Steel

For receipt, first check if the delivered quantity matches the invoice and the
purchase order.
Next, check if the information on the label: gauge, format, dimensions and
quantity, match with the received items.
Alsoseetheoverallconditionoftheparts:cracks,flaking,andcorrosion.

[Link] wire mesh steel

Upon receiving the screens, it is necessary to be attentive and check if the information contained on the label
confirm with the delivered material.
On the netiquete, you wil find the folowing information:
manufacturer name
the type of steel
thedesignationofthescreen
the width and length of the screen
It is also recommended to carry out the following checks:
Measure the main dimensions: length, width, spacings, using a tape measure.
metallic with a precision of 1mm.
Check if the quantity delivered matches the purchase order.
observe the general condition of the material (corrosion, cracks in the bars, loose weld points).

[Link] Control of the Material

Steel manufacturers conduct technological control tests during the production of bars.
One of the practices that construction companies have been employing to secure the guarantee
the quality of the material is to request a copy of the test report related to the purchased batch.

28
 6.4.1. Steel in bars, pre-cut steel and pre-bent steel
ow
alb:eiretidhercm
tnesesprtulsehrtfkchei,tporehnrgtviU
iecponr

CA50 500 1.10 fy 8% NBR6153

CA60 600 1.05 fy 5% NBR6153

6.4.2. Welded Screens

The characteristics of the mesh wires must comply with the table above, being
still necessary shear resistance test of welded joints, NBR5916.

[Link]
[Link] bars
In the length bars conference, accept the batch if no irregularities are found.
visual inspection and if the length of the bars is 11 m and the length tolerance is
9%. A maximum of 2% of short bars can be accepted, which must never be less than
a 6m.
If there are quantity differences in relation to the order, inform the supplier so that there is
replacement of missing materials.
obaleht,sehctabfnoitcejerasierehtfi,troperehgtnizyW
lanaeh
re-testing of the tested batch or proceeding with the inspection of a new batch.

6.5.2. Screens
:eblahentoasectbistcpensiluasngviencdaurptecatoducprosfencareoT
lhet

Totalwidth +/- 2.5 cm or 1% (whichever is greater)

Total length ± 1%
Fringe length +/- 2 cm
Diameter (3 to 6 mm) +/- 0.05 mm
Diameter (6.3 to 8 mm) ± 0.07 mm
Diameter (9 to 12.5 mm) ± 0.10 mm
Spacing ± 6 mm

Note:
The steel is rusted. Can I accept the material?
If you can remove the oxidation with a brush or a thick cloth, and after this activity, not
there is evidence of localized corrosion points, that's fine.

29
 [Link]
The flow of material storage and the area to be made available on the construction site can, in some cases,
cases, determine the type of steel supply (in welded mesh, in bars, processed steel).

[Link] in bars
When using it in bars, we realize that we need space in the yard for
stock the steel bars in three distinct stages: steel in bars, cut steel, cut steel and
doubled.
It should also be considered that, in the storage of steel in bars, it is necessary to allocate an area.
whose length is greater than 12m.

Note:
[Link],itis
I also need to consider the truck's access to the construction site!

[Link]-cut bars
Toet
rqhuceiaecpassw
hit,yahegatortecspaonheei
tsn
[Link]
lengths as extensive as steel in bars.
In storage, the bars can be organized by structural element (pilar bars, beam bars) or
by pavement.
Thus, based on the stored quantity and the way of organization, we will have variations in
sizeoftheareas,makingitimportanttoconductapreliminarystudytofindapoint
great balance between storage quantity, storage area, and steel transport flow.

[Link]-bent bars
Theadvantageofacquiringpre-bentsteelcomparedtopre-cutsteelisthatiteliminates
a stage in the processing of steel only requires an area for storage, to
contrar rod of steel, for example.
Regarding the storage area, consider the same items presented in item 'Pre-bars'.
cut.

Note:
With pre-folded steel, we have a reduction in storage area, but on the other hand, we have
anincreaseinvolume.

6.6.4. Welded Screens

.snlnpseaoirlnoldesarciobveplrleAts
In panels, it is common to acquire screens of different types, in this situation we can stock them.
standingwhileminimizingtheneedforlargerareasforitsstorage.
If the transport of the screens is done with a crane, your stock can be decentralized.

30
 [Link]
In addition to using all the safety equipment we mentioned earlier, the shipowner
requires specific tools for its activity.
Two instruments are commonly used by shipowners for taking linear measurements.
intended for cutting the bars. The first is the articulated meter, which is made of wood.
or fiber, and has one in metric scale and another in inches.
Another tool is the tape measure, which consists of a measuring tape rolled up in a metal casing or
Plastic. The tapes are made of plastic and steel. For measurements that
to involve more precision, it is recommended to use a steel tape measure since its deformation will
much smaller when it is stretched for the execution of the reading.

ArticulatedMetro Train

In the case of the scale measure, the tapes and meters have the smallest corresponding subdivision.
a 1 mm (thousandth part of a meter). As the lengths of the steel bars in most
Most of the time, they are expressed in whole centimeters, these instruments can be
used with great precision.
For measuring diameters, when necessary, it is recommended to use calipers.
they have the necessary precision for that.
The cutting of the steel bars intended for the concrete structure uses equipment with various
productivity levels. For small constructions, where there are few structural elements
One can use a cutting saw of the high-speed steel type, properly fixed in the frame.

Tips:
m
[Link]
om
tw
nehgapkrw
csahew
oitks,chai
common occurrence of elbow injuries resulting from impact during bar cutting
due to the course of the arm.

When involving a greater quantity of bars, and a higher productivity, it is necessary to

use of metal cutting scissors. There are currently scissors on the market with cutting capacity
up to a diameter of 12.5mm. The scissors blade can be replaced when necessary
replacingitwithonethathasthesamespecificationsasthemanufacturer.
onnhgreB
yIitndeuK
sblT
w
h,cberloyphdsm
prhw
ilbetius
acquired according to the gauge that will be used. Its cable is made of an iron tube,
aiming to increase the lever arm and reduce the physical effort of the worker.

Key to fold

31
The tool used to tie the iron bars to each other is the Torquês. It is a
cutting tool made of carbon steel with cutting edges in tempered steel.
It is good to remember that a shipwright's wrench is different from a carpenter's wrench.
The carpenter has a short handle, being more used for cutting or pulling out nails.
Theshipowner'storquewrenchhasalongerhandleinordertoproducegreaterpressurewhen...
wire cutting, commonly using a 30 cm (old 12") pliers.

Armorer wrenches

8D
. emountingProcedures

[Link]
r easuremenSttandards

To take a measurement on a steel bar, the worker must follow these steps:

− Checkifthediametercorrespondstothespecifiedone.
− Measuretheestablishedlength,takingtheprecautionthatthezeroofthetapeormeter,
match with the end of the bar.
− Make a mark with chalk at the measured location.

8.2. To Cut Iron with Scissors

During the cutting with the scissors, the worker should follow the following steps:
− Identify the brand of chalk obtained during the measurement.
− Place the iron between the blades of the scissors, step on one of the handles of the scissors.
− Press the other handle down until the iron breaks.

Cutting a bar with scissors

32
 8.3. To Cut Iron with a Manual Machine
− Identify the chalk brand obtained during the measurement.
− Place the iron between the machine's blades, noting that the cut will occur at the point of
meeting of the knives.
− Press the lever down until the iron breaks.

Bar cutting with manual machine

[Link]

dloohfncusm
ntaterotdnsat,fnldahediloeftniositcurtsneohctevairyrallarensegB
ra
following steps:

− Identify the bar to be stretched by its steel type and diameter.

− Write about one of the parts.
− Secure the other half 2 meters away from the fold.
− Raise the other half.
− With the help of an iron key, complete the unfolding.
− Use a stinger to eliminate the residual curvature.

Observtehseecuringothfaenchors

.sew
rlaciirtcenolerarhetfyilim
rnailekchepr,tngindupeibyusarlepulorB
fe
Iwaspassingthroughtheareawherethebarrierwillpass.

33
8.5. To Stretch on the Bench

− Identify the rod to be stretched by its steel type and diameter.

− Place the iron between the pins fixed on the workbench.
− With the key, turn the iron in the opposite direction of the bend.

Stretching on the bench

Observations
Securi
- ty:
During stretching on the bench, be careful to keep the iron between the bench pins.
forcing it down. If it is not well fitted, it may come loose creating an effect of
mola, being able to reach the worker.

8.6. To Double
Beforewecarryoutthisprocedure,let'smakeanimportantconsideration.
When bending a steel bar, we must consider that the bending radius is based on the
Bitola.
This is due to the fact that by bending a bar we are subjecting it to tensile stresses on the part
from outside the fold and compression on the inside. When we do not perform the fold with the radius
appropriate these efforts can lead the bar to a situation of cracking.
Another important aspect when talking about folding refers to the fact that the bars when
concreted elements exert pressure in the curved region on the concrete, potentially generating the
splitting of the same.
For the execution of the folding, one must observe the internal diameter of the curvature D.b
dependingonthediameterofthebarthatwillbebent.

34
 Folding Diameter
The following table provides the value of the folding diameter as a function of the bar gauge.

Type Bitola CA-25 CA-40 CA-50 CA-60

Stirrups ∅ ≤ 6.3 3∅ 3∅ 3∅ 3∅
Hooks, ∅ < 20 3∅ 4∅ 5∅ 6∅
stirrups and ∅ ≥ 20 5∅ 6∅ 8∅ -
dollars

In the making of hooks at the ends, the minimum lengths should be considered.
two extensions, according to the following figure:

Standardized Hooks

For the folding operation, it is necessary to build a wooden bench.

generally made with boards or planks 30 cm wide, supported on pieces of
7.5 x 7.5, properly anchored in the ground.
It is recommended to use high-quality wood in the execution of countertops, as well as
efforts resulting from the bending of thicker gauges, the movement of the bars over the
the same generates considerable mechanical wear throughout the work.
Theheightofthebenchshouldbesuchthatitaccommodatesthemovementsoftherebarworker,avoidingpoorpostures.

incorrect.
Support pins will be placed on the benches where the bars will be secured.
moment of folding, according to the figure that follows.

35
 Hookbrand

Support and Folding Pins

8.7. To Produce Stirrups

Stirrups are pre-bent iron rods that are used in beams and columns. Their function
The main function of beams is to absorb shear forces.
In the pillars, the stirrups prevent the vertical bars (longitudinal reinforcement) from buckling when compressed.
come to flirt.

Rectangular stirrup

Por constituírem um grupo de ferros que já entram prontos durante a montagem, os mesmos
they can be pre-produced by a team distinct from the one that will cut the longitudinal bars, or even
even acquired in the market, since currently some companies already provide ready-made stirrups.
for the most common measurements of beams and columns.
After being produced, the stirrups must be tied in groups, identified by their number.
and containing the necessary amount for its use.
Themanufacturingofstirrupsfollowsthesesteps:

− Identify the previously cut pieces regarding their diameter and type of steel.
− Measureandmarkonthebenchthedimensionsofthehook,width,andlength.

36
 Length

Width

Hook

Brands

Width

Marksonthebench

− Put the bar between the support pins

− Good hook.
− Place the hook at the mark of the length and fold.

Length

Hook Width

First bend of the stirrup

− Pull the iron until the previous fold reaches the width mark.
− Perform the second fold.
− Repeat the last two folds.
− Make the final hook.

Tips:
Weaf
nhet,aeupsrcm
rngikalodetnsdakchefiti
isnothow
ngsi
differences in measurements. If so, readjust the brands on the bench.

The accuracy in measuring the stirrups is important because if they are too large, when the
If the armor fits into shape, it will not have the proper coverage. If they are small
Furthermore, they may disregard the considerations made by the calculator regarding the positions.
geometric characteristics of the bars in relation to the faces of the concrete.

37
 8.8. To Tie Up
Thesolidarityofthevariousbarsintheassemblyofthestructuralelementisachievedbybindingwith
sliced jerky, using pliers. A well-tied armor ensures not only its
adequate transport within the construction site, as well as the certainty that the relative positions
willremainunchangedduringtheconcreting.
The wire used for tying must be pre-braided, according to the sequence that follows.
follows:

− Cut a piece of wire approximately 2 meters long.

− Fold it in half and match the ends.

Equal wire ends

− Fold the tip that contains the crease.

− Twist both ends, until rolling the entire length.

Equal ends of the wire

− Reserve this piece, and make new ones.

Subsequently, the shipper must folow the folowing procedures to secure a bar in the
another
− Bend the tip of the wire.

38
 First bend of the wire

− Pass the wire through the iron, from right to left.

Lassoingtheironwiththewire

− Join the wires.

− Put the torque fixing the wires with light pressure.
− Turn to the torque, at least two turns.
− Pull the wrench to tighten the loop.
− Turn again until you feel the tightening.
− Apply greater pressure at the end of the wire until it cuts.

39
 Aftertwistingthewiretotheend,useplierstocutit.

8.9 - For Storing

.lbeavum
andbem
lio,ecsngem
ocbalritm
usT
otrheforw
ksfor
deidentification, containing the name of the element and the floor it is intended for, as in the figure
below.

P3 - Roof 4
Identification plaque

In places with limited storage space, it is important to establish a logical sequence for the
assembly, so that the next element to be completed is always easier to be
caughtinstock.
Otherwise, large operations must be carried out to catch a beam, for example, that
was under a pile of others.
yo
m
ehrloesm
vtni
fm
cnetridasuerm
lb
etslaibhso
dw
sam
ehiftcnletrsofnT
ehier
identifiedtiedup
Due to the large amount of wire ends that remain in the bindings, the place for
The stock of ready-made armors should be kept more isolated from areas with heavy foot traffic.

8.10. For Transporting

onnt
sm
heior,byfstnaiard
tdem
sot
sm
cihetornepoR
rnfsdayteubsirrt
sufficient number of workers or by crane type equipment when it comes to a building
high and/or large volumes.

40
 Whenever there is vertical transportation with equipment, the area under the location must be
identified with a plate indicating the risk.

[Link]

Theassemblyofthebeamsinvolvesunderstandingatypicaldetailasfollows:

V1
1:75 2N2∅8.0-618
SECTIONA–A
43 536 43
ESC.: 1:25

280
48

P1 A
V5 P2

15

20 500 20

28N1 c/ 18
44

30 536 30 11
4N3∅10.0-591 28N1∅5.0-118

RELATO
I NOFSTEEL SUMMARYOFSTEEL
UNIT. C. TOTAL C. TOTALWEIGHT + 10%
STEEL N DIAM Q STEEL DIAM
(cm) (cm) (m) (kg)
60 1 5.0 28 118 3304 CA50 8.0 12.4 5.4
50 2 8.0 2 618 1236 10.0 23.7 16.0
3 10.0 4 591 2364 CA60 5.0 33.2 5.6
TOTAL WEIGHT
Totalconcretevolume=0.39m3 CA50 21.4
Totalareaofshape=5.99m2 CA60 5.6
fck = 180.00 kgf / cm2

Typical beam detail

.m
secdheonrtpT
tnfhaeocsthevofirelbam
tdibertlganelrac
while those situated at the bottom are the positives. To assemble a simple beam, follow the
following steps:

41
 − Place the positive side bars (with the ends folded if they are like that)
detailed) about the workbench sawhorses.
− Markwithchalkthespacesbetweenthestirrups.
− Rememberthatinthesamebeam,thespacingscanbedifferent.
− Put the number of stirrups needed.
− Start tying the negative bars.
− Put on the leather armors and tie them up.

Some beams have a lot of reinforcement, and their complete assembly often
produces an element so heavy that it becomes impossible to transport. In these cases, weapon-
the beam with the four end rebar, and the other rebar will only be tied when the
same is already over the cradles.
Beams that will receive pillar deviation (transition beams) must have the waits of the pillar that originates.
properly positioned and placed before concreting.
In some heavily reinforced beams, reinforcements are arranged in layers, this is because it is
It is necessary that the distance between bars is such that it allows the passage of concrete during the
Density. Normally, the engineer indicates the number of bars in the upper layers.
Ex.: 2∅2C=twobarswillbepositionedinthesecondlayer
delelacupsrarrihetostsxencadeefchiaonestplrhem
atbem
shoftcsntorenfT
iehr
skin armor.

[Link]
The pillars are assembled outside the molds. The rebar installer, after assembling, must identify it.
placing a nameplate as shown in the "Identification Nameplate" figure above.
There are two types of reinforcement in the pillars. The longitudinal which consists of the vertical bars, and the
transversal armor made up of stirrups and locking clamps.
In most cases, the pilars do not have stirrups in the section where they do
we intercept with the beams. Pay close attention to the heights of the beams in the formwork plan in order to
prevent unnecessary stirrups from being tied.
The iron lengths of the pillars that are presented free at the upper level after the
The concrete of the slabs is called supports. As the name itself indicates, they are there.
waitingforthearmorsofthenextlaunch.
Eventually, due to the length of wait required and the heights of the beam that the pillar
A very large tip of iron will appear at the end of the pillar. In this
it is recommended to place a stirrup on the free span only for the transport of
pillar up to the shape, the free bars do not cause accidents.
The pillars have a typical detailing as follows:

42
 P1=P2

2.80
Te to – L2

ESC.: 1:25

20

20

16
16
23N1∅5.0-72

0.00

RELA
TO
INSHPIOFSTEEL 2 x P1 SUMMARYOFSTEEL
UNIT. C. TOTAL C. TOTALWEIGHT + 10%
STEEL N DIAM Q STEEL DIAM
(cm) (cm) (m) (kg)
60 1 5.0 46 72 3312 CA50 10.0 44.5 30.2
50 2 10.0 16 278 4448 CA60 5.0 33.3 5.6

TOTAL WEIGHT
CA50 30.2
Totalconcretevolume=0.22m3
CA60 5.6
Totalareashape=4.48m2
fck = 180.00 kgf / cm2

Typical detail of a pillar

10.1. Rectangular Section Pillars

− Select the longitudinal bars.
− Place two bars that make up a lateral face of the pillar on the trestle.
− Markthespacingofthestirrupswithchalk.
− Place the stirrups around the bars, alternating the position of the hooks.

43
− Start the tying of the stirrups with a dry return knot.
− Place the other longitudinal bars.
− Finish the tying.
− Place the locking clamps when necessary.

Tips:
On a square pillar, based on the calculation, two sides may contain more bars than the others.
Besides. Try to check not to rotate it when placing it in the molds.
There is a more requested direction that must have more irons than the other.

10.2. Circular Section Pillar

• Select the longitudinal bars.
• Place a bar that makes up the side of the pillar over the joist.
• Markthespacingofthestirrupswithchalk.
• Place the stirrups around the bar.
• Tiethefirstlongitudinalbartothestirrups,forcingthemtoremainperpendiculartoit.
• Markonthestirrupsthepositionsoftheotherlongitudinalbars.
• Put the other longitudinal bars.
• Start the tying of the stirrups keeping the same distance between the bars.
neighboring longitudes.
• Complete the tying.

The locking clamps are S-shaped metals designed to connect bars on opposite sides.
oradjacent.

1A
[Link]
aeLaction

[Link] Slabs
Unlike pillars and beams, slabs are mounted directly on the forms.
are previously cut and identified to then be raised to the storage in bundles.
On this occasion, the shipowner must be attentive to verify what the direction of the smallest opening is.
panel of tiles that he will assemble. This is because the bars in the direction of the smaller ones will be placed
first, the bars in the other direction.
In these reinforcements, the covering deserves special attention because the fact that the reinforcements are
mounted on-site does not exempt the need for sufficient spacers to be provided.
guarantee the coverage.
Observe on the following page the typical detail of a solid slab containing reinforcements.
positive and negative, as described below.

44
 L1 L2

23N4∅6.3 c/15 - 274

23N4∅6.3 c/15 - 274

L3
7 N3∅5.0 c/15 - 516

PositiveSlab–Scale:1:50

L1 L2

24N6∅8.0 c/15 - 136

5 130 5

L3

Blackslab-Closeit:1:50

LS
ITOFSTEEL L1L2L3 SUMMARYOFSTEEL

UNIT. C. TOTAL C. TOTAL WEIGHT + 10%

STEEL N DIAM Q STEEL DIAM
(cm) (cm) (m) (kg)
60 1 5.0 34 376 12784 CA50 6.3 211.8 57.1
2 5.0 35 101 3535 8.0 32.7 14.2
3 5.0 7 515 3612 CA60 5.0 199.3 33.8
50 4 6.3 46 274 12604 TOTAL WEIGHT Totalconcretevolume=174m3
5 6.3 34 252 8568 CA50 71.3 Totalareashape=23.92m2
6 8.0 24 136 3264 CA60 33.8 fck = 180.00 kgf / cm2
Typical slab detail

45
[Link] reinforcements

They are called that because they are positioned at the bottom of the structural piece.
Follow the following steps:
− Identify the meaning of the smallest opening.
− Mark,intheshape,thespacingofthesebarsusingchalk.
− Place them in the marked points.
− Place a bar in the opposite direction at one end of the loose bars.
− Tiethisinitially.
− Markthespacingintheotherdirection.
− Arrange the other bars.
− Complete the tying.
In rigor, all bar meetings (nodes) must be tied, however upon consultation to
calculator and depending on the spans, alternate tying can be adopted.

[Link]
Theyaresocalledbecausetheyarepositionedatthetopofthestructuralpiece.
For this reason, we put the bars, which work well when pulled.
Given the above, it is very important that these bars remain at the top of the slab during
the concreting process. To ensure this, we will fix them to a small
iron element manufactured on-site and known as 'crab'.

View of a crab

Theheightofthe'crab'shouldbesuchthatitallowsforcoverageontheupperfaceofthe
These artifacts are usually produced with leftover iron available at the construction site.
it is necessary to acquire specific bars for this. Normally, gauges are not used.
less than 8.0 mm.
Even though it often does not appear explicitly in the details, it is common in addition to the
"crabs", tie the negative bars to complementary and perpendicular bars to the
known as constructive armor.
Evenifallprecautionsaretaken,theshipownermustremainattentiveduringthe
concreting in order to set the negatives to their correct positions, when eventually
there is displacement. In a concreting process that uses a Drag Pump, care should be taken to avoid that the
hang it on the negatives.
Theassemblyofthesebarsfollowsthefollowingsteps:
− Arrange 'crabs' in sufficient numbers in the region.
− Tieyour"feet"inthepositivearmor.
− Markthespacingofthenegativesusingthebeamframeworkbetweentheslabpanels.
− Place the negative bars along the beam line, perpendicular to it.
− Checkforanyescalation.
− Tiethenegativebarsintheupperreinforcementsofthebeams
− Tiethenegativebarsoverthecrabs.

46
− Arrange a structural armor perpendicular to the negatives.
− Tiethenegativeconstructedarmortogether,solidifyingthem.

Support

Armor
negative

Armor
positive

Top view of a massive slab with the reinforcements

[Link] Slabs.
At first, the precast slabs come already reinforced by the manufacturer, this is true for the
positive reinforcements, however, in slab encounters with the same meaning as beams arises
anegativemomentthateventuallyneedsarmortocombatit.
We will then provide a negative armor according to the manufacturer's specifications. In this
if it is not necessary to use the 'crab', the beams and bricks of this slab would prevent
your fixation. Negative bars in precast slabs are usually inserted in the cover during
the concreting.
Due to the loads used, some authors recommend adopting a reinforcement of
distribution over the bricks, preventing localized stresses from reaching the beams and being able to
break them.

[Link]
Ribbedslabsarethosewheretheribsareshaped'insitu'.Theyareusuallyused
for large spans. The ribs of this type of slab present a positive reinforcement that can
topresentoneselfsupportedornot.
Thecomplementaryregionbetweenribsisfilledwithlightweightmaterial,suchaspolystyrene,forexample.
Currently,therearecompaniesinthemarketthatprovidemoldsfortheribs,producing
slabs with a great aesthetic effect when viewed from below.

47
1A
[Link]
S
psays
eu
lrateluasduepshiencstrnodurm
atihehtsem
raorsa
osil
known as raft. The rebar installer must be attentive as some designers adopt diameters and
quitedifferentspacingsforeachdirection.
Weremindtheshipownerthatwhenlaunchingtheslabinthepits,theyshouldhavealreadyreceiveda
Crushed stone and a layer of lean concrete. Never support the bars directly on the ground.
On the mesh of the footings, the reinforcement of the column (neck or stump) will be fixed, which goes from the
fundação até o primeiro vigamento, geralmente conhecido por cintamento.
As the shoe meshes are reinforced in two directions, for very large dimensions it uses
the placement of two constructive bars diagonally in the rectangle or square. This increases the
lockingallowingthetransportofthemeshwithease.
The following figure shows the typical detail provided by the engineer for the fabrication of a
shoe.

P1=P2=P3=P4 S1=S2=S3=S4
Plant
ESC.: 1:25
0.00
Cin tas – L1
100
ESC.: 1:25

20
20

20

14 94 14
16
7 N2∅8.0 c/15-118
16
10N1∅5.0-72 VAR
LS
ITOFSTEEL
25
4 x P1 4 x S1
Cut
ESC.: 1:50 UNIT. C. TOTAL
0.00 STEEL N DIAM Q
(cm) (cm)
60 1 5.0 40 72 2880
50 2 8.0 56 118 6608
3 10.0 32 VAR VAR
SUMMARYOFSTEEL

C. TOTAL WEIGHT + 10%

STEEL DIAM
(m) (kg)
CA50 8.0 66.3 28.8
10.0 74.5 50.5
CA60 5.0 29.0 4.9
Typical detail of a footing TOTAL WEIGHT Totalconcretevolume=112m3
CA50 79.3 Totalarea=8.00m2
CA60 4.9 fck = 180.00 kgf / cm2
48
Inthemakingofthefootings,therebarinstallermustfollowthesesteps:

− Identify the bars that make up the mesh, already previously cut and bent.
− Select two from each sense forming a square or rectangle depending on the
dimension of the footing.
− Tiethefourinitialknots.
− Markspacinginbothdirectionswithchalk.
− Arrange the other bars.
− Tieallthebarmeetings.

49
 [Link]
m
ectnerofoehT
nskehcotisdneplbdrnoehtm
unnt
tnesm
rhebifo.T
lrp,ipsuh
we can have copings in the most diverse shapes (square, rectangular,
triangular.
The blocks of a pile are usually reinforced like a cage. They are stirrups that cross each other.
in both directions. Those with two stakes can be set up like a cage.
closed, as open on the upper face.
The three stakes, driven in a triangle, have two styles that depend on the professional.
[Link] armam o bloco segundo as mediatrizes do triângulo outros armam na direção
theheadsofthestakes.
Observe in the following figure, details of block reinforcements.

Blockarmoronpiles

50
 1W
4. asdteisposal

TYPES OF RESIDUES CUIDADOS REQUERIDOS INITIAL CONDITIONING AT FINAL CONDITIONING

Prioritize disposal solutions that
Concrete blocks, ceramic blocks,
involve the recycling of waste, so as to create stacks formed near the generation sites, in the
mortar, other ceramic components, Preferably in stationary dumpsters.
allow its use as an addition. respective floors.
concrete, bricks, and similar materials.

Sealed bottles marked and internally lined with a bag

For use in the boiler, ensure the separation of raffia (small pieces) or in stacks formed preferably in marked bays, which may
Madeira
sawingofotherwoodwaste. proximities of the drum itself and the devices to be used with stationary dumpsters.
vertical transport (large pieces).
Plastics (packaging bags, scraps of maximum utilization of the contained materials and in marked drums coated internally with a bag
Marked bags.
pipes, etc.) cleaning of the packaging. of raffia.
Cardboard (bags and packaging boxes of Marked and internally lined bombs with a bag
Protectfrominclementweather. Bags marked or in bundles, kept
supplies used during the construction) and papers of raffia, for small volumes. As an alternative for
both in covered location.
(office) large volumes: bags or bales.
Metal(iron,steel,coatedwire,wire) Marked and internally lined bombs with a bag
There isn't. Signaled barriers.
etc.) of raffia or in bales.
Baiapara accumulated bags containing the
Sawdust Bag and protect from bad weather. Raffia sacks near the generation sites.
waste.
In buckets stationary, respecting
Coating plaster, drywall and Stacks formed near the generation sites of the
Protect from bad weather. segregation condition regarding waste
artifacts waste, on the respective floors.
of masonry and concrete.
Eventually in stacks and, preferably, for immediate use
Examine the characterization of soils planned for removal (loading of trucks or stationary dump trucks, preferably
Solos
define destination. stationary right after the removal of the waste from their location separated from the masonry and concrete waste.
of origin).
Facade and protection fabrics There isn't any. Provide in an easily accessible location and request
Collect after use and dispose of in the proper place.
immediate removal to the recipient.
EPS (Expanded Polystyrene) – example:
Constrain, avoiding dispersion. When in small pieces, place in polypropylene bags. Baiapara accumulated bags containing the residue
polystyrene
Placing, forming bales. or bags.

Hazardous waste present in packaging Handlingwiththecareobservedbythemanufacturerofthe

plastics e of metal, instruments for maximizing the use of materials to the input in the safety data sheet of the packaging or the element properly marked and for use
application such as brushes, rollers, and reduction of waste to be discarded. contaminant of the work instrument. Immediate restriction of the people who, during their tasks,
other auxiliary materials such as cloths, transportation pelousuário to the storage location handles these waste.
rags,cloths,etc. final
Uniform remnants, boots, cloths and rags
There is none. Arrangement in the bags for other waste. Bags for other waste.
without contamination by chemical products.

51
 DESTINATIONOFRESIDUALDOS(CONT.)

TYPES OF RESIDUE REMOVAL OF RESIDUES DESTINATION

TransferandSortingAreas,Areasforrecyclingor
Landfillsforconstructionwastelicensedbytheauthorities
Concrete blocks, ceramic blocks, mortars, others Truck with polycrane equipment or truck with dump truck.
competent; the waste classified as class A (blocks,
ceramic components, concrete, bricks and similar. always covered with canvas.
Tiles, mortar, and concrete in general can be recycled.
for use in pavements and concrete without structural function.
Truck with polycrane equipment, truck with dump truck or economic activities that allow the recycling of these
Madeira truck with a wooden body, respecting safety conditions for waste, the reuse of parts or the use as fuel in
the accommodation of the load in the vehicle's body, always covered with a tarpaulin. ovens or boilers.
Truck or another cargo vehicle, as long as the bags are removed sealed.
Companies, cooperatives or associations for selective collection that
Plastics (packaging bags, pipe scraps, etc.) prevent mixture with other residues in the body and dispersion during
they market or recycle these waste.
transportation.
Truck or another cargo vehicle, as long as the bags are removed closed.
Cardboard (bags and packaging boxes of supplies Companies, cooperatives, or associations of selective collection that
to prevent mixing with other residues in the body and dispersion during the
used during the work) and papers (office) they market or recycle these wastes.
transport
Metal(iron,steel,coatedwire,wire,etc.) Truck preferably equipped with a crane for lifting loads from companies, cooperatives, or associations for selective collection that
heavy or other cargo vehicles. they commercialize or recycle these waste.
Truck or another cargo vehicle, provided that the sacks or bags are removed Reuse of waste on surfaces impregnated with oil
Sawdust
closed to prevent mixing with other residues in the bodywork and dispersion for absorption and drying, production of briquettes (generation of
during transport. energy) or other uses.
Truck with poliguindaste equipment or truck with dump body, It is possible to recycle and/or utilize by the manufacturer or
Coating gesso, plasterboard and artifacts
always covered with canvas. recycling companies.
As long as they are not contaminated, direct them to small
Solos Truck with polycrane equipment or truck with tipping bucket,
grounding areas or in construction waste landfills
always covered with canvas.
Civil, both properly licensed by the competent authorities.
Truck or other cargo vehicle, with care for load containment Possible reuse for making bags and sacks or
Facade and protective fabrics
during transportation. evenbyplasticrecyclers.
Truck or other cargo vehicle, as long as the bags are removed Possible destination for companies, cooperatives or associations
EPS (Expanded Polystyrene) - example: styrofoam closed to prevent mixing with other waste in the body and dispersion of selective collection that trade, recycle or utilize
during transportation for fillings.
Hazardous waste present in plastic packaging and
metal, application tools such as brushes, paintbrushes, Forward to licensed landfills for waste reception
Truck or other cargo vehicle, always covered.
traces and other auxiliary materials such as cloths, rags, dangerous.
hempetc.
Remnants of uniform, boots, cloths, and rags without contamination Vehicles used in the public collection of household waste, following the Companies, cooperatives, or associations of selective collection that
for chemical products. limits established by the competent municipal legislation. they sell or recycle these wastes.

52
[Link]

CARDÃO, Celso. Construction techniques. 6th ed. Belo Horizonte, Engineering Editons
Architecture,[Link].

EQUIPEATLAS, Manuals of the Gisla Channel; surgery and work medicine. 38th ed. São
Paulo, 1997. 16v.

FUSCO, PériclesB.,Té cnica s de a rm a r a s e strutura s de concre to.São Paulo, Editora Pini,

s.d. 1 v.

SINDUSCON-SP. Management of construction waste. São Paulo, 2005. 48pg

Experience of SINDUSCON-SP.

FUNDACENTROAccess wil provide you with a flow of wood. São Paulo, 1991. 1 vol. (Engineering Series)
Civil, 2).

FUNDACENTRO. Measures of colective protection against fal hazards. São Paulo, 1991.
(CivilEngineering Series, 3).

SENAI-GB. Arm the iron pain. Rio de Janeiro, 1980. vol. ill. (Occupational Methodical Series, Project
ConstructionCivil.

SENAI-RJ CFP of Civil Construction. Construction Technology I. Rio de Janeiro, 1993, 29 p. il.

53
[Link]/publications

Firjan-SENAI