| | 1|− | 2| ≤

| 1|+ Open circular ring Linear transformations Mathematics for mappings

Form 2
=⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
|| 1| − | 2 || ≤ | 1− 1< | − 0<| 2 f[z_]:=expression of z
2| 1 1
Baruj F. O. An open connected set is called : → g[t_]:=expresión de t
Notation Polar form of the domain Matrix multiplication is a w[t_] = f[g[t]]
composition of linear transformations ParametricPlot[{Re[w[t]],Im[w[t]]},{t,a,b}]
⇒ so complex numbers ABx = A(B(x)) Where a and b are the limits of t
⇔ if and only if The determinant tells you how to Linear mappings
= ( cos θ + i sin θ =)
¬ ! negation =| | compress the space or it expands and the (ó) = +
∧ and logical ()
θ = arg z= ( )+ 2 ∀ ∈ change of sign is an inverted sense ó( ) = ( + )
=
∨ the logical Main argument Base change |a| = 1
⊕ ⊻ xor is a type of or that gives − < ( )≤ = ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ -1 =⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ ⃗⃗⃗⃗ ó( ) = a, a > 0
false if both are true 1 2= 1 2
1( +2 ) And matrix with the column space of the ( )| | = ( )+
1 1 new base | |
∀ for everyone = (1 − 2 )
Xyvector seen from that base = ( ( ( ) ))
∃ there is, there is at least one 2 2
Moivre's formula A closed set is one that has Xmyhow do I see that vector
∃! There is exactly one = = (cos cθ + i sin cθ) Transformation using base change
all its border points ( )0= 0
:= ≡ ⇔ : It is defined as Some important properties A set S is bounded -1 ⃗⃗⃗⃗ = ⃗⃗⃗⃗ ó () =
⊢ deduce that 1-z +1 yes∃ |z|<M∀z∈S M as I see a transformation ó
1+z+z2+ ⋯ + =
A⇒ B⊢ ¬B ⇒ not A 1-z And how does a transformation look with that () =−
1 + cos theta + cos2θ + ... + cos βθ = ... Applications base Complex exponential function
Number Form 1 Eigenvalues and eigenvectors = (cos (y)+ ( ) )∀ ℂ
sin(( + ) 2 ) as2bz + c = 0
Complexes …= +
1 For all 0 < θ − ± √ 2-4ac = It is periodic +20 =
2 = Characteristic equation
= + 2-1 2 sin 2 ( ) = | − |=0
2
<2 EDO Constant coefficients
i imaginary unit Eigenvectors are obtained by
+2 +2 ay'' + by' + cy = g(x)
z1=z2⇔ a1=a2∧ b1=b2 √ = √ (cos + i sin ) find the solutions for certain λ
ℎ= They are the vectors that are scaled by a certain amount.
z1±z2= (a1±a2) +i(b1±b2) K=0,1,2,…,n-1 ℎ= 1
1 + 2 2
self-worth
z1z2= (a1a2-b1b2) +i(a1b2+a2b1) ℎ= 1 + 2
1 1
The principal n-th root 0 | |= arg (e=) + 2
it is when k=0 and θ=Arg(z) ℎ = ( 1 cos h + C2 sin(θ) ) -1 =[ 1
]=D
1 1 2 0 =
= . 2
V is the matrix with the column space of Complex logarithm function
2 2 2 Sets of points in the g(x) yp
1 2+ 1 2 1 2− 1 2 2+ 2 − 1 2+ the eigenvectors and D is the diagonal matrix F( z=
) ln z(=) | +| ( +2 )
= + complex plan +
2+ 2 2+ 2 2 with the eigenvalues = | |+ ( )
2 2 2 2 5 2 2x without a doubt [( + + ) without 3
= -1 The principal value of the complex logarithm
Conjugated Circle centered at z0and radio p +( 2+ + ) cos3degrees] 2x -1
= is
−= | − 0| = p>0 If andh=C1e +C2e and furthermore g(x)=e
x -x x
Note: To verify that certain vectors ( ) = Ln( )z = | | + ( )
Radio disc p So andpAxex 1
= − =− So you take the determinant of the = | | + () ∀− < <
| − 0| ≤ y'' + py' + qy = 0
( 1+ 2 ) = 1+ 2 −∫ space column generated by those ln (z1 2ln) 1+ ln ( )2 ( )
Neighborhood of z0
Leave from 2= 1∫ so and2is vectors and must be non-zero 1
1 2= 1∗ 2 ln( = ) ln 1−( ln) 2 ( )
2
| − 0| <
1
Linearly independent of y1 2
[ =]
1 1 Exclusive neighborhood of z0
There are also applications in the EDO.
Complex functions ln z = ()
2 2 0< | − 0<| These properties do not always
Open set Second order in RLC circuits () : → ⊆ ∧ ⊆
+ − they comply with the main value
() = () = HermitianMatrix yes = = = + =
2 2 ( ) = ( , ) + ( ,)
= ⇔ ∈ Asymmetric Hermitian Matrix = − ( ) = ( , θ) + ( , )
=− ⇔ ( ) =0 Unitary / orthonormal yes = -1 Parametric curves in the plane
Module and properties Orthogonal matrix = -1 complex
| | = √ 2+ 2 An orthonormal matrix is one whose Line with points z0y z1
column vectors are unitary and ( ) = 0(1 - t+ ) 1 Power function n-th
| 1 |2= | 1 || 2 | The border points only exist in
orthogonal to each other. If you want to transform into a segment = = (cos(θ) + i sin(θ))
1 | 1| closed sets
| | = = = -1 | | = +1 between those points then Principal nth root function
2 | 2| The Eigenvalues of a Hermitian matrix 0≤t≤1 ( ) ( )
| 2| | =|2 = ∗ they are real numbers and their eigenvectors Circle centered at z0 √ = √ | | (cos + i sin )
| 2− 1=| ( √2− 1 ) + ( 22− 1 ) 2 they are orthogonal ( ) = 0+ 0≤t≤2 Note f(z) is a function and F(z) is a
Triangle inequality A matrix operator of projections multivalued function like the n-th root
| 1+ 2≤| |1+| |2 | the one who projects a vector towards a esima
subspace.
 Reciprocal function Inverse trigonometric functions L'Hôpital's Rule Analyticity Property
1 1 −
sin-1 =− [ + (1 2 2
- z)
1
] ( ) ′( ) If two functions are analytic in a ( ,)
= lim lim
1 →0 ( ) → 0 ′( ) domain D then f+g, f-g, fg, f/g ℎ
To visualize, you must invert the circle. cos-1z = -i ln[ +
(1 - z) ]2 2 Continuity whenever g(z) is not 0 in D. −
unitary (if it was inside it goes outside and + ( ) , ( ) ,
tan -1 = ( ) ( )lim f
0si = (Note:
0 ) Differentiability implies continuity
vice versa) and then make its conjugate 2 − →0
Cauchy-Riemann Equations ó
that is, a mirror on the axis of the reals. Inverse hyperbolic functions A branch of a function
If a function is differentiable in a domain
Property: Lines map to circles sinh-1z = ln[ +( +2 1) ]
1
2
multivalued F is a function f1what is
D then satisfies the equations of
Applications
1 continues in some domain and assigns
cosh-1z = ln[ + ( −2 1) ] 2 Cauchy-Riemann in that domain Orthogonal families
exactly one of the multiple values
1 1+z + = 0 ( ) =Φ
Ω ( ), +( Ψ) ,
tanh-1 = ( ) of F at each point z of that domain.
2 1-z Branch cuts: It is a part of a = =− ( ,) = 1 ( ,) = 2
Applications curve that is excluded from the domain of F by
Partial u 1 1u
what f1it continues at the points that = =−
Euclidean unisometry is a function
they are missing. ( 1, 2 )
complex that fulfills Criterion for non-analyticity
Branch point: Point that is in the Application Φ(x,y)=c1Ψ(x,y)=c2
Complex power function | 2− 1= | | ( 2)− 1( |) If the Cauchy-Riemann equations do not
cut of each branch. Lines of
( ) () = | |+ =1 are fulfilled in a domain D then the electrostatics
() = =
1 A group is a set G with a Applications function could not be analytical in that strength
= 1+ 2 = 1− 2 Curves Lines of
1 2
function from GxG to G called operation domain.
2
Complex functions can be seen Flow of
( ) = para = 0, +1, −1, … binary that meets the following Criterion for analyticality equipotential current
vector fields fluids
Principal value of the power function properties: For f to be analytic, the following must be satisfied: ciales of flow
complex i)∀a, b and c in G, ∗ ( ∗) = ( ∗) ∗ bidimensional that can be graphed 1) u and v continuous Lines of
using Mathematica Gravitation
() = = ( )
= ( ( ) + ) ii) ∃! ∶ ∗ = ∗ = 2) Continuous partial derivatives of u and v strength
iii)∀ ∃ ∶ ∗ = ∗ = ( ,) = ( ), (+ ) , 3)Satisfacer las ecuaciones de Cauchy- Lines of
− < < Flow of
2 (
Planar-1fluid flow Riemann flow isotherms
1 ) ≠1 2 heat
Trigonometric functions Then Isom(E) = az + b |a| = 1 = ( , ) The 3 conditions in the domain D. heat
− − − − It is a group with all the functions of Sufficient conditions for the The application in fluid flow requires
sin z= cos z = that type as elements and the = ( , ) derivability that the fluid is ideal, that is to say,
2 2
Periodicity composition of functions is the operation u and v are continuous in a neighborhood incompressible and irrotational.
The solution is the streamlines of the
sin z +2pi = sin binary of that group. That group is called Continuous partial derivatives of u and v ∇∗F=0 F=0
flow in the associated plane
cos z +2pi = cos orientation-conservation group you continue in a neighborhood of z Dirichlet problems
Other definitions of isometries of the Euclidean plane. Derivatives 3) Satisfy the Cauchy equations - Given a domain D of the plane and g which is
sin z= sin α cosh y + i cos α sinh y Limits Riemann in z a function defined on the boundary C of
( 0+ ) − ( 0 )
cos z= cos θ cosh y - i sin θ sinh y ′( )0= lim Then the derivative in z is D. The problem of finding a function
| sin z=| √(sin) + (sinh2 y) 2 lim f ( ) = Δ →0 ′( ) = =− Φ(x,y), which satisfies the equation of
→0 ( ) − ( 0)
| cos z=| √(cos ) + (sinh2 2 si ∀ε > 0 ∃δ : | ( ) − < | = lim Laplace in D and what is equal to g in the
y) →0 − 0 ′( ) = − ( + )= −
sin z= 0 ∀ = always that 0 < −| 0< | border C of D is called a problem of
The derivatives are the same as in the 1 − 1
(2k + 1) Criterion for the non-existence of a limit ′( ) = ( − )=− − Dirichlet.
cos z= 0 ∀z = real functions for addition, subtraction,
2 If f tends to two complex numbers Property
multiplication and division, and even the rule Constant functions
That is to say, the zeros of these functions different across two different () =( ), +( ) ,
from the chain If f is analytic in a domain D
they are only on the real line curves that pass through z0then
Analyticity at a point | ( )| = ′( ) = 0 eD ′ ,
The functions tan z, cot z, sec z, csc z ()
lim f(z)=
→0 A complex function w=f(z) is said to () = ( ) ′ = .
they have singular points when there is a Pareal and imaginary parts it is analytic at a point z0if f is differentiable Properties If the function ,( ) ó ′ ,
division by 0. lim f ( ) = ⇔ in z0and at each point of a neighborhood of
The mappings of sin z and cos z are like: →0
| ′( |
) = 2+ 2= 2+ 2
ó
lim u ( , )= 0∧ lim (, )= 0 z0. Harmonic Functions ( ,) = ( ( ,) ( , )),
→0 →0 An analytic function in a domain D Son funciones que satisfacen la ecuación .
The properties of addition and subtraction
it is also called Holomorphic or Regular of Laplace
multiplication and division of limits in the Entire function: analytic function everywhere 2 2
reality is fulfilled. point of the complex plane.
2 = + 2 =0
2
Hyperbolic functions Limits at infinity Examples of integer functions: 2 2
− − + −
1 2
sinh z= cosh z= lim f ( ) = L ⇔ lim f( )= polynomials, rational except the = 2 2
+ + =0 2
2 2 →∞ →0 division by 0, exponentials, sin(z),
1
( ) ∞ ⇔ lim
lim f(z)= =0 cos(z), hyperbolic. Property
i sin z = sinh iz cos z= cosh(iz) →0 →0 ( )
i sinh z = sin iz cosh z= cos iz Singular points: points where a () =( ), +( ) ,
Complex function is not analytic. ( ) ( ) , ,
 Evaluation with y=f(x) Antiderivative Fundamental theorem of algebra
Derivatives ( ) If f is continuous in D and there exists a function If p(z) is a non-constant polynomial of
= + ( ) = (1 + i ) F such that F'(z) = f(z) for every z in D degree n, then p(z)=0 has
= A bounding theorem So F is the antiderivative of f. exactly n zeros (counting zeros
() 1 If f is continuous on a smooth curve C and if Fundamental theorem of calculus for multiple).
= | ( )| ≤ , contour integrals Morera's theorem
-1
If f is continuous on D and F is its antiderivative If f is continuous in a domain
= |∫ ( ) |≤ in D. then for any simply connected contour C in D and if the integral of
( ) in D with initial point z0and period z1. contour is zero for each contour
= ( ) Line integrals length of the curve
closed C in D, then f is analytic in
() ∮ ( ) = ( ) 1− ( 0 ) D.
=− () ∫ ( , ) = lim ∑ ( ∗, ∗) =∫ = ∫√ 2+ 2
‖ ‖ →0 Maximum Modulus Theorem
() =1 *Part this is because the fact that
= 2( ) Cauchy-Goursat Theorem If f is analytic and not constant in a
the existence of an antiderivative implies analyticity
Suppose that a function f is analytic in closed region R bounded by a curve
() which implies independence from
=− 2( ) ∫ ( , ) = lim ∑ ( ∗, ∗)
a simply connected domain D. simple closed C. Then the module of
‖ ‖ →0 trajectory.
( ) =1 So for every closed contour |f(z)| reaches its maximum at C.
= sec( )tan( ) Existence of an antiderivative
simple and not simple C in D
∫ ( , ) = lim ∑ ( ∗
,∗) If f is analytic in a domain
() ‖ ‖ →0 simply connected D. Then f has
= - cscz ( cot
)( ) =1 ∮ ( )dz = 0
− − an antiderivative in D.
(ℎ) = =
= cosh (z ) Example Cauchy's integral formula
−
∗= + ( ) 2 =1 If f is analytic in a domain
( ℎ) ∮ ={
= (ℎ) − ( − 0) 0 ≠1 simply connected D and C is any
∗= + ( ) simple closed contour content
(ℎ) Always Let C be a curve that does not pass through totalmente en D. Entonces, para cualquier
= (
2ℎ ) Evaluation methods: by z0 point z0inside C.
( ℎ) C defined parametrically
=− 2ℎ( ) Cauchy-Goursat Theorem for 1 ( )
( ) ( )0 = ∮
= multiplex connected domains
( ℎ) 2 − 0
= - sechz ( tanh
) () ( )
= ∮ ( ) =∑∫ ( ) Integral formula from Cauchy to
ℎ( )
= -csch( )coth( ) =1 derivatives
2 2 If f is analytic in a domain
d sin-1 1 =√( +) ( )
= 1
simply connected D and C is any
(1 - z 2)2 simple closed contour located
C defined by a function y=f(x)
d cos-1 -1 totally in D. So, for any
= ( )
1 = point z0 inside C.
(1 - z )2 2
! ( )
d tan-1 1 ( )( ) = ∮
= ( )2 0
2 ( − 0 ) +1
1+z2 =√1 +( )
The derivative of an analytic function is
Complex integration Property analytics.
Definition of the integral of real variable Independence of the trajectory If f is analytic in a domain
∫ + =−∫ + Sean z0y z1points of a domain D. A simply connected D. Then f has
−
∫ ( ) = lim ∑ ( ∗) Complex or contour integral derivatives of all orders in each
‖ ‖ →0 () ∮
=1 It is not necessary for a function to be point z in D. The derivatives f’, f’’, f’’’,… are
− analytical functions in D.
= analytics on the C curve for it to exist what is independent of the trajectory
the integral its value is the same for everyone Cauchy inequality
−
∗= + ( ) contours C in D with the initial point z0y If f is analytical in a domain
∫ () = lim ∑ ( ∗) the final point z1. simply connected D and C is a
Types of curves ‖ ‖ →0
=1 Analyticity implies independence of circumference defined by |z-z|0What is it?
− is completely in D. If |f(z)|≤M
= + = trajectory
If f is analytic in a domain for all points z in C, then:
∗= ∗+ ∗=
− !
+ ( ) simply connected D and C is any | ( () )0≤|
Parametric C evaluation contour in D.
Liouville's Theorem
(∮) The only bounded integer functions are
∫ () =∫ ( ( )) ′( )
constants.
from trajectory C.