Unit: BIODIVERSITY

(Reading material exclusively for students of IDC ES 541)

Content
• Definition
• Biodiversity principles, values and threats
• Protecting biodiversity: legal and non-legal bindings
• Biodiversity of NE India

WHAT IS BIODIVERSITY?
- the sum of total of life forms at all levels of organization in biological system.

Biodiversity is defined as “the intrinsically-inbuilt plus the externally-imposed variability in

and among living organisms existing in terrestrial, marine and other ecosystem at a
specific period of time”.

• Article 2 of the CBD defines “Biological diversity means the variability among living
organisms from all sources including, inter alia, terrestrial, marine and other aquatic
ecosystems and the ecological complexes of which they are part; this includes
biological diversity within species and ecosystems”.

• “Biodiversity includes assemblages of plant, animals and micro-organisms, their

genetic variability expressed and populations, their habitats, ecosystems and natural
areas, the mosaic of which constitutes the landscape which gives the richness to the
natural environment” (Denny, 1997).

• For the assessment of global biodiversity, it is defined as the total diversity and
variability of living organisms and of the systems of which they are a part. This
covers the total range of variation and variability among systems and organisms at the
bioregional, landscapes, ecosystem, habitat (levels), and organismal level down to
species, populations, individuals and genes (genetic diversity) [Heywood, 1995].

According to Edward Wilson “Biodiversity is the combined diversity at all the levels of
biological organization.”

History of Biodiversity

The term ‘diversity’ is not new, rather has a long history, but ‘biological diversity’ came into
use in scientific literature only in the 1980s. The term was first coined by Lovejoy who,
however, did not provide any formal definition to it, but considered it as only the number of
species (Lovejoy, 1980). Rosen in 1985 used the term ‘biodiversity’ in the first planning
conference of the ‘National Forum on Biodiversity’, Washington D. C., on Sept. 1986.
Wilson (1988) edited the proceedings of the conference titled Biodiversity, and this
popularized the concept.
Convention on Biological Diversity in June 1992, constituted a historical commitment
by all (many) nations of the world. For the first time, biodiversity was comprehensively
addresses in this global treaty. At the same time the genetic diversity was considered and
conservation of biodiversity was accepted as the common concern for the cause of human
welfare (Gatson, 1998).

How Many Species are there on Earth and How Many in India?
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biodiversity range from daily to seasonal to annual, and evolutionary. Another dimension is
Functional biodiversity, that is, the role that a group of organisms plays in the web of life.
So, biodiversity is a large subject that can be studied from a variety of angles.

Levels of biodiversity

Biodiversity is commonly considered at three different levels:

1. Within species (intraspecific) diversity; usually measured in terms of genetic differences
between individuals or populations.
2. Species (interspecific) diversity, measured as a combination of number and evenness of
abundance of species.
3. Community or ecosystem diversity, measured as the number of different species
assemblages.

Biodiversity, therefore, is usually considered at three hierarchical levels i.e.

Genetic, Species and Community and Ecosystem levels.

1. Genetic diversity
Genetic diversity refers to any variation in the nucleotides, genes, chromosomes, or
whole genomes of organisms. This is the “fundamental currency of diversity” (Williams and
Humphries, 1996) and the basis for all other organismal diversity.

 Genetic diversity is the sum total of genetic information, contained in the genes of
individuals of plants, animals and microorganisms that inhabit the earth.
 It is needed by any species in order to maintain reproductive vitality, resistance to
disease and the ability to adapt to changing conditions.
 It enables a population to adapt to its environment and to respond to natural selection.
 The amount of genetic variation is the basis of speciation.
 Genetic diversity within a species often increases with environmental variability.
 Such genetic variability has made it possible to produce new breed of crops plants
and domestic animals, and in the world allowed species to adapt to changing
conditions.

2. Species diversity:
• A group of organisms genetically so similar, that they can interbreed and produce
fertile offsprings is called a species.
• The species diversity is usually measured in terms of the total number of species
within discrete geographical boundaries.

Species diversity - “species are groups of actually or potentially interbreeding natural

populations that are reproductively isolated from other such groups” (Mayr 1963)
• Species are distinct units of diversity each playing a specific role in the ecosystem.
• In nature, both the number and kind of species, as well as the number of individuals
per species vary, leading to greater diversity.

The different sample areas showing species richness (sample area 1), Species evenness
(sample area 2) and diversity due to taxonomically unrelated species (sample area 3).

3. Community-level diversity:

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It is defined by the species that occupy a particular locality and the interactions between
them. It represents the collective response of species to different environmental conditions.
Biological communities such as deserts, grasslands, wetlands, and forest support the
continuity of proper ecosystem functioning by providing ecological beneficial services to
people.

Diversity at the level of community and ecosystem exists along 3 levels.

• It could be within-community diversity (alpha diversity),

• between-communities diversity (beta diversity) or

• diversity of the habitats over the total landscape or geographical area (gamma
diversity).

Alpha, Beta, and Gamma Diversity

Whittaker (1972) described three terms for measuring biodiversity over spatial scales: alpha,
beta, and gamma diversity.
• Alpha Diversity refers to the diversity within a particular area or ecosystem, and is
usually expressed by the number of species (i.e., species richness) in that ecosystem.

• Beta diversity: a comparison of diversity between ecosystems, usually measured as

the amount of species change between the ecosystems .

• Gamma diversity: a measure of the overall diversity within a large region.

Geographic-scale species diversity according to Hunter (2002)

BIODIVERSTY PRINCIPLES

1. Go native - Native areas (wetlands, aquatic areas, riparian areas, forests/woodlands, and
grasslands) provide the most important contribution to biodiversity on land.
2. Semi-natural is valuable -Semi-natural areas (e.g., shelterbelts, hedgerows, pastures and
haylands, buffers, road margins) also contribute to the conservation of biodiversity.
3. Location - The location, pattern, and seasonal availability of habitat influences the type
and amount of biodiversity present.

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4. Connection - Connecting native and semi-natural areas of land and with neighbouring
landscapes is important to biodiversity.
5. Achieving structural diversity- The variation in physical structure of both native
vegetation and crops—on the land provides an important contribution to biodiversity.
6. Healthy ecosystems - The health of native and semi-natural areas, all other farmland, and
soil and water influences the type and amount of biodiversity present.
7. Variety - The number and mix of species present, including crops and livestock,
influences the type and amount of biodiversity present.
8. Aliens - Invasive alien species are generally detrimental to the conservation of
biodiversity.

THE VALUES OF BIOLOGICAL DIVERSITY

• Human society depend on biological diversity for almost all the food supply, half of
its medicines, much of its clothing and in some region virtually all of its fuel and
building material and as well as, of course, an important part of its mental and
spiritual welfare.
• Ecological services

Biological diversity as a resource

The three main approaches used for determining the value of biological resources.

• Consumptive use value: The biological resources are consumed directly, without
passing to the market. Assessing the value of nature’s products - such as fire wood,
fodder, game meat, etc.
• Productive use value: The resource comes through market or trading. Assessing the
value of products that are commercially harvested, such as timber, fish, game meat
sold in a market, ivory, and medicinal plants.
• Non-consumptive use value: The resources meant for the future potential uses of
biodiversity (tourism, scientific research) and ecological balance.
Indirect use - Ecological services

Benefits of biodiversity
• Economical benefits –
a) Food value – providing food to the human population on this earth for
thousands of years. In the process of development of human civilization, man
has unfolded many plant and animal life forms which are directly or indirectly
helpful for him in solving his food problem. Due to the scientific advancement
many new taxa have been discovered which are high yielding.
b) Commercial value –timber which is a major component of material used for
providing shelter to man. Natural fibres like cotton and silk are still used for
clothing by human population.
c) Medicinal value –Medicines, drugs and pharmaceuticals. Many plant genetic
resources are used from derivation of basic drugs. These plant resources vary
from actinomycetes and fungi to large trees.
Traditional knowledge of indigenous people still keeps an edge over the
scientific knowledge in this field.

This benefit of biodiversity is still unexplored as the scientists could assess a

small fraction of biodiversity for their potential for medicine and agriculture.

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 • Aesthetic value – Man has always been fascinated by the natural beauty and nature
has inspired him resulting in development of his moral and ethical values.
This intrinsic value of plants and animals are independent of their economic and
commercial value. Wonderful plants and animals of this planet not only reflect their
aesthetic value but they can make us think of the creator. This opens doors for
spiritually which envisages to live in harmony with the nature.

• Ecological benefits/services (Indirect use value) – Biodiversity supplies the

buffering capacity and stability to life on the planet by maintaining the interactive
dynamics of the ecosystems of the world.

THREATS TO BIODIVERSITY
 Growing human population
- specific types of human actions that threatened biodiversity and ecosystems
and causes to extinction of many species are:
 Over-hunting/over-exploitation
 Habitat loss/ degradation/fragmentation
 Deforestation
 Invasion of non-native species
 Pollution
 Climate change
 Cultural impacts

Over-exploitation: Humans have always depended on nature for food and shelter, but when
‘need’ turns to ‘greed’, it leads to over-exploitation of natural resources.

Habitat loss/degradation/fragmentation is an important cause of known extinctions. As

deforestation proceeds in tropical forests, this promises to become the cause of mass
extinctions caused by human activity. All species have specific food and habitat needs. The
more specific these needs and localized the habitat, the greater the vulnerability of species to
loss of habitat to agricultural land, livestock, roads and cities. In the future, the only species
that survive are likely to be those whose habitats are highly protected, or whose habitat
corresponds to the degraded state associated with human activity.

The Amazon rain forest (it is so huge that it is called the ‘lungs of the planet’) harbouring
probably millions of species is being cut and cleared for cultivating soya beans or for
conversion to grasslands for raising beef cattle. Besides total loss, the degradation of many
habitats by pollution also threatens the survival of many species. When large habitats are
broken up into small fragments due to various human activities, mammals and birds requiring
large territories and certain animals with migratory habits are badly affected, leading to
population declines.

Habitat fragmentation is a further aspect of habitat loss that often goes unrecognized. The
forest or other habitat that remains generally is in small, isolated bits rather than in large,
intact units. Environmental fluctuations, disease, and other chance factors make such small
isolates highly vulnerable to extinction. Any species that requires a large home range, such as
a grizzly bear, tiger, etc will not survive if the area is too small. Moreover, small land units
(fragments) are strongly affected by their surroundings, in terms of climate, dispersing
species, etc. As a consequence, the ecology of a small isolate may differ from that of a similar
ecosystem on a larger scale.
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Alien species invasions: When alien species are introduced unintentionally or deliberately
for whatever purpose, some of them turn invasive, and cause decline or extinction of
indigenous species. E.g. environmental damage caused and threat posed to our native species
by invasive weed species like carrot grass (Parthenium), Lantana and water hyacinth
(Eicchornia). The recent illegal introduction of the African catfish Clarias gariepinus for
aquaculture purposes is posing a threat to the indigenous catfishes in our rivers.

Pollution: Chemical contaminant certainly poses a further threat to species and ecosystems.
While not commonly a cause of extinction, it likely can be for species whose range is
extremely small, and threatened by contamination.
Climate changes: A changing global climate threatens species and ecosystems. The
distribution of species (biogeography) is largely determined by climate, as is the distribution
of ecosystems and plant vegetation zones (biomes) [GCI,11/8]. Climate change may simply
shift these distributions but, for a number of reasons, plants and animals may not be able to
adjust. The pace of climate change almost certainly will be more rapid than most plants are
able to migrate. For these reasons, some species and ecosystems are likely to be eliminated
by climate change. Agricultural production likely will show regional variation in gains and
losses, depending upon crop and climate.

Based on the degree of threats face by the species, species are categories into different
conservation category i.e. Extinct, Endangered, Vulnerable and Risk. Therefore, it is
pertinent to protect and conserve the existing biodiversity for the socio-economic
development and ecological balance. Every species have its role in the environment.

The IUCN Red List (2004) documents the extinction of 784 species (including 338
vertebrates, 359 invertebrates and 87 plants) in the last 500 years. Some examples of recent
extinctions include the dodo (Mauritius), quagga (Africa), thylacine (Australia), Steller’s Sea
Cow (Russia) and three subspecies (Bali, Javan, Caspian) of tiger. The last twenty years
alone have witnessed the disappearance of 27 species.

Threatened Species Categories (According to IUCN)

Extinct (E) A taxon is Extinct when there is no reasonable doubt that that the last
individual has died.
Critically A taxon is Critically Endangered when it is facing an extremely high
Endangered (CR) risk of extinction in the wild in the immediate future.
Endangered (EN) A taxon is Endangered when it is not Critically Endangered but facing
a very high risk of extinction in the wild in the near future.
Vulnerable (VU) A taxon is Vulnerable when it is not Critically Endangered but facing
a high risk of extinction in the wild in the medium-term future.
Lower Risk (LR) A taxon is Lower Risk when it has been evaluated, does not satisfy the
criteria for any of the categories CR, E, or VU.
Endemic species: Species restricted to a particular region or ecosystem due to various
environmental factors or due to the barriers of dispersal.
Rare species: Some species are naturally rare due to presence in small numbers.

THREAT CATEGORIES

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 Threatened species of India
Taxonomic group Number of threatened species
Mammals 86
Birds 73
Reptiles 25
Amphibians 3
Fish 3
Molluscs 2
Other vertebrates 21
Plants 244
Total 459
Source: IUCN 2000

BIODIVERSITY CONSERVATION

Why Should We Conserve Biodiversity?

There are many reasons, some obvious and others not so obvious, but all equally important.
They can be grouped into three categories: narrowly utilitarian, broadly utilitarian, and
ethical.

The narrowly utilitarian arguments for conserving biodiversity are obvious; humans derive
countless direct economic benefits from nature food (cereals, pulses, fruits), firewood, fibre,
construction material, industrial products (tannins, lubricants, dyes, resins, perfumes ) and
products of medicinal importance. More than 25 per cent of the drugs currently sold in the
market worldwide are derived from plants and 25,000 species of plants contribute to the
traditional medicines used by native peoples around the world. Nobody knows how many
more medicinally useful plants there are in tropical rain forests waiting to be explored. With
increasing resources put into ‘bioprospecting’ (exploring molecular, genetic and species-level

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diversity for products of economic importance), nations endowed with rich biodiversity can
expect to reap enormous benefits.

The broadly utilitarian argument says that biodiversity plays a major role in many
ecosystem services that nature provides. The fast dwindling Amazon forest is estimated to
produce, through photosynthesis, 20 per cent of the total oxygen in the earth’s atmosphere.
Can we put an economic value on this service by nature? You can get some idea by finding
out how much your neighborhood hospital spends on a cylinder of oxygen. Pollination
(without which plants cannot give us fruits or seeds) is another service, ecosystems provide
through pollinators layer – bees, bumblebees, birds and bats. What will be the costs of
accomplishing pollination without help from natural pollinators? There are other intangible
benefits – that we derive from nature–the aesthetic pleasures of walking through thick woods,
watching spring flowers in full bloom or waking up to a bulbul’s song in the morning. Can
we put a price tag on such things?

The ethical argument for conserving biodiversity relates to what we owe to millions of plant,
animal and microbe species with whom we share this planet. Philosophically or spiritually,
we need to realise that every species has an intrinsic value, even if it may not be of current or
any economic value to us. We have a moral duty to care for their well-being and pass on our
biological legacy in good order to future generations.

Biodiversity knows no political boundaries and its conservation is therefore collective

responsibilities of all nations.

PROTECTING BIODIVERSITY: LEGAL AND NON-LEGAL BINDINGS

Conservation of biodiversity
• Conservation of biodiversity is essential for the human survival, notably through
health, food and industry.
• All forms of life-human, animal and plants are so closely interlinked that disturbance
in one gives rise to imbalance in the others.
• If species of plants and animals become endangered they signify degradation in the
environment, which may threaten man’s own existence.
• The maintenance of biodiversity at all levels is fundamentally the maintenance of
viable population of species or identifiable populations.
• Approaches of biodiversity conservation should be concise with due consideration of
national problems.
• Priority should be given first to conserve those species which have vital resource
which benefit to mankind at shorter duration and also to conserve threatened,
endangered and rare species of the nation.
• In situ and ex situ conservation of biodiversity should be done for those species which
are threatened, rare, endangered as well as species expenditure.
• Extraction of timber from the forest areas should be based on ecological planning by
taking into the consideration of stability of ecosystem.
• The scientific knowledge of biodiversity conservation should not be restricted on
paper that should be spread among the people through the mass communication,
training, awareness programmes at the grassroots level.
• An approach of sustainable harvest or exploitation of the species will be helpful for
the conservation of biodiversity, offering all the basic necessities for the subsistence
of man's life.
• Therefore, sustainable use of resources and sustainable development are highly
needed in order to save the loss of biodiversity.

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How do we conserve Biodiversity?

In situ conservation - In India, ecologically unique and biodiversity-rich regions are legally
protected as biosphere reserves, national parks and sanctuaries. India has also a history of
religious and cultural traditions that emphasized protection of nature eg. Sacred groves.

Ex situ Conservation– In this approach, threatened animals and plants are taken out from their
natural habitat and placed in special setting where they can be protected and given special
care and protective maintenance. Examples; zoological parks and botanical gardens, in vitro
fertilisation, tissue culture propagation and cryopreservation of gametes.

Forests and wildlife

The Forest (Conservation) Act, 1980
This Act was adopted to protect and conserve forests. The Act restricts the powers of the state
in respect of de-reservation of forests and use of forestland for non-forest purposes (the
term ?non-forest purpose? includes clearing any forestland for cultivation of cash crops,
plantation crops, horticulture or any purpose other than re-afforestation).

The Wildlife (Protection) Act, 1972, Amendment 1991

The WPA (Wildlife Protection Act), 1972, provides for protection to listed species of flora
and fauna and establishes a network of ecologically-important protected areas. The WPA
empowers the central and state governments to declare any area a wildlife sanctuary, national
park or closed area. There is a blanket ban on carrying out any industrial activity inside these
protected areas. It provides for authorities to administer and implement the Act; regulate the
hunting of wild animals; protect specified plants, sanctuaries, national parks and closed areas;
restrict trade or commerce in wild animals or animal articles; and miscellaneous matters. The
Act prohibits hunting of animals except with permission of authorized officer when an animal
has become dangerous to human life or property or so disabled or diseased as to be beyond
recovery (WWF-India, 1999). The near-total prohibition on hunting was made more effective
by the Amendment Act of 1991.

National Parks
Definition: An area dedicated by statute for all time, to conserve the scenery and natural and
historical objects of national significance, to conserve wild life therein and to provide for the
enjoyment of the same in such manner and by such means as will leave them unimpaired for
the enjoyment of future generations, with such modifications a local conditions may
demand”. (IBWL 1952)

Wildlife Sanctuary
Definition: It is an area where killing and capturing of any species of birds or animals is
prohibited except under orders of competent authority and whole boundaries and
characteristics should be sacrosanct (free from outrage) as far as possible”. (IBWL 1952)

Aims of establishment of National Parks and Wildlife Sanctuary

The sanctuaries and national parks (Protected areas) are established with the view to:-
1. Adequate representation of bio-geographic diversity.
2. Proper geographic distributions of PAs across prominent wilderness belts.
3. Setting-up new PAs rationalizing boundaries of existing ones so as to meet the
imperative in the above 1 & 2.
4. Overcoming management deficiencies in PAs.
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 5. Promoting corridor values (conducive to movement of major mammals and long
terms, long ranging gene-travel of all species of flora and fauna) through forests and
multiple-use areas that lie between PAs in a given wilderness belt.
6. Establishing a monitoring mechanism to access the viability of network of PAs.

Difference between NP and WLS

• National park is declared by the state government under section 35(1) of the Wild Life
(Protection) Act, 1972; whereas sanctuary is declared under section 18(1) of the Act.

• In NP, the boundary is well-defined and accurate at the time of its declaration; while
the boundary is demarcated approximately at the time of its declaration in sanctuary.
• The claim of right of land of the people is settled before its declaration in NP; whereas
in case of sanctuary the same is settled after its declaration.

• No alternation of the boundaries of the NP shall be made except on a resolution

passed by Legislative Assembly of the State Government; but on contrary, in
sanctuary, such alternation may be done by the order of the state Government.

• In NP grazing is not permissible while in sanctuary grazing and movement of the

cattle may be permitted for the benefit of wild animals.

• In sanctuary, the Chief Wildlife warden may pass his/her order after getting
concurrence of the state Government to kill or catch the certain wild animal for the
welfare of wild community and he/she is also empowered to dismiss the order; but in
case of NP, such order is governed by the state Government itself and then the Chief
Wild Life warden issues the concerned order which cannot de dismissed by him/her.
The status and degree of permanency and protection is, therefore, much higher in NP than in
a sanctuary.

Biosphere Reserve
Biosphere reserves are areas of terrestrial and coastal ecosystems promoting solutions to
reconcile the conservation of biodiversity with its sustainable use.
They are internationally recognized, nominated by national governments and remain under
sovereign jurisdiction of the states where they are located.

Biosphere reserves serve in some ways as 'living laboratories' for testing out and
demonstrating integrated management of land, water and biodiversity.
Collectively, biosphere reserves form a World Network. Within this network, exchanges of
information, experience and personnel are facilitated. There are over 480 biosphere reserves
in over 100 countries.

To prevent loss of biodiversity, the Government of India is setting up 17 biosphere reserves

in different parts of the country. (Ministry of Environment and Forests: "Annual Report
2010-2011")

• These are multipurpose protected areas to preserve the genetic diversity in different
ecosystems.

• Seven of the seventeen biosphere reserves are a part of the World Network of
Biosphere reserves, based on the UNESCO Man and the Biosphere (MAB)
Programme list. Namely, Nilgiri, Gulf of Mannar, Sundrbans, Nanda Devi, Nokrek,
Pachmarhi, and Similipal Biosphere Reserves

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Functions of Biosphere Reserve

Each biosphere reserve is intended to fulfill 3 basic functions, which are complementary and
mutually reinforcing:
• a conservation function - to contribute to the conservation of landscapes,
ecosystems, species and genetic variation;
• a development function - to foster economic and human development which is
socio-culturally and ecologically sustainable;
• a logistic function - to provide support for research, monitoring, education and
information exchange related to local, national and global issues of conservation and
development.

Sacred groves

 Sacred groves are the tract of virgin forest harbouring rich biodiversity,
protected by the local people based on the ground of beliefs of culture, religion
and taboos of indigenous people.

 They are the repositories of rare and endemic species and can easily be thought of as
remnants of primary forest left untouched by the local inhabitants and protected by
them due to the consideration that deities resides in these forests.

 It is one of the oldest form of conservation of nature, practiced by the indigenous

communities and rural people.

 The inextricable link between present society to the past in terms of biodiversity,
culture, religious and ethnic heritage has been found in sacred groves.

 It is believed that sacred virgin forest dates back to several thousands of years when
human society was in the primitive state.

 Historical links of the sacred groves has been traced from pre- agricultural, hunting
and gathering stage of societies and believed to be pre-Vedic in origin.

 The groves have evolved under different socio-ecological and cultural situations.
Every sacred grove carries its own legends, lore and myths which form the
integral part of the oral traditions of local people.

 This unique community-linked forest conservation concept is still followed in many

tribal and agrarian regions of the world. For example, a number of human societies
in Asia, Africa, Europe, America and Australia had long preservation sections of
their natural environment as sacred groves.

 The protection and conservation of groves depends entirely on the control of

the community over the forest and the people.

 They have been survived for many hundreds of years and today they serve
as reservoir of much local biodiversity. Groves provides many ecological,
environmental and socio-cultural functions to the society.

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  In the context of the recent concern over the high rates of deforestation and
natural resource use, the sacred groves offer a potential tool and model to
revisit and explore the possibilities of conservation of biological diversity.

Classification of sacred groves

Traditional Sacred Groves – It is the place where the village deity resides,
who is represented by an elementary symbol.

Temple Groves – Here a grove is created around a temple and conserved.

Groves around the burial or cremation grounds.

BIODIVERSITY OF NORTHEAST INDIA

• Northeast India is blessed with a wide range of physiography and ecoclimatic

conditions. It represents the transition zone between the Indian, Indo-Malayan and
Indo-Chinese biogeographic regions and a meeting place of the Himalayan Mountains
and Peninsular India.
• The region is one of the richest in biological values. It is in this lowland-highland
transition zone that the highest diversity of biomes or ecological communities can be
found, and species diversities within these communities are also extremely high.

FLORA

The vegetation of the northeastern region is fairly well known. With about 1,67,000 [Link].
area under forest, this region accounts for approximately 7500 species of angiosperms. The
State of Sikkim alone holds about 5000 species of flowering plants. Out of 315 families of
Angiosperms in India, more than 200 are represented in Northeast India and this region
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Agro- Environmental
Resources: Issues &
Challenges
UNIT 8 BIODIVERSITY
Structure
8.1 Introduction
Objectives
8.2 Components of Biodiversity
Species Diversity
Genetic Diversity
Ecosystem Diversity
Importance
8.3 Importance of Biodiversity for Agriculture
8.4 Loss of Biodiversity: Threat to Agriculture
Monoculture
Use of Pesticides
Deforestation
Impact of Climate Change
Agricultural Diversification
8.5 Conservation of Biodiversity
Integration of Conservation and Sustainable Agriculture
Merging of Agriculture and Biodiversity Goals in Habitats
Ex Situ Conservation
Addressing Policies Paradigms and Protecting Rights
8.6 Summary
8.7 Terminal Questions

8.1 INTRODUCTION

The enormous variability in life forms and their associations is generally referred as
biodiversity. Biological diversity or “bio-diversity” was first conceptualised by
Edward O Wilson in 1988. The term biodiversity has gained popularity for the past
one and half decade, especially since the declaration of Agenda 21 at the Earth
Summit in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, in 1992. In the Convention on Biological Diversity
(CBD) at earth summit, all participating Governments agreed on an "Official"
definition of biological diversity as:

"The variability among living organisms from all sources including, inter alia,
terrestrial, marine and other aquatic ecosystems and the ecological complexes of
which they are part; this includes diversity within species, between species and of
ecosystems." Therefore, biodiversity is the variety of the life forms including their
genetic make up and all kinds of their assemblages.

The biodiversity related to agriculture and which is fundamental to food and

nutritional security, includes plant, animal, soil organism, insect and other flora and
fauna in agro-ecosystems as well as elements of natural habitats that pertain to food
production. It has multiple economic, ecological and social benefits and is a crucial
component of sustainable agriculture.

In the earlier two units we had discussed the issues related to land and water
management and their role in determining the food and nutritional security. A rapidly
growing human population, with its need for more food, water, energy, space and
other resources threatens the survival of our fellow species. In this unit we discuss the
components of biodiversity and its importance in agriculture. We also explore the
forces that threaten agro biodiversity and the various strategies for preserving it. We
provide necessary information that would generate interest in conserving agro-
biodiversity in a broader perspective for a sustainable form of development, which
envisages the integration of economic, social and environmental goals. These goals
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coincide with the provisions of CBD and also underscore the importance of meeting Biodiversity
interests and protecting the rights of the people.

Objectives

After studying this unit, you should be able to:

• explain the importance of biodiversity and the need for its conservation;
• suggest ways of protection of biodiversity rich areas;
• implement target incentive measures which have positive impacts on agro-
biodiversity, in order to enhance sustainable agriculture;
• help empower indigenous and local people to build capacity for in situ
conservation and sustainable use of agricultural biodiversity;
• encourage evaluation of impact on biodiversity from agricultural development
projects;
• promote partnership among different stakeholders;
• promote research and development on integrated pest, soil and nutritional
management for maintenance of biodiversity both at macro and micro level;
• encourage regulations or measures to encourage appropriate use of agrochemicals ;
and
• study impacts of various projects on agro-biodiversity and of intensification on
ecosystem and biomass.

8.2 COMPONENTS OF BIODIVERSITY

The complexity of the diversity in life is manifested in variety of forms and functions
of organism and their communities. Basically, this diversity of life is divided into
three fundamental hierarchical categories that describe different living systems that
can be measured in different ways. These categories are species, genetic and
ecosystem diversity.

8.2.1 Species Diversity

Species diversity refers to an enormous number of individuals belonging to

interacting groups or populations of distinct species or sub-species. It can be
assessed in terms of species or the range of different types of species an area contains.
The number of species in a region - its ‘species richness’ is often used as a measure of
species diversity. A more precise measurement, 'taxonomic diversity', considers the
relationships of species to each other. For example, an island with two species of
birds and one species of frog has more taxonomic diversity than an island with three
species of birds but no frogs (UNEP, 1995). Thus even though there may be more
species of beetles on earth than all of the insects combined, they do not account for the
greater part of the species diversity because they are so closely related.

Some estimates of biodiversity indicate the presence of 10-30 million species on the
earth (Stork, 1993), of which 73 percent are bacteria, 18 percent flowering plants.
Insects account for about 76 percent of all animals, and of all insects, about 60 percent
are arthropods (Fig.8.1). Of the total species, 1,719,183 are described (UNEP Global
Diversity Assessment, 1995) and of these 250,000 species belong to higher plants
(14.5%). Of the 250,000 higher plant species only about 5,000 have been studied in
detail.

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Agro- Environmental
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Challenges

Size of individual organisms represents number of described species in major taxon.

Unit Area : = approximately 1,000 described species.
Taxon Taxon

1. Monera (Bacteria, Blue-green algae) 11. Mollusca (Mollusks)

2. Fungi 12. Echinodermata (Starfish etc.)
3. Algae 13. Insecta
4. Plantae (Multicellular Plants) 14. Non-insect Arthropoda
5. Protozoa (Miltes, Spiders, Crustaceans etc.)
6. Porifera (Sponges) 15. Pisces (Fish)
7. Coelenterata 16. Amphibia (Amphibians)
(Jellyfish, Corals, Comb Jellies) 17. Reptilia (Reptiles)
8. Platyhelminthes (Flatworms) 18. Aves (Birds)
9. Nematoda (Roundworms) 19. Mammalia (Mammals)
10. Annelida (Earthworms etc.)

Fig.8.1: Number of species described in major taxonomic groups.

(The size of the organism represents the number of species)

There has been a definite bias towards describing large organisms that are considered
attractive or appealing (such as flowering plants or butterflies), closely resembling
humans, and have a direct impact on human activities (pests for example). This has
resulted in under-estimating the importance of micro-organisms including algae,
bacteria, fungi, protozoa and viruses, which are vital to life on earth and to the
74
existence of larger organisms dependent on the continued availability of the micro- Biodiversity
organisms.
Agriculturally, approximately 7000 species of plants are consumed globally, of which
150 have entered world commerce and 103 account for 90 percent supply of human
food and nutrition (Prescott-Allen and Prescott-Allen, 1992). Of these, three crop
species - maize, wheat and rice give 60% of the calories and protein obtained from
plant systems by human beings (Wilkes, 1983). For instance, India is 7th in number of
domesticated plants and animals (Khoshoo, 1995). It has 334 wild relatives of crop
species (Arora, 1991). Additionally, the native tribes use another 1,532 wild edible
plant species. These include 145 species of roots and tubers, 521 of early
vegetables/green, 101 of bulbs and flowers, 647 of fruits and 118 of seeds and nuts
(Gautam and Singh, 1998). In addition, nearly 9,500 plant species of ethno-botanical
uses have been reported from the country, of which around 7,500 are for ethno-
medicinal purposes and 3,900 are multipurpose/edible species (Anonymous, 1998).

Box 8.1: India − A Megadiversity Center

India is considered one of the 12 “mega-diversity centres”, housing an estimated

8 percent of the world biota described so far. It contains two of the 25
biodiversity “hotspots”, the Western Ghats and Eastern Himalayas, with thousand
of endemic flora and fauna. The Indian flora and fauna represent nearly 12 and 8
percent of the global floral and faunal diversity respectively. The floristically
rich, India has about 141 endemic genera belonging to over 47 families of higher
plants. As per Botanical Survey of India (BSI), India has 46,214 plants species
(MoEF, 1998). Of these, about 17,500 (7,000 species in north east region alone)
represent flowering plants (7% of the world flora); 37 % of them are endemic. Of
the endemic species (4,950), the largest number (about 2532) of species are
located in the Himalayas followed by peninsular region (1,788 species) and
Andaman Nicobar Islands (185 species) (Paroda et. al., 1999). India is a treasure
of wild economic plants, particularly wild edible and medicinal plant species,
which are largely utilised locally in several Ayruvedic preparations. It also holds
half of the world’s aquatic floral diversity.

8.2.2 Genetic Diversity

Genetic diversity refers to the variation in terms of genetic make up within
species, which is transferred across generations. The number of possible Gene is the functional unit of
combinations of genes and of the molecules making up the genes is immense. Genetic heredity; the part of the DNA
variation occurs to varying degrees in most species of plants and animals. It could molecule which codes for one
polypeptide and so for some
refer to the differences in genetic makeup among different populations of the same
characteristic feature.
species (such as the thousands of traditional rice varieties in India) or to genetic
variations among individuals within a population of a single species (which is high
among Indian rhinos and very low among African cheetas). Individuals belonging to
a species share, by definition, certain characteristics, but genetic variations determine
the particular characteristics of individuals within the species. This variety of genetic
material within species has enabled distinct species to evolve through natural Gene flow is the physical
selection. In general, species that inhabit large areas and interbreed throughout the movement of genes
whole area have a higher rate of gene flow and show few or no localised through the area where a
characteristics; however, species living in small isolated areas have low rates of gene population lives. In
animals, genes flow when
flow and, as they adapt over time to their particular environment, they develop into animals move around.
distinct, localised populations. Genetic diversity measurements were applied mainly to Plants cannot do so but
domesticated species and populations held in zoos and gardens, but now are also their seeds, gametes,
being applied to wild species. pollen and spores can
move. Thus pollination
In India around 583 crop plants are reported to be cultivated (Anonymous, 2000). This and seed dispersal both
lead to movement of
includes 168 species earlier reported under Hindustani centre, one of the eight genes within a
Vavilovian centres (refer to Unit 1) of origin and diversity (Zeven and Zhukovsky, population.
1975). India is the centre of origin of several crop species like, rice and minor millet
in cereals, pigeon pea in pulses, sugarcane in cash crops, bitter gourd, amaranths in 75
Agro- Environmental
Resources: Issues &
vegetables, coconuts in plantations crops etc. In addition, the Chinese, Moguls,
Challenges Arabs, Spaniards, Portuguese and British introduced many crops. The introduced
genotypes were grown in diverse agro-climatic conditions, subjecting them to various
climatic pressures, and natural and farmer’s selection leading to establishment of
diverse genotypes adapted to different agro-climatic conditions with diverse
constellation of desirable genes. Hence, India became a centre of diversity for a large
number of crops species like rice, wheat, barley, minor millets, pigeon pea, chickpea,
mungbean, urdbean, horsegram, mothbean, ricebean, clusterbean, sesame, okra,
eggplant, cucumber, melon, jute, cotton, several forage grasses, ginger, turmeric,
pepper, cinnamon, cardamom, citrus, banana and plantains, jackfruit, mango,
tamarind, jamun and tuber crops like sweet potato, taro and yams etc. Native
resources are also available in Coleus species, sword bean, velvet bean and several
plantation crops like areca nut and coconut. Diversity also occurs for several minor
fruits, such as berries and nuts. Thousand of varieties of important native or
introduced staple food crops, vegetables, fruits, spices, fibre, forage and medicinal
plants have developed in India under in situ condition making it one of the important
centres of genetic diversity for these crops (Singh, 2002).

8.2.3 Ecosystem Diversity

This refers to the variety of association among organism and with the environment for
utilising resources. Ecosystems differ in the species composition of their communities
(association of species), and also in their physical structures. Conventionally, the
world’s ecosystems are broadly described in three categories, terrestrial, freshwater
and marine. Most of the standard biodiversity estimates have been made on different
types of terrestrial ecosystems. It is generally believed that 80 percent of all species
are terrestrial and that tropical rain forests hold major proportion of species diversity.
However, the taxic diversity of marine ecosystems seems to be enormously greater
with doubly more phyla than that of the terrestrial ecosystems (Ray, 1988). Recent
deep-sea explorations indicate that the exuberant diversity of the floor communities
might rival the tropical rain forests (Rex et al., 1993). Studies of ecosystem diversity
are carried out on different scales: from one ecosystem to an entire region containing
many different ecosystems. Regions containing a great variety of ecosystems are rich
in biodiversity, but individual ecosystems containing endemic species also make a
significant contribution to global biodiversity.

8.2.4 Importance

Biodiversity is very important for survival of humans, biosphere and earth. The
importance of biodiversity can be measured by considering economic (food, fibre, fuel
etc.), ecological (regulating ecosystem function), cultural-anthropological,
recreational and aesthetic uses. Economically, biodiversity is a fundamental basis of
agricultural production and food security system. Ecologically it is a valuable
ingredient of ecological stability. Aesthetically, there are many habitat and species
that are attractive from recreation and tourism point of view, while many ecosystems
or production systems are important for appropriate management of environment,
because of their ability to absorb pollution, maintain soil fertility, micro-climate,
recharge of water and in providing other invaluable services. Plant biodiversity is also
important from moral, cultural, religious, aesthetic, social and scientific point of view.
Many plant, and their parts are used in rituals. To name a few-flowers of Hibiscus,
Datura and Euphorbia ligularia; leaves of Aegle marmelos (bael), E ragrostis
cynasuroides (Kusa grass), rice, til, tulsi, chenopods, and odorous roots of Dolomiaea
macrocephala (dhup). Humans are also dependent on nature for wood for timber and
fuel and the increased demands for shelter and fuel have led to extensive deforestation
in many parts of the world. It is estimated that four out of every five of the top 150
prescription drugs used in the US have had their origins in natural compounds. An
example is aspirin a derivative of salicylic acid, which was first taken from the bark of
willow trees. The process of such discoveries still continues. For example, taxol, a
76
promising anti-cancer drug, was first extracted from a tree found in the wild: Taxus Biodiversity
baccata, the pacific yew.

Agricultural biodiversity is an evolutionary divergent and highly inter -related

component of biodiversity dealing with agro-ecosystems and variation in agriculture
related plants, animals, fish, insects, microbes, avians etc. It is fundamental not only
for fulfilment of food needs, but also several other provisions, like fodder, fibre, fuel,
medicine etc., and provides farming system the means to recycle nutrients, reduce
pests and disease problem, control weeds, maintain good soil and water conditions,
handle climatic stresses while producing agricultural products necessary for human
survival. Therefore, agricultural biodiversity is a cornerstone of stability and the basis
of livelihood and sustainable development.

In spite of the growing realisation about biodiversity being fundamental to agricultural

production and food security as well as ecological stability, it is being rapidly eroded
and is disappearing throughout the world because of several developmental changes,
including agriculture. Several of these changes jeopardise productivity, threaten food
security as well as social structure and the environment.

SAQ 1

i) Where are the regions of high and low species diversity?

ii) What is genetic diversity? Give an example each of low and high genetic
diversity.

8.3 IMPORTANCE OF BIODIVERSITY FOR

AGRICULTURE
Biodiversity has been fundamental to agriculture and food provisions for centuries. It
has provided farming systems with the capacity to evolve over the last 12,000 years.
Food production depends on a variety of managed agro-ecosystems that benefit from
natural resources both on farms and in surrounding habitats such as forest, grassland
and aquatic ecosystems.

As you are aware, biodiversity related to agriculture is referred to as agro-biodiversity.

It encompasses - genetic resources that are essential living material of plants and
animals; edible plants/ crops, including landraces varieties and hybrids; livestock and
edible fishes/ aquatic organisms; soil organisms vital for soil fertility and structure;
naturally occurring insects, bacteria and fungi which serve as predators of pests and
diseases; agro-ecosystems like polyculture/ monoculture, irrigated/ rainfed, small/
large that are valuable for nutrient cycle stability and productivity; and the wild
relatives of crop plants.

There are approximately 75,000 species of edible plants world-wide (Wilson, 1988);
but over the course of human civilisation, only about 7000 plant varieties have been
used for food (Juma, 1989). Of these, 3000 domesticated species are being
predominantly used to provide various provisions required for human survival. There
is also remarkable diversity and abundance of insects, fungi, and other organisms that
are valuable to the productivity of agro-ecosystem. Arthropods are the most abundant
class of animals and contribute in a major way to biomass and agro-ecosystem
balance. Soil, a crucial resource, is like a living organism, made up of insects,
microbes and other creatures and is essential for food production. Soil organisms
have a complex role in soil processes , for example, to enhance microbial activities,
increase soil fertility, aeration, accelerate decomposition, and mediate transport
processes in soil (Stork and Eggleton, 1992)). The habitat and species outside farming
systems benefit agriculture and enhance ecosystem functions, serve as a source of host
plants for natural enemies and predators of agricultural pests (Brookfield, 1995).
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Agro- Environmental
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Many rural communities, particularly tribals obtain their daily food from several wild
Challenges and non-conventional foods producing species. In addition, 95% of prescriptions of
traditional systems of medicines are plant based. In sum, a knowledge of biodiversity
and its conservation clearly has multiple proven benefits for agricultural productivity,
sustainability and food security at all scales and in all types of agricultural systems,
and can benefit agriculture in following ways:
• Increase productivity, yields and food security (and consequently economic
returns)
• Reduce pressure of agriculture on fragile areas, forests and endangered species
(therefore restricting deforestation)
• Build stability, robustness, and sustainability of farming systems (restricting
desertification)
• Contribute to sound pest and disease management and sustainable intensification
(limiting use of agrochemicals)
• Conserve soil and increase natural soil fertility and health (restricting soil
degradation)
• Diversify products and income opportunities from farms
• Reduce spread of risks to individuals, communities, and nations
• Help maximise effective use of the resources and environment (restore ecological
health)
• Reduce dependency on external inputs
• Increase nutritional values, and provide sources of medicine and vitamins
The breakthrough in understanding and use of genetic resources (diversity) for
improvement in food production came in 19 th century with the discoveries of
principles of inheritance of genetic diversity by the Austrian Monk, Gregor Mendel.
In the 20 th century, N.I. Vavilov, the Russian botanist carried out systematic collection
for conservation of plant diversity. He stressed the importance of maintaining
diversity and its use in breeding new varieties. Later he developed the concepts of
centres of origin and plant diversity across the world.
Most of the farmers incorporate multiple species and the practices that are adapted to
local resources, to conserve, use and enhance biodiversity for nutrient cycling, soil
fertility, and pest management. Medicinal plants are often included for health care.
The farmers use diverse systems, which provide benefits to productivity, food
security, resilience, risk protection, health and income generation for people. The
farmers have also developed local knowledge on use of the diverse species, practices
and agro-ecosystems in traditional farming, which are dynamic and ever evolving.
The traditional varieties and associated knowledge are also useful to the world outside
local communities. Therefore, in addition, to the above direct and indirect uses, one of
the most important use of genetic diversity, particularly in domesticated species
and their wild relatives is to form the building blocks in further genetic
improvement of cultivated species and other economically important species to
increase productivity. For example, a gene from wild tomato in the Peruvian Andes
has increased the annual sale of commercial tomato by US$ 5-8 million in the US.
Therefore biodiversity has been the cornerstone of agriculture contributing to its
sustainable development over the centuries. Recent advents in biotechnology and
systematic bio-prospecting have further ensured identification of any plant species
that may possibly have potential to be of use to humankind. Genetic engineering
techniques have allowed the transfer of genes beyond taxonomic boundaries making
all living organism part of genetic resources that can be used in genetic improvement
of not only agricultural species, but other organisms as well. The examples include
the transfer of cold tolerance genes from fish to wheat and the Bt gene from bacteria
(Agrobacterium tumifaciens) to plants. Biotechnology is also helping in using micro-
78 organisms in production of bio-fertilizers, bio-pesticides and mining etc., which has
given another flip to the importance of biological diversity. Human kind therefore, has Biodiversity
exploited plant diversity in numerous ways ever since the advent of agriculture 12,000
years ago. This diversity has been referred as ‘genetic resources ’, which may be
defined as ‘genetic material of plants, which is of value as a resource for the present
and future generations of people’.

SAQ 2
Apart from agriculture what are the other uses of plant biodiversity?

8.4 LOSS OF BIODIVERSITY: THREAT TO

AGRICULTURE
Despite the growing realisation about the value of plant biodiversity in agricultural
production food security and ecological stability, biodiversity associated with
agriculture and food production is being rapidly eroded. This alarming trend includes
loss of diversity at many levels – such as erosion of plant genetic resources, livestock
species, insects, freshwater and soil organisms, leading to a narrowing of agro-
ecosystems in general, jeopardising productivity, threatening food security. Related to
this is the loss of biodiversity in “natural” habitats with the expansion of agriculture
and developmental activities into new frontiers.
Modern agriculture focuses on maximising yield on per unit area basis, planting
uniform modern varieties and using monoculture-farming systems with heavy doses Genetic erosion is the loss
of plant genes or genotypes
of agro-chemicals. Although, these changes have brought increase in the world food that are of potential or
production, they have resulted in both biophysical and socio-economic problems actual agricultural value.
particularly erosion of biodiversity and degradation of natural resources, which
undermine productivity and food security. Natural habitats and forests are disturbed
leading to imbalances in ecology of the ecosystems. The chief contemporary cause of
the loss of genetic diversity has been the spread of modern commercial agriculture.
Other causes include the destruction and fragmentation of natural ecosystems, over - Genetic wipeout is total
exploitation of resources, introduction of exotic species, human socio-economic loss of genes or genotype
changes, changes in agricultural practices and land-use and natural calamities. The from a population.
main processes causing loss of genetic diversity of cultivated crop species are genetic
erosion , genetic vulnerability and genetic wipe out. They are not mutually
exclusive, but are in fact, inter-linked by the demands of an increasing population and
rising expectations. Wider adoption of improved varieties is resulting in loss of
thousands of landraces or folk varieties that have a reservoir of useful genes that has
sustained them for centuries under adverse agro-climatic conditions. This is also
causing genetic vulnerability of high yielding varieties. While genetic erosion is
gradual, genetic vulnerabilit y is the “thin ice” of narrow genetic base, which puts a
crop at greater risk against biotic stresses, as happened with wheat stem rust in 1954
or southern corn blight in 1970 in US, and Irish potato famine in 1840 in Europe.
Box 8.2: Loss of Genetic Dive rsity

It is difficult to estimate how much of the genetic base of agriculturally important

species has eroded. Since 1950s the varieties of corn, wheat, rice and other crops
responsible for the ‘Green Revolution’ have squeezed out the native landraces. T hese
modern varieties had been adopted on 40 percent of Asian rice farms in less than 15
years. Often loss of genetic diversity has dramatic impacts. For example in 1991 the
worst outbreak of citrus canker disease in Brazil affected the orange trees becaus e of
their genetic similarity. In 1970, US farmers lost $1 billion to disease which swept
through the genetically similar cornfields. The Irish potato famine in 1846, the failure
of a large portion of Soviet wheat crops in 1972 also resulted because of genetic
similarity and such outbreaks of crop failures could also occur in Bangladesh or Sri
Lanka or Indonesia for which a large portion of rice crops come from single maternal
plants.
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Agro- Environmental
Resources: Issues &
areas remains unutilised in Nellore in South India due to drought and disease
Challenges problems.

One of the most influential root causes underlying agro-biodiversity losses is

diversification of agriculture to green revolution model of HYV’s and related
industrial agriculture production system. This has promoted monoculture along with
other technologies, such as irrigation, use of agrochemicals and mechanised
equipments. The spread of such technologies has resulted in increased production but
have provoked problems as they are inaccessible to local people and are often poorly
adapted to local agro-ecological conditions. They displace indigenous practices,
varieties and can increase vulnerability and risk in the farming systems. Such
programs and models therefore, are provoking unanticipated problems of biodiversity
losses as well as socio-economic cost. In addition, numerous policies including
general agricultural development programmes, pricing, subsidies and credit packages
are directly and indirectly adversely influencing biodiversity in agriculture.

SAQ 6

In what way has loss of agro biodiversity affected the nutrition of developing
countries?

8.5 CONSERVATION OF BIODIVERSITY

The discussion in earlier sections clearly shows that though there is growing
realisation that biodiversity is fundamental to agricultural production and food
security, as well as ecological stability, it is being rapidly eroded and disappearing
throughout the world because of several developmental changes, including
agriculture. Several of these changes jeopardise productivity, threaten food security
and result in high yield losses, as well as disrupt social structure and environment.
Related to this, and equally alarming, is the loss of biodiversity in “natural” habitats
with expansion of agriculture and developmental activities into new frontiers.

For instance in India deforestation, habit fragmentation, over-extraction of natural

resources, conversion of land to agriculture etc., have caused loss of a large number of
species during past. As per the BSI, 623 species of vascular plants are endangered
since base line of 1000 threatened species of 1985 (Nayar and Sastri, 1990).
Agricultural research and development policies have led to change in production
systems that have worked against biodiversity and the sustainable use of genetic
resources resulting in loss of traditional varieties and landraces that had survived for
centuries because of their resilience against various stresses (Jackson, 1994; http,
1999).

On the basis of above discussion, it can be safely concluded that unidirectional and
un-sustainable agriculture production systems conflict with conservation of
biodiversity. There are cases to demonstrate multiple benefits from integrating
biodiversity with agriculture. In other words, conservation and enhancement of
agricultural biodiversity, essential for food production can be achieved in both small-
and large-scale farms. Therefore, conservation of biodiversity either through
establishing synergy between agriculture and biodiversity resolving conflicts or
through integration and use of sustainable agro-ecological practices with changes in
agricultural policies, institution and paradigms or through in situ and ex situ
conservation approaches protecting the plant diversity in nature and in man made
structure can achieve eco-friendly sustainable development. There have been efforts in
this direction both at local and global level. “Convention on Biological Diversity
(CBD)” is an intergovernmental agreement, which addresses the major concerns of
agricultural biodiversity and recommends implementation, actions and policies for
conservation, sustainable use and enhancement of agro-biodiversity through
86
empowerment of farmers and communities, and fair and equitable distribution and Biodiversity
sharing of benefits accruing from the use of biodiversity.

8.5.1 Integration of Conservation and Sustainable Agriculture

To overcome the conflicts between agriculture and biodiversity there is a need to

develop complementarities between them in order to ensure sustainable use of bio-
resources. To meet this challenge, it requires addressing causes of the full rang e of
problems and call for change in practices, paradigms and policies. The use of
experiences and practices supporting conservation and sustainable use should be
spread.

The strategies for conservation are:

i) Address causes for agro-biodiversity losses

Of the forces behind agro-biodiversity loss, the promotion of practices, such as

monocultures integrated with industrial agriculture has been the key factor
because of being supported by institutions, private companies. This scenario
requires transformation along with broader socio-economic changes at grassroot
level.

ii) The key principle and practices: Conservation and Sustainable Intensification

An overview of principles and practices of agro-biodiversity for sustainable

agriculture is required. T he following general principle and guidelines (Table 8.1)
are important to implementing methods to enhance and conserve agro-biodiversity
in varying farm systems and at various scales.

Table 8.1: Key Principles to Conserve and Enhance Agro-biodiversity

Principles Guidelines
Agro- It should be developed within a framework of sustainable
biodiversity agriculture, meaning it is linked to the integration of goals of
conservation productivity, food security, social equity, health, and ecological
integrity.
Agro-ecology It is an appropriate scientific basis for agricultural development,
which upholds agro-biodiversity enhancement, and provides
principles for this purpose.
Empowerment It will help protection of their rights, and ensure partnerships with
of farmers and other social groups, which is an important social basis that would
communities help enhance agro-biodiversity
Adaptation of Adaptation to local agro-ecological and socio -economic conditions,
methods and building upon existing fruitful methods, are essential to meet
needs and build complementarities
Conservation It will ensure plant/ animal genetic resources and soils, and
and methods for sustainable intensification (using biologically based
regeneration measures) needed to protect biodiversity for present farmers’
livelihoods as well as future needs and ecosystem functions.
Supportive Creation of supportive policies and institutions is vital to the
policies and implementation of changes to merge agriculture and biodiversity,
institutions and to ensure rights and food security of the general public.

87
Introduction

‘Ecology’ is the scientific analysis and study of interactions between

organisms and their environments. It is an interdisciplinary area that includes
biology, geography and Earth science. Ecological pyramids show the relative
amount of energy or matter contained within each trophic level in a given
food chain or food web. Trophic level is a hierarchial position of an organism
in an ecosystem. Ecological pyramids begin with producers on the bottom
(like plants) and proceed through the various trophic levels (like herbivores
that eat plants, then carnivores that eat herbivores, then carnivores that eat
other carnivores, and so on). The highest level is the top of the food chain.

There is a relationship between the numbers, biomass and energy contents

of the producers and consumers of different orders in any ecosystem.
Diagrammatic representation of these relationships is referred to as
‘ecological pyramids’. The ecological pyramids are of four types viz; pyramid
of numbers, pyramid of biomass, pyramid of energy and pyramid of
productivity.

Food Chain & Food Web:

The concept of food chains was first introduced by Al-Jahiz in the 9th century
and later introduced in the book “Animal Ecology”, published in 1927 by
Charles Elton. Elton also introduced the concept of a food web in this book.

A food chain is different from a food web. A Food chain is a model that
shows flow of energy and nutrients from one organism to another organism
in an ecosystem. It is a linear network of links starting from producer
organisms like grass or trees which use sunlight to make their food and
ending at apex predator species such as grizzly bears or killer whales,
detritivores like earthworms or woodlice, or decomposers like fungi or
bacteria. A food chain shows how the organisms are related to each other by
the food they consume. Each level of a food chain represents a different
trophic level. The length of a food chain depends upon the number of
organisms. On the other hand a Food web or food cycle is the connection
between food chains and what species eats in an ecological system. A
common metric used to quantify food web trophic structure is the length of
the food chain. In its simplest form, the length of a food chain is ‘the number
of links between a trophic consumer and the base of the food web’. The
mean food chain length of an entire food web is the ‘arithmetic average of
the lengths of all chains in a food web’.

The length of a food chain is a continuous variable. It provides a measure of

the passage of energy and an index of the ecological structure. The energy
increases progressively through the linkages in a linear fashion from the
lowest to the highest feeding levels. Food chains can be used in ecological
modelling. Food chains are simplified abstractions of food webs, but they are
complex in their dynamics and mathematical implications. Food chain
studies have an important role in ectotoxicology studies. They can be used
in tracing the pathways and biomagnifications of environmental
contaminants.

Food chains can be varied in length from three to six or more levels.
‘Producers’, such as plants, are organisms that utilize solar or chemical
energy to synthesize food. Producers comprise the base of the food chain.
The condition is different in the deep sea, where, food chains are centered
on hydrothermal vents and cold seeps which exist in the absence of sunlight.
Chemosynthetic bacteria and archea use hydrogen sulfide and methane
from hydrothermal vents and cold seeps as an energy source to produce
carbohydrates. ‘Consumers’ are organisms that eat other organisms. All
organisms except the first organisms present at the base of chain are
consumers.

A ‘food web’ or ‘food cycle’ is the natural interconnection of food chains.

Another name for ‘food web’ is a ‘consumer-resource system’. All life forms
can be divided into two categories like autotrophs and heterotrophs.
‘Autotrophs’ produce organic matter from inorganic substances like minerals
and gases like carbon dioxide. The organic matter is required to maintain
their bodies, develop and to reproduce. There is a gradient between trophic
levels which consists of complete autotrophs, mixotrophs and complete
heterotrophs. ‘Complete autotrophs’ are dependent on atmospheric carbon;
‘mixotrophs’ are autotrophic organisms that partially utilize organic matter
other than atmosphere, while ‘complete heterotrophs’ obtain energy from
autotrophs. There are various kinds of feeding relations that can be divided
into herbivory, carnivory, scavenging and parasitism .

Ecological Pyramids

An ecological pyramid, also known as trophic pyramid, eltonian

pyramid, energy pyramid, or sometimes food pyramid, is a graphical
representation designed to show the biomass or bio productivity at
each trophic level in a given ecosystem.
Ecological pyramids can be differentiated on four basis:

 Pyramid of Numbers
 Pyramid of Biomass
 Pyramid of Energy, and
 Pyramid of Productivity

Pyramid of Numbers:

The first attempt to provide a quantitative law concerning the trophic levels
was made by Charles Elton in 1927 when he coined the term ‘pyramid of
numbers’. The ‘pyramid of numbers’ is focused on the relationship between
the numbers of primary producers and consumers of different orders. The
base of such a pyramid always represents the numbers of primary
producers. The subsequent structures on this base are represented by the
number of consumers of successive levels. The top of the pyramid
represents the number of top carnivores in that ecosystem. In the ecological
pyramid so formed, the higher the step in the pyramid, the lower the number
of individuals and the larger their size. The shape of the pyramid of numbers
may be upright or inverted. In an upright cropland ecosystem, the numbers
of crop plants at the base of the pyramid are very large; the numbers of
grasshoppers are usually less than the numbers of green plants; numbers of
frogs is less than the number of grasshoppers and finally the number of top
carnivores is the least in the series of organisms forming a food chain. But in
an inverted pyramid of numbers, the number of primary consumers (i.e.
herbivorous birds feeding upon the tree fruits) is always greater than the
number of primary producers (a tree), and the number of parasites living and
feeding upon the bird’s body is still greater.
Pyramid of Biomass:

Biomass is the amount of living or organic matter present in an organism.

Biomass pyramids show how much biomass is present in the organisms at
each trophic level.

A pyramid of biomass takes into account the unit area utilized, the biomass
of the producers, the biomass of the herbivores, the biomass of the first-level
carnivores, and so on. Pyramids of biomass can be either vertical or
inverted. There are two types of ecosystems, where the pyramid of biomass
is upright . The biomass of a single tree is naturally very high than the
biomass of a number of birds feeding upon the tree. Also, the biomass of
even a very large number of bird parasites is lesser than that of the birds.
Therefore, in upright pyramid the biomass decreases with successive trophic
levels.

On the other hand, the pyramid of biomass is inverted if the number of

organisms in the particular tropic level are considered. In a lake or pond
ecosystem, the biomass of diatoms and other phytoplankton is quite
negligible as compared with that of the crustaceans and small herbivorous
fish that feed on these producers. The biomass of large carnivorous fish
living on small fishes is quite greater. In fact, this is the condition in most
aquatic ecosystems, including the sea.

Pyramid of Energy:

The flow of energy in a pyramid of energy is from one trophic level of a

community to the next. The shape of pyramid of energy is always upright or
triangular because in this case the time factor is always taken into account.
The pyramid of energy represents the total amount of energy utilized by
different trophic level organisms of an ecosystem in a limited area over a set
period of time. It is usually per square metre per year. This shows that the
quantity of energy trapped by green plants is highest among organisms of
different trophic levels and, therefore, the base of the pyramid is broad. As in
case of an aquatic ecosystem, the large numbers of phytoplankton quickly
complete their life cycles. Sets of new populations or crops of phytoplankton
are formed every few hours or days. Thus, the cumulative energy contents
trapped by these generation after generation of phytoplankton in the course
of a year is certainly much more than that trapped by only a few generations
of herbivorous fishes in the corresponding time and space. The energy
content trapped by the carnivores living on the herbivorous organisms is the
least. Therefore, the pyramid of energy can never be inverted. This follows
directly from the first law of thermodynamics, “the law of conservation of
energy”, which states that ‘energy can neither be created nor destroyed;
rather, it can transform from one form to another’. If primary organisms of
any trophic level are destroyed, the organisms of the higher trophic level will
automatically perish for the need of food or source of energy and ultimately
the upright pyramidal shape is maintained.

In 1957, H.T. Odum collected the energy contents of different trophic level
organisms. He did so over a period of one year to make an upright pyramid.
According to his observations, the energy content from primary producers
was calculated as 208,010 kcal/m/yr. It decreased to 3368 kcal/m/yr in
consumers of first order, to 383 kcal/m/yr in consumers of second order and
further to 21kcal/m/yr in consumers of third order. Thus, a top carnivore
needs a very broad base of green plants equivalent to 208010 kilo calories
of energy. This amount of energy is required for the organic production of
only 21 kilo calories of energy. The ratio of energy intake and energy of the
produced biomass i.e., of input and output is called the ‘ecological
efficiency’. This can be studied at any trophic level. However, in 1976,
James O Farlow used the principle of pyramid of energy to answer the
question of whether or not dinosaurs were poikilothermic. A ‘poikilothermic
organism’ is one whose internal body temperature varies considerably. It is
the opposite of a ‘homeothermic organism’, which can maintain thermal
homeostasis.

Pyramid of Productivity

Ecological pyramid of productivity shows the production or turnover of

biomass at each trophic level. Instead of showing a single snapshot in time,
productivity pyramids show the flow of energy through the food chain.
Typical units of productivity are grams per meter square per year or calories
per meter square per year.

When an ecosystem is healthy, this graph produces a standard ecological

pyramid. This is because in order for the ecosystem to sustain itself, there
must be more energy at lower trophic levels than there is at higher trophic
levels. This allows organisms on the lower levels to not only to maintain a
stable population, but also to transfer energy up the pyramid. The exception
to this generalization is when portions of a food web are supported by inputs
of resources from outside the local community. In small, forested streams,
for example, the volume of higher levels is greater than could be supported
by the local primary production.
In 1995, Pauly and Christensen showed that when energy is transferred to
the next trophic level, typically only 10% of it is used to build new biomass,
and becomes stored energy. The rest goes to the metabolic processes.
Therefore, in the pyramid of productivity each step will be 10% the size of
the previous step like 100,000, 10,000, 1,000, 100, 10, 1, 0.1 and 0.01).

There are several advantages of the pyramid of productivity.

1. It takes account of the rate of production over a period of time.

2. Two species of comparable biomass may have very different life
spans. Thus, a direct comparison of their total biomasses is misleading
but their productivity is directly comparable.
3. The relative energy chain can be compared using pyramids of energy.
4. There are no inverted pyramids.
5. The input of solar energy can be added.

The pyramid of productivity also has some disadvantages.

1. The rate of biomass production of an organism is required, which

involves measuring growth and reproduction through time.
2. There is difficulty in assigning organisms to a specific trophic level,
specially the decomposers and detritivores.

Despite this, productivity pyramids usually provide more insight into an

ecological community when the information required is available.

Material Flux and Recycling

Many of the Earth's elements and minerals are contained within the tissues
and diets of organisms. Therefore, mineral and nutrient cycles generally
trace food web energy pathways. Stoichiometry can be employed to analyze
the ratios of the main elements found in all organisms like carbon (C),
nitrogen (N) and phosphorus (P). There is a large transitional difference
between many terrestrial and aquatic systems as Carbon:Phosphorus and
Carbon:Nitrogen ratios are higher in terrestrial systems while
Nitrogen:Phosphorus ratios are equal between the two systems. Mineral
nutrients are required for growth, development, and vitality in an organism.
Food web shows the pathways of mineral nutrient cycling as they flow
through organisms. Most of the primary production in an ecosystem is not
consumed, but is recycled by detrivorous organisms back into useful
nutrients. Many of the microorganisms are involved in the formation of
minerals in a process called ‘biomineralization’. Bacteria that live in detrital
sediments create and recycle nutrients and biominerals. Earlier food web
models and nutrient cycles were treated separately, but there is a strong
functional connection between the two in terms of stability, flux, sinks,
sources, and recycling of mineral nutrients

Conclusion

An ‘ecological pyramid’ is a graphical model of energy flow in a community.

The different trophic levels represent different groups of organisms that
might compose a food chain. In some food chains, there is a fourth
consumer level, and, rarely, a fifth. It is noteworthy, that an ecological
pyramid’s shape shows how the amount of useful energy decreases as it is
used by the organisms in that level. Also, the energy that enters a
community is ultimately lost to the living world as heat. So, we can see how
deeply life and energy are connected with each other and how they work
together to maintain the balance of the ecosystem.
 UNIT 2 BIODIVERSITY VALUES AND
ECOSYSTEM SERVICES
Structure
2.1 Introduction
2.1.1 Genetic diversity
2.1.2 Species diversity
2.1.3 Community or ecosystem diversity

2.2 Objectives
2.3 Values of Biodiversity

2.3.1 Instrumental or utilitarian values

[Link] Direct use-values/ Consumptive
[Link] Indirect use-values/ Non-consumptive
2.3.2 Intrinsic or inherent values
[Link] Ethical values
[Link] Option values
[Link] Recreation and Aesthetic values
[Link] Religious values
[Link] Socio-cultural values

2.4 Monetizing the values of Biodiversity

2.5 Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services (ESs)
2.5.1 Provisioning ESs
2.5.2 Regulating ESs
2.5.3 Supporting ESs
2.5.4 Cultural ESs

2.6 Conservation Initiatives

2.7 Let Us Sum Up
2.8 Keywords
2.9 References and Further Reading
2.10 Keys to Check Your Progress

2.1 INTRODUCTION
Biodiversity or biological diversity is the combination of two words ‘bio’
meaning living organisms and ‘diversity’ meaning variations. The term
biodiversity was coined by Walter G. Rosen in the National Forum on
Biodiversity held in Washington, DC in September 1986 which refers to the
genetic, species, and habitat diversity that is evaluated at different scales within
22
the global biosphere, including between individuals, populations, species,
communities, and ecosystems (Sarkar, 2007). In other words, it is the variety of
life including plants, animals, and microorganisms on Earth i.e., the sum total of
all genetic, organismal, and ecological variations in terms of composition and
function observed within and between species and the ecosystems that coexist
at a given time and place (Opoku, 2019; Wilson, 1988). The United Nations
Convention on Biodiversity defined it as ‘the variations and variability among
living organisms including flora, fauna, and microorganisms from all sources
including, inter alia, terrestrial, marine and other aquatic ecosystems, and the
ecological complexes of which they are part, that also includes the diversity
within species, between species, and of ecosystems’ (CBD, 2006). The sum of a
region's genes, species, and ecosystems varies widely over the world rather than
being spread uniformly (Schulze et al., 2019). It also varies at both altitudinal and
latitudinal gradients, always higher in tropical climates as compared to the other
climatic zones and depends on mainly altitude, soil, geography, topography,
temperature, precipitation, humidity, and biotic interactions (Tito et al., 2020;
Martinez-Camilo et al., 2018). Climate and the amount of available space are
the two major abiotic drivers of taxonomic diversity dynamics in a given area
(Escarguel et al., 2011). A global increase in temperature associated with a
lowering of the latitudinal gradient of temperature (IPCC, 2007) will necessarily
lead to a decrease in global diversity through geographic homogenization of
species assemblages (Escarguel et al., 2011). Habitat fragmentation due to the
increasing anthropogenic pressure exerted at all latitudes is a major cause of a
decrease in local diversity in the majority of terrestrial and marine ecosystems
(Rosenzweig, 1995). Besides, the biosphere may be currently entering its sixth
major extinction crisis with the ongoing global warming, local demographic, and
agricultural pressures (Pimm et al., 1995). The five most notable drivers behind
biodiversity loss are habitat destruction, overexploitation, climate change,
invasive species, and chains of extinction (Sonwa et al., 2017). Infectious
diseases like COVID-19 can originate and spread as a result of biodiversity loss
(Johnson et al., 2013) that may result in health problems due to a lack of food or
nutritional diversity (James et al., 1997), while enhancing biodiversity provides
immediate health advantages, such as reducing air pollution through the use of
green roofs (Rowe, 2011) and thereby lowering the prevalence of respiratory
and cardiovascular ailments (Brunekreef and Holgate, 2002). Genetic diversity,
species diversity, and community or ecosystem diversity are the three different
interrelated and distinct levels of biodiversity (Sarkar, 2007). These levels of
biodiversity are interrelated and distinct enough to be studied separately to
understand the interactions that support life on earth (Figure 2.1).

Figure 2.1: Various Levels of Biodiversity and Perspectives of Community or Ecosystem

Diversity. 23
 2.1.1 Genetic diversity
A key source of biodiversity is genetic diversity which is the magnitude of genetic
variability within a population (Hughes et al., 2008) or the genetic makeup of
the variation of organisms and species on Earth (Elliott, 2002). Genetic diversity
is the variation of genes among species and populations as well as within those
populations that separate distinct breeds or races from one another (UN-FAO,
n.d.). Some species have as many as 400,000 genes, e.g., human beings have
~25,000 genes, while rice has >56,000 (National Geographic Society, 2022). In
dynamic ecosystems, genetic variability is crucial for population survival and
often rises with environmental variability since alterations in environmental
variables affect genetic diversity within populations (Lovejoy and Hannah,
2005). Even species with significant capacity for gene flow are affected by
environmental influences in their dynamics (Freeland et al., 2010). Failure
to retain genetic variability restricts the ability of a population to adapt to a
changing environmental condition, making it vulnerable to the likelihood of
extinction (Szczecińska et al., 2016).

2.1.2 Species diversity

Species diversity has two primary components, i.e., species richness (the
number of species in a community) and species composition (the identity of
the species present in a community) which has a major influence on ecosystem
functioning and stability (Cleland, 2011). Typically, it is the patterns of species
richness over various geographical extents (local, regional, continental, and
global) or over various time periods (seasons, years, centuries, to millennia)
(Chiarucci et al., 2011). Species play essential roles in ecosystems and species
diversity is essential for economic, biological, social, and cultural reasons,
therefore local and global species losses could threaten the stability of the
ecosystem (McCann, 2000). The community and ecosystem processes became
more stable as species diversity improved (Tilman, 1996). Globally, around
1.75 million species have been discovered so far, including 950,000 insect
species, 270,000 plant species, 19,000 fish species, 9,000 bird species, and
4,000 mammal species (National Geographic Society, 2022). The diversity
of various groups of animals and plants, the numbers of species evaluated by
IUCN Red-List 2021, and the number of threatened species are given in Table
2.1. The number of species in a particular area (species richness) and the degree
to which the relative abundances of species are similar (species evenness or
equitability) are the two factors that affect species diversity (Magurran and
Gill, 2011). Commonly used methods to determine species diversity include
various mathematical indices known as diversity indices (the Shannon-Weiner
diversity index (Magurran, 1988), Simpson’s index of dominance (Simpson,
1949), Pielou’s index of species evenness (Pielou, 1966), and Margalef’s index
of species richness (Magurran, 1988)) being the most widely used (Hamilton,
2004) (Table 2.2).

24
 Simpson’s index of Simpson, 1949
dominance (CD)

where pi = ni/N

ni = IVI of individual species

N = IVI of all species

Pielou’s evenness Pielou, 1966
index (E)

where H’ = Shannon-Wiener diversity

index (S = Total number of
species)
Margalef’s Magurran, 1988
index of species
richness (Dmg)
where S=Total no. of species

N=Total no. of individuals

2.1.3 Community or Ecosystem diversity

Diversity of the biological communities in which different species exist is
referred to as community diversity or ecosystem diversity. Diverse ecosystems
are able to withstand environmental stress, which leads to increased productivity
(Chandrakar, 2012). The scale or perspectives of community or ecosystem
diversity assessment may range from within a single site or habitat (refers
to alpha (α) diversity) to the difference between two or more sites (beta (β)
diversity) (Whittaker, 1960), which can be combined together to offer gamma
(γ) diversity i.e., the diversity of the entire landscape or geographic regions.

2.2 OBJECTIVES
• To get an idea about biodiversity and its levels
• To determine the consumptive and intrinsic values of biodiversity
• To determine the ecosystem services (ESs) values
• To get an idea about the monetary benefits of biodiversity

2.3 VALUES OF BIODIVERSITY

The concept ‘value’ is most frequently used in a financial sense and it is
confusing to account for non-monetary ‘values’ like the aesthetic worth
of a landscape or the historical or even emotional importance of a location
(James, 2015). The value of biodiversity and the products and services it offers
are indicators of how ready a society is to make compromises in order to
protect these natural resources (Pascual and Muradian, 2010). Nature and its
component biodiversity have instrumental value only and should be valued like
27
 any other commodities as per economists’ viewpoints, while as per ecologists’
viewpoints, the elements of nature have ‘inherent’ or ‘intrinsic’ value, and are
therefore deserving of preservation and protection for their own sake (Golliher,
1999). Biodiversity delivers tangible benefits that are of monetary value, such
as crops and many other non-monetary values, such as pure air perceived by
the beneficiaries (Small et al., 2017). Moreover, biodiversity has often served
both non-consumptive use like recreation and consumptive use like food and
also the indirect use like pollination (Pascual and Muradin, 2010). Biodiversity
directly contributes to human well-being in terms of the provision of foods,
fuels, and fibres, and indirectly in terms of the provision of ecosystem services
(ESs) (Binder and Polasky, 2013). Different types of benefits or values gathered
from the biodiversity with examples are listed in Table 2.3.
Table 2.3: Various types and sub-types of biodiversity values with examples.

Type of Sub-type of values Major uses with examples

values
Instrumental Direct or • Food: Plants: crops, legumes,
or utilitarian consumptive use- fruits, vegetables, mushrooms, etc.;
values values Animals: Fish, meat, milk products,
honey, etc.; Microorganisms:
alcohol, bakery, card, cheese, etc.
• Fuel: Fossil fuels, bioenergy crops,
biomass, fuelwood, etc.
• Fibre: Cotton, jute, bast fibre, wood
fibre, grass fibre, etc.
• Drugs and medicines: (Plants:
Ocimum sanctum, Azedirachta
indica, Tinospora cordifolia, etc.;
Animals: skins of tiger, the blood of
snakes, the horn of the rhino, teeth
of elephants, etc.; Microorganisms:
antibiotics, etc.)
Instrumental Indirect or non- • Ecosystem services: Erosion control,
or utilitarian consumptive use- disaster risk reduction, pollution
values values control, climate regulation, air,
water, and soil quality maintenance,
water supply, pollination, pest and
disease control, nutrient cycling, etc.
• Ecotourism: Places of natural
heritage, national parks, biosphere
reserves, wildlife sanctuaries,
natural forests, etc.
• Research and Education:
Experimental plants and animals
• Crop and plant breeding programs:
Wild varieties of plant and animals
28
 Intrinsic or - • Ethical: Moral responsibilities to let
inherent others live
values
• Option: Undiscovered potential of
biodiversity for various products
and services
• Recreation and Aesthetics:
Ornamental plants, fishes,
uses of biodiversity goods for
ornamentations (jewellery, etc.)
and natural heritage sites for mental
satisfaction and leisure
• Religious: (Plants: Ocimum sanctum
(Tulsi), Aegle mermelos (Bael), etc.;
Animals: Owl, Snake, etc.)
• Social and cultural: Customary
uses like mango leaves in marriage,
mango twig and ghee in Yagya, etc.
2.3.1 Instrumental or utilitarian values
Instrumental or utilitarian values include both direct and indirect uses of
biodiversity that address the economic benefits accessed by human beings
for their own sake from nature (Bullock, 2017). Sometimes, these values are
related to monetary valuation and non-monetary benefits associated with many
other ecosystem services (Hiron et al., 2018). It can be further divided into
consumptive and non-consumptive use values as mentioned below-

[Link] Direct or Consumptive Use Values

The products of biodiversity harvested and consumed directly by locals such as
food, fibres, fuels, medicines, etc. are considered under consumptive use value
(Verma, 2016). It can be broadly categorized into foods, drugs and medicines,
fibres, woods, other non-wood products, and fuels (TEEB, 2010).
[Link] Indirect or Non-consumptive Use Values

Non-consumptive values also known as non-extractive use values or functional

values (Dixon and Pagiola 1998), include all the services and functions of
nature through which human beings and other living beings are benefited
indirectly including scientific research, recreational activities such as bird
watching (Hanley and Perrings, 2019), water purification, protection of natural
resources, regulation of climate, waste decomposition, nutrient cycling,
ecotourism, reproductive activities, and feeding activities of commercial fishes
(Alho, 2008).

2.3.2 Intrinsic or Inherent Values

The intrinsic value of biodiversity can be defined as the values of each living
being within itself as it exists (Sandler, 2012) and it has a variety of philosophical,
29
 religious, cultural, and ethical origins. It can be understood that every species
being the entity of earth is valuable although it is not useful (Vucetich et al.,
2015). Intrinsic values are indigenous in origin at any particular habitat and
time and it is the result of a continuous evolutionary process (Alho, 2008).
The global indigenous tribes have recognized the value of biodiversity and
have given it an important place in their myth, culture, and traditions (Gray,
1999). The recognition of traditionally practised integral human-environment
relationships and the inherent connections between biological and cultural
diversity is now being reclaimed by local peoples around the world (Golliher,
1999). Acknowledging the intrinsic value of biodiversity rises from recognizing
all the species of conservation concern that offer little benefit to human welfare
which have been well recognized by society and have some sociological and
cultural evidence (Vucetich et al., 2015). The degree to which an entity's
intrinsic value is attributed to it may be judged by looking at the legal and
social repercussions of breaking rules or regulations (Alcamo et al., 2005). In
other words, intrinsic value refers to the sense of worth that exists irrespective
of human valuations and shows the value of an ecosystem regardless of how
others perceive it (O’Neill, 1993).

[Link] Ethical Values

Biodiversity has ethical values as every organism has the right to live, it teaches
us the lesson to have compassion and care for other organisms. Ethical values
depend on the understanding of humanity and come from ethics and the moral
principles to judge right and wrong (Pojman and Fieser, 2011). Our ethical
understanding of biodiversity is still in the early stages and it needs to be
advanced (Bosworth et al., 2011).

[Link] Option Values

Biodiversity is a universal good (Government of Ireland, 2008). The future
possibility to use biodiversity for the benefit of humankind is called option
values. For instance, different species of plants, animals, and microorganisms
might contain valuable compounds which may have the potential to cure
dangerous diseases like cancer (Spellman, 2015).

[Link] Recreation and Aesthetic Values

Aesthetics are generally defined as the enjoyment and pleasure felt through the
observation of environmental scenery, characteristics of the observed object,
beauty, and rarity (Swaffield and McWilliam, 2013). The aesthetic value of
biodiversity means the pleasure and emotion that brings a positive response
through visualization and observing the beauty of nature (Tribot et al., 2018).
It activates positive energy in our lives through music, literature, photography,
tourism, paintings, emotions, and feeling (Saini et al., 2011). It also brings a
positive social motivation for the conservation of nature and biodiversity by
man through laws and policies, protected area networks, sacred grooves, and
tribal efforts (Tribot et al., 2018). The increasing use of the natural area for
outdoor recreation will ensure its ecological integrity in the future (Zaslowsky,
1995). Natural area preservation and restoration contribute to aesthetic appeal
30 and passive recreational usage (City of Boulder Open Space Department, 1995).
[Link] Religious Values
Biodiversity is a part of the religious and cultural sentiments of the people
around the world, especially the tribes (Saini et al., 2011). Many tribal
communities worship nature, particular plants and animals as per the religious
taboo and preserve it in a relict form known as sacred groves (Malhotra et
al., 2001). Local communities safeguard it because of their adherence to their
religious principles and long-standing customs (Khumbongmayum et al.,
2004). Religion can provide emotionally compelling beliefs that can be used to
implement adaptive solutions for resource management and biodiversity usage
(Berkes, 2013). For instance, the use of flowers, bael Patta (leaves of Aegle
marmelos), and tulsi (Omimum sanctum) in puja and Yagya in Hindu religious
rituals provide the basis for their conservation. Conservation ethics and
behaviour in association with religion strengthen biodiversity conservation and
prevents resource depletion ensuring a symbiotic relationship with sustainable
development (Negi, 2012).

[Link] Socio-cultural Values

The cultural implications make it easier to establish a connection between
biodiversity and human health (MEA, 2005). Cultural pathways positively
link human and natural spaces to create opportunities for cultural goods and
services (Lovell et al., 2014). Numerous plants and animals have long symbolic
meanings, and they are depicted on flags, in folktales, and in religious texts
(Kellert and Wilson, 1993). Humans appreciate and care about biodiversity,
because the loss of biodiversity may have an impact on cultural values, which
will have a considerable negative impact on human well-being by raising
anxiety, irritation, and stress (Clark et al., 2014).
Check Your Progress 1
Note: a) Use the space given below for your answers.
b) Check your answers with those given at the end of unit
1. What do you mean by biodiversity and what are the different levels of
biodiversity?

......................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................
2. What are the major types of biodiversity values?

......................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................
31
2.5 BIODIVERSITY AND ECOSYSTEM
SERVICES (ESS)
Ecosystems are important not only for maintaining the global carbon cycle and
climate change adaptation but also for a wide range of ESs that are necessary
for human well-being and the accomplishment of the Millennium Development
Goals (MEA, 2005; Malhi et al., 2020). ESs are the conditions and processes
through which natural ecosystems and their component biodiversity contribute
to the survival of life on Earth and the fulfilment of human needs (Daily,
1997). Humankind derives substantial benefits not only from the products of
biodiversity but also from services of ecosystems, such as water purification,
erosion control, and pollination (National Research Council (US) Committee
on Noneconomic and Economic Value of Biodiversity, 1999). The basic ESs
provided by natural ecosystems are primary productivity, biogeochemical
cycling, waste decomposition, soil formation and erosion control, climate
extremes moderation, flood control, pollution mitigation, biological control of
insect pests, water, air, and soil quality protection and maintenance, and crop
pollination (Sullivan, 1997; Daily, 1997). Global climate change and change in
atmospheric composition are likely to have an impact on most of these goods
and services, with considerable impacts on socioeconomic systems (Winnett,
1998). Biodiversity is extremely complex and dynamic, and supports many
ESs that are often not easily visible and plays an important role in regulating
the atmospheric conditions, hydrological cycle, and recycling nutrients
(Kunhikannan, 2017). It also contributes to climate change mitigation and
adaptation through the provisioning of ESs (Seddon et al., 2020). Ecosystems
and biodiversity may be generally regarded as elements of our natural capital,
and the flow of ESs is the interest that society receives from that capital (Costanza
and Daly, 1992). The goods and services provided by biodiversity are of great
value to human health, livelihoods, and well-being (Wei et al., 2021). Some of
the ESs, like food, are necessary for human existence, while others are highly
desirable services for human enjoyment, like recreation (Small et al., 2017).
A healthy ecosystem provides us various ESs including fertile soil for better
crop productivity to fulfil food security, clean water, food, timber, regulate O2
and CO2 concentration in the atmosphere, moderate the climate, reduce the
spread of diseases, protect against erosion, flood, and draught, and any other
natural disasters (TEEB, 2010). The Millennium Ecosystem Assessment by the
United Nations (2005) divided ESs into four main categories: provisioning,
regulating, supporting, and cultural services (Alcamo et al., 2005) (Figure
2.3). Provisioning services included food, pharmaceutical products, building
material, etc., while regulating services included climate regulation, disaster
risk reduction, and population maintenance of different species. On the other
hand, supporting services included nutrient cycling, primary production, erosion
control, etc. and cultural services included spiritual experience, recreation,
aesthetics, etc. (MEA, 2005). Depending on the timeframe and direct influence
on people, some ESs, like erosion control, can be categorised as both supporting
and regulating (TEEB, 2010).

33
 Figure 2.3: Various types of ecosystem services provided by biodiversity
(MEA, 2005).

2.5.1 Provisioning ESs

Biodiversity provides various provisioning services including food, fibre, fuel,
water, drugs and medicines, woods, and other goods (TEEB, 2010; MEA,
2005). Many provisioning services are traded in markets known as productive
use of biodiversity in the form of raw materials of industries (e.g., Bamboos
in the paper industry and woods in the plywood industry) and many rural
households in developing countries, directly depend on provisioning services
for their livelihoods (e.g., fuelwood, wild edible plants, fruits, vegetables,
herbal medicines, etc.) (UN-FAO, n.d.).

2.5.2 Regulating Services

Regulating services are often invisible but when they are damaged, the resulting
losses can be substantial and difficult to restore (UN-FAO, n.d.). These are the
advantages derived from ecological processes and biodiversity that control
climate, diseases, waste, various other disasters, and the quality of the soil,
water, and air (MEA, 2005). Additionally, ecosystems provide regulating
functions such as carbon sequestration and storage, limiting the occurrence of
severe events, wastewater treatment, controlling river flow, biological control,
or pollinating crops (TEEB, 2010).

2.5.3 Supporting Services

Services that are necessary for all other ESs to be produced including soil
formation, erosion control, photosynthesis, nutrient cycling, etc. are referred
to as supporting services (MEA, 2005). Supporting services have an indirect
or sluggish impact on people, whereas changes to the other ESs have a more
direct and instant impact on people. Humans, for instance, do not directly
rely on the services of soil formation, but alterations to these would have an
indirect effect on humans due to their impact on the provisioning services of
34 food supply (Alcamo et al., 2005). Similarly, ecosystems offer habitat for plants
and animals, and also help in maintaining the diversity that underpins the other
ecosystem services (TEEB, 2010). Another important supporting service of
natural ecosystems is the preservation of genetic variation, which serves as a
basis for locally well-adapted cultivars and a gene pool for the development of
commercial crops and livestock (UN-FAO, n.d.).

2.5.4 Cultural services

Cultural services refer to non-material advantages provided by ecosystems
including ecotourism, and spiritual, and ethical values (MEA, 2005). These are
the intangible advantages that humans gain from ecosystems, such as mental
improvement, introspection, leisure, and aesthetic pleasures (Alcamo et al.,
2005). Numerous cultural manifestations result from interactions between
people and the environment (Church et al., 2014). Cultural services are common
across and within other ESs like regulating and provisioning ESs (Scholte et al.,
2015). For example, Ocimum sanctum (Tulsi) provides both a cultural service
through religious uses and a provisioning service in terms of medicine (from
traditional to the modern allopathic system of medicines).

Check Your Progress 2

Note: a) Use the space given below for your answers.

b) Check your answers with those given at the end of unit

1. What do you mean by ecosystem services and what are the different types
of ecosystem services provided by biodiversity?

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2. Write a short note on monetizing biodiversity values.

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2.6 CONSERVATION INITIATIVES

Conserving natural terrestrial, freshwater, and marine ecosystems and their
constituent species and restoration of damaged and degraded ecosystems
including their genetic and biological diversity are important for the sustainable
development of the society and nation’s economy (Sandifer et al., 2015). There
are an increasing number of regional, national, and international awareness-
raising and policy activities aimed at protecting biodiversity as a result of
the threat of species extinction due to habitat loss and degradation, global
climate change, and human population pressure (Kullberg and Moilanen, 35
 2014). Regarding this, various initiatives had been taken by IUCN in 1994
which proved to be essential for the development of different tools and
equipment for the conservation of biodiversity and other natural resources on
both national and international grounds (Lamoreux et al., 2003). In an effort
to stop the further loss of biodiversity, the United Nations (2002) designated
2010 as the International Year of Biodiversity. Despite significant attempts to
stop biodiversity loss, there is little evidence that this trend is being reversed
as it continues to diminish (Butchart et al., 2010). On December 29, 1993,
the Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) came into effect, with the
primary goals of conserving biodiversity, its sustainable uses, and fair and
equitable sharing of the benefits (CBD, 2012). About 87% of CBD signatories
have produced National Biodiversity Strategies and Action Plans, providing
frameworks for addressing biodiversity loss on a national level (Rands et al.,
2010). Despite the repeated implementation of international conservation
conventions, such as the UN Decade of Biodiversity (2011-2020), the CBD
(1992), and several other biodiversity conservation initiatives with negligible
success, biodiversity continues to decline (Pe’er et al., 2017; Kleijn et al., 2011).
The United Nations Convention on Biological Diversity, developed the Aichi
Biodiversity Targets, a 10-year strategic plan for 2011–2020 that recognises
the importance of the link between biodiversity and bio-economy (Mehta et
al., 2020). The development of a post-2020 global biodiversity framework
to replace the 2011-2020 Strategic Plan for Biodiversity (including the Aichi
Biodiversity Targets) was the main goal of the 15th Conference of Parties (COP
15) for the Convention on Biological Diversity, which was held in Kunming,
China in October 2021.

2.7 LET US SUM UP

In this chapter, we have discussed biodiversity in general and its values
in particular. The maintenance of life on Earth depends critically on the
conservation and sustainable use of biodiversity. Different ecological,
socioeconomic, and cultural viewpoints may be used to analyse the goods and
benefits that people directly or indirectly obtain from biodiversity. Sustainable
utilisation of different biological resources either for research, commercial,
or personal use with strict policy regulations and strategies helps to resolve
the issues related to biodiversity loss. A broadened understanding of various
dimensions of biodiversity and its components is necessary for its sustainable
management. Contemporary patterns of economic growth, globalization, and
modernization are the major reasons behind biodiversity loss and its over-
exploitation. The protection of biodiversity often turns common places into
distinct places. Sustainable and effective conservation of biodiversity is possible
through community participation in natural resource management and enabling
policy frameworks. Understanding the importance of biodiversity can enhance
a manager's capacity to resolve disputes and comprehend the viewpoints of
those engaged in decision-making.

2.8 KEYWORDS
• Biodiversity: The variety and variability among the life forms
including plants, animals, and microorganisms.
36
• explain the universe’s complexity through a hierarchical framework that Introduction to
Environmental Science
includes consideration of Earth, life, and ecosystems at various scales;
• identify key principles of the ecosystem approach to conserving natural
resources;
• explain segments of the environment;
• define scope of environment; and
• explain the need for public awareness in detail.

1.2 DEFINITION AND PRINCIPLES OF

ENVIRONMENT
Definition of Environment
The word ‘environment’ is most commonly used to describe nature and means
the sum of all living and non-living things surrounding an organism or group of
organisms. The environment includes all elements, factors, and conditions that
impact the growth and development of certain organisms. The environment
includes biotic (all surrounding living organisms) and abiotic factors (light,
temperature, water, atmospheric gases that influence observed organisms. In a nutshell,
the environment is the total of all the conditions (physical, chemical, biological, social,
cultural, and economic) surrounding the human being at a given point in space and
time.
The term ‘Environment’ is used for surroundings and is derived from French
word ‘environ’ or ‘environner,’ which means around or encircle or surroundings.
The environment may be defined as the complex of climatic, biotic, social, and
edaphic factors that act upon an organism and determines its form and survival.
The environment provides resources that support life on the earth and help in the
growth of a relationship between living organisms and nature.
The environmental science can be defined as “an interdisciplinary study of how
the Earth works, how we are affecting the Earth’s life-support systems
(Environment), and how to deal with the environmental problem we face”. The
environmental science is the study of the human impact on the physical and
biological environment of an organism. The environment in which we live has
been irreversibly affected by advancements in technology, and it has been affected
for as long as humans have wielded tools to alter their circumstances. We will
continue to alter our environment to suit ourselves as long as we remain a viable
species, but to do so wisely, we need to closely examine what we do and how we
do it. We need to build a bridge between science and technology, with science on
the one side, and technology on the other.
Element of Environment
The environment is constituted broadly of two components, i.e., non-living or
physical and living or biological. Non-living or physical includes air (atmosphere),
water (hydrosphere), and soil (lithosphere). Living or biological consists of plants,
microbes, animals, humans, etc., and collectively are known as the biosphere.
Principles of Environment
This section highlights the basic environmental principles and emphasizes our
ecosystem because this is the only way we, our planet, can be protected, and
actions should be taken to solve our environmental problems. 13
Concepts of Environmental 1) Nature knows best
Science
Humans must understand nature and follow its rules to ensure a continuous
and steady supply of resources; one must not go against natural processes. If
any disruption is caused in the cycle of nature, this can bring imbalance to
our ecosystem.
2) All forms of life are important
Each organism plays a fundamental role in nature. It is easy to appreciate
beautiful organisms like butterflies, especially if one knows their important
role in pollination. The giant ones like elephants, whales, and alligators are
the ones we respect mixed with fear or wonder and their products. But when
it comes to unlovely, squirmy, and troublesome creatures, this principle is
unusually overlooked.
3) Everything is connected to everything else
In an ecosystem, all biotic and abiotic components interact to ensure that the
system is sustained. Any intrusion from outside may cause an imbalance
and collapse of the system.
4) Everything changes
The environment is continuously changing. Organisms also develop through
time. However, these natural changes have affected these changes with our
current technology now cause problematic events for us. Humans should
rethink their relationship with the environment. Because our belief that it is
beneficial to the environment often turns out to be catastrophic.
5) Everything must go somewhere
Everything ends up elsewhere. It doesn’t just disappear. For example, if you
throw a piece of candy wrapper away, it disappears but does not cease to
exist. It ends up elsewhere. Gases released in the atmosphere may spread,
but they will end up a component of the atmosphere and be brought down
by rains. Any particular type of waste should always be a concern to us. It
may be a pollutant or a resource, depending on certain factors. Be a
responsible person and throw your trash in a proper place.
6) Ours is a finite earth
Earth’s resources can be classified as either renewable or non-renewable.
Renewable resources are those that can be quickly replenished by natural
cycles (e.g., water, air, plants, animals), while non-renewable resources are
those that cannot be replenished through natural cycles. Although renewable
resources can be replenished, it is important to understand that these are
renewable only if they are not overused and not destroyed by factors such as
pollution.
7) Nature is beautiful, and we are stewards of God’s creation!
Among all creatures, humans are the only ones made in God’s image and
have been given the right to have dominion over all his creations. Being the most
intelligent and gifted with reason, humans can manipulate and create changes in
nature for their own advantage. Yet, creation exists not to be ravaged or abused
but to be taken care of. Humans cannot exist without nature. They are co-
natural with the environment they live in.

14
 Introduction to
1.3 STRUCTURE AND COMPONENTS OF Environmental Science

ENVIRONMENT
The environment generally represents four spheres, the lithosphere, the hydrosphere,
the atmosphere, and the biosphere; these correspond to rocks, water, air, and life.
Therefore, the environment can be defined as the study of the earth, air, water, living
beings, and mutual relationships.

1.3.1 Atmosphere
The atmosphere (or air) is a layer of gases surrounding the Earth and retained by its
gravity. It reaches over 560 km from the surface of the earth. The atmosphere absorbs
the sun’s energy, recycles water and other chemicals, and works with the electrical and
magnetic forces to provide weather and climate phenomena. The atmosphere also
protects us from high-energy radiation and the frigid vacuum of space. Atmospheric
gases scatter blue light more than other wavelengths, giving the earth a blue halo when
seen from space. Dry air contains about (by volume) 78.08% nitrogen, 20.95% oxygen,
0.93% argon, 0.038% carbon dioxide, and a trace amount of other gases. Air also
contains a variable amount of water vapour, on an average around 1%. The atmosphere
protects life on earth by absorbing ultraviolet solar radiation, warming the surface through
heat retention, and reducing the temperature peaks between day and night. There is
not any definite boundary between the atmosphere and outer space. It slowly becomes
thinner and fades into space. The Kármán line, at 100 km, is considered the boundary
between the atmosphere and outer space. The three-fourth mass of the atmosphere
belongs within 11 km of the surface.

The atmosphere is the blanket of suspended liquids, solids, and gases that envelope
the earth. Life on the earth is attributed to the atmosphere, which is a prime
source of oxygen (essential for life), carbon dioxide (essential for biomass
production), the functioning of wind, storm, snowfall, and formation of clouds,
weather, and climate. Other function of atmosphere includes protecting from
solar and cosmic effects.

Composition of atmosphere
The atmosphere is comprised of mainly gases and water vapours. Fairly large
amounts of nitrogen, oxygen, and argon are present as elementary gases in the
lower atmosphere. These gases are found in varying amounts at different heights
in the atmosphere. It is mainly dense up to 1 km elevation. The density of air at
sea level is about 1.2 kg m-3. The atmospheric density decreases as the altitude
increases.

Atmosphere works as a reservoir of gases, moderates earth’s temperature, absorbs

energy and damaging ultraviolet radiation from the sun, transports energy away
from equatorial regions, and serves as a pathway for the vapor-phase movement
of water in the hydrological cycle. The general composition of the atmosphere is
given in the following table 1.1.

15
Concepts of Environmental Table 1.1 Composition of Atmosphere
Science
Gases Volume (percent)
Nitrogen (N2) 78.08
Oxygen (O2) 20.95
Argon (Ar) 0.93
Carbon dioxide (CO2) 0.035
Neon (Ne) 0.002
Helium (He) 0.0005
Methane (CH4) 0.0002
Krypton (Kr) 0.0001
Hydrogen (H2) 0.00005
Nitrous oxide (N2O) 0. 0.0003
Carbon monoxide (CO) 0.00002
Xenon (Xe) 0.000009
Ozone (O3), Nitrogen dioxide (NO2),
Iodine (I), Ammonia (NH3) Traces
Structure of atmosphere
The pressure and temperature are related to altitude within the atmosphere. Due
to the compressible nature of gases, the earth’s gravity causes atmospheric pressure
to increase as elevation decreases. However, the air temperature decreases at
some levels and increases at others with an increase in altitude (Figure 1.1).
These temperature variations result from the variation of chemical and physical
properties of the different atmospheric layers as described below.

Troposphere
The troposphere is originated from the Greek word “tropos,” which means ‘to
turn’ or ‘to change.’ It is the lowest and most dense layer of the atmosphere,
begins at the ground or sea, and reached up to 10-12 km, with some variation due
to weather factors and thermal convection. The troposphere is characterized by a
continuous decrease of atmospheric temperature with increasing altitude, and most
of the weather phenomena like cloud formation and thunderstorms occur in this
region. In the lowest layer of the troposphere from the ground to about 1-2.5 km,
the planetary boundary layer, the influence of anthropogenic activities at the earth’s
surface, causes heavy variations in meteorological parameters, e.g., temperature,
wind direction/velocity, and relative humidity. The troposphere contains roughly
80% of the atmosphere’s total mass and contains almost all water vapour of the
atmosphere. The important chemical species are CO2, H2O, and NO2.

The troposphere has a great deal of vertical mixing due to solar heating in this
area. This heating makes air masses less dense, so they rise. When an air mass
rises, the pressure upon it decreases, expanding, doing work against the opposing
pressure of the surrounding air. To do work is to expend energy, so the temperature
of the air mass decreases. As the temperature decreases, water vapour in the air
mass may condense or solidifies, releasing latent heat that further uplifts the air
16
mass. This process determines the maximum rate of decline of temperature with Introduction to
Environmental Science
height, called the adiabatic lapse rate. The troposphere shows a positive lapse
rate. The uppermost boundary of the troposphere is called the tropopause. The
height of the tropopause depends on geographical latitude and weather conditions.

Stratosphere

The word stratosphere originates from the Latin word “stratum,” meaning layer.
The stratosphere lies above the troposphere to about 50 km. It is characterized by
an increase of ozone with a maximum ozone concentration at about 30 km of
height, though the ozone thickness varies seasonally and geographically. The
atmospheric temperature increases along with increasing altitude and reaches 0°C
at about 50 km show a negative lapse rate. This increase is mainly caused by the
ozone that absorbs the UV radiation coming from the sun. This region’s main
functions are absorption of UV rays through the ozone layer and protect the earth
from harmful radiations. About 90% of the ozone in our atmosphere is present in
the stratosphere. Ozone concentrations are greatest between about 20 and 40 km,
ranging from about 2 to 8 ppm. The atmospheric pressure in this layer is about 1/
1000th of sea level.

The stratosphere is almost without clouds because water vapours from the
troposphere are very limited due to the extremely low tropopause temperature.
The stratosphere may be divided into a lower stratosphere with a constant
temperature of about -56°C and an upper stratosphere above 20 km of height,
where temperature increases to about 0°C by absorption of UV radiation. The
uppermost portion of the stratosphere is called stratopause and characterized with
a temperature of approximately 0°C and distinguished as the warmest region
between the mesosphere and the stratosphere.

Mesosphere

Derived from the Greek word “meso,” means middle, the mesosphere extends
from about 50 km to the range of 80–85 km. Temperature decreases with height,
reaching -100 °C in the upper mesosphere. Most meteors burn up when entering
the atmosphere. It is the coldest place on earth’s atmosphere, with a minimum
temperature of -100 °C at the mesosphere’s uppermost boundary. The boundary
between the mesosphere and the thermosphere is called mesopause.

Thermosphere
The thermosphere named from the Greek word ‘Thermos’ means heat and begins
from 85 to 500 km. The temperature can rise to 1500 °C in this region. The
International space station orbits are situated in this layer in between 320 and
380 km. The boundary above the thermosphere varies in height from 500-
1,000 km. The thermosphere exhibited a negative lapse rate and is characterized
by the high kinetic energy of gas molecules.

Exosphere
The exosphere is the outermost layer of the atmosphere and extends from the outer
thermosphere known as exobase, at the height of about 500 km, to the edge of
interplanetary space (about 10,000 km). It contains free-moving particles that
may migrate into outer space. The region where atoms and molecules have sufficient
velocity to escape from the earth’s gravitation into space is referred to as the
exosphere. 17
Concepts of Environmental
Science Exosphere

e
r
e
Thermosphere

h
100

p
Mesopause

s
o
e
n
r
75 Mesosphere

e
o
Altitude (km)

r
I
Stratopausee
50

Stratosphere
25
Tropopause
Troposphere
0
-100 0 100
Temperature (°C)

Figure 1.1 Structure of the Atmosphere

Ionosphere
The atmosphere ionized by solar radiation extends from near about 50 to 1000 km
and typically overlaps the mesosphere, the thermosphere, and the exosphere.
Ionosphere may be divided into D (50 - 90 km), E (about 90-150 km), and F-
layers (150 - 800 km). The ionosphere is an example of plasma, neither gas, liquid,
nor solid; it is the fourth state of the matter and represents 99% of visible matter
in the Universe. The dominant ions in the D and E layers are NO+ and O2+; in the F
region, where the bulk of the ionospheric plasma resides, O+ predominates. These
layers play an important role in communication engineering since they reflect radio
waves (short waves).

1.3.2 Hydrosphere
The word “hydrosphere” is generated from two Greek words ‘hydor’ means water,
and ‘sphaira’ means sphere and, in a nutshell, can be defined as the combined
mass of water found on, under, and over the surface of the planet. The hydrosphere
is composed of all the waters on or near the earth, including oceans, rivers, lakes,
and moisture in the air. Hydrosphere covers about 70% of the earth’s surface and
provides a home for many plants and animals. The hydrosphere contains about
1.36×109 km3 liquid in the form of water. The second most common form of the
water molecule on our planet is ice that is sufficient to raise the sea level by about
70 meters. Ninety-seven percent of the earth’s water is present in the ocean. The
remaining three percent is freshwater. Three-quarters of the freshwater present in
solid form and exists in ice sheets.

Water is highly essential for life and a major constituent of almost all life forms.
Most life forms like plants and animals contain more than 60% water by volume
of their body. Without water, life on the planet would probably never have
18 developed. The abundance of water on earth is a unique feature that clearly
distinguishes our “Blue Planet” from other solar system planets. The range of Introduction to
Environmental Science
surface temperatures and pressures of our planet permit water to exist in three
states viz. solid (as ice), liquid (as water), and gas (as water vapours). The Ocean
is the principal component of the hydrosphere. Approximately 71% of the earth’s
surface is covered by the ocean, a continuous water body that is divided into
several major oceans and smaller seas. More than half of this area is over 3000
meters deep. Average oceanic salinity is around 3.5 percent, and nearly all seawater
has a salinity in the range of 3 to 3.8 percent. The major oceanic divisions are
defined in parts by the continents, and these divisions are the Pacific Ocean, the
Atlantic Ocean, the Indian Ocean, the Southern Ocean, and the Arctic Ocean. The
equator may further subdivide the Pacific and Atlantic into northerly and southerly
portions. Smaller regions of the oceans are called seas, gulfs, bays, etc. There are
also salt lakes, which are smaller bodies of landlocked saltwater that are not
interconnected with the World Ocean.

1.3.3 Lithosphere
The lithosphere, also known as the Geosphere, is the “solid” part of the Earth and
consisted of crust and upper mantle. The crust is the Earth’s outermost layer, varies
from 5 to 70 km in thickness, made up of rocks, minerals, and soil. The crust is inorganic
and is composed of minerals. There are two kinds of crust, i.e., continental and oceanic.
The crust is constantly moving, and by the movement of continents, earthquakes
happen. Earth’s oceanic crust is a thin layer of dense rock about 5 km thick. The
continental crust is less dense than oceanic crust, and lighter-colored rock that
varies from 30 to 70 km are also present in it. These crusts are made mainly of
eight elements: Oxygen, Silicon, Aluminium, Iron, Calcium, Sodium, Potassium,
and Magnesium. The oceanic crust has more Silicon, Oxygen, and Magnesium,
while the continental crust is rich in Aluminium.

The crust is chemically and mechanically different from the underlying mantle
and has been generated largely by igneous processes in which magma (molten
rock) cools and solidifies to form solid land. The mantle is present under the
Earth’s crust, heated by the radioactive decay of elements. The mantle is not quite
solid and consists of magma. The convection process causes movement of the
lithospheric plates, and the resulting process is known as plate tectonics. Volcanoes
result primarily from the melting of subducted crust material.

1.3.4 Biosphere
The term “biosphere” was coined by the famous geologist ‘Eduard Suess’ in
1875 and was defined as the place on earth’s surface where life dwells. The
biosphere begins through the process of biogenesis about 3.5 billion years ago.
The biosphere is composed of all living organisms (from the smallest bacterium
to the largest whale). Most of the life is found from 3 m below ground to 30 m
above the ground and in the top 200 m in the oceans and seas. The biosphere is
divided into biomes, inhabited by broadly similar flora and fauna. The biomes
are classified based on the climate and geography of the region. Major biomes
include deserts, forests, grasslands, tundra, and several types of aquatic
environments. Each biome consists of more than one ecosystem whose communities
have adapted to smaller differences in climate and the environment of the biome.
The biological manifestation of life is characterized by organization, metabolism,
growth, adaptation, response to stimuli, and reproduction. Properties common to
most organisms (plants, animals, fungi, protists, archaea, and bacteria) are cellular, 19
Concepts of Environmental carbon, and water-based organisms, having metabolism, capacity to grow, respond
Science
to stimuli, and reproduce the same organism.

1.4 MULTIDISCIPLINARY NATURE OF

ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE
Environmental science is a multidisciplinary or interdisciplinary subject which
deals with every aspect of life. That requires the knowledge of various subjects
like biology, chemistry, physics, microbiology, biochemistry, statistics, geology,
economics, management, law, sociology, etc. Environmental study has evolved
from the integrated use of many disciplines. Environmental quality is the most
important issue for development. To ensure environmental quality, there is a
need to find a sustainable environmental management approach to assure a better
quality of life and protect the environment and natural resources that are the
foundations of well-being. In order to face these challenges, it is necessary to
establish a multidisciplinary approach for a deeper understanding of the
technological, political, and social options and strategies for managing the
relationship between society and the environment. Thus the environmental study
requires the knowledge developed in many different disciplines (Figure 1.2), e.g.

Life sciences, including botany, zoology, genetics, ecology, biochemistry,

biotechnology, microbiology, etc., help understand the environment’s biotic
components.

Figure 1.2: Multidisciplinary nature of Environmental studies

Physical sciences, including chemistry and physics, geology, atmospheric

science, oceanography, geography, etc., provide knowledge of the physico-
chemical structure of the environment’s abiotic components.
Economics, sociology, management, mass communication furnish inputs to
deal with socio-economic aspects associated with various developmental
activities.
20
Concepts of Environmental 5) Elaborate the statement “Multidisciplinary nature of Environmental Science”.
Science
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1.5 SCOPE OF THE ENVIRONMENT

The environment includes all those areas which can affect well being of living
organisms and must be related to all processes which would affect the well-
being, whether it is physical (global warming, climate change, etc.), chemical
(ozone layer depletion), or biological (deforestation). Atmosphere, hydrosphere,
lithosphere, and biosphere are the four segments, which make environment.
Atmosphere saves us from the hostile environment of outer space. It also protects
us from cosmic, UV, and electromagnetic radiations. Hydrosphere provides water
to all organisms, and the lithosphere provides minerals, nutrients, etc., which take
part in biomass’s primary production. The biosphere designates living organisms’
realm by creating their interactions with air, water, and soil; without that, life will
not exist anymore. The environment is established by the interaction of physical
(water bodies, soil, mineral, rocks, etc.), biological (plant, animal, and other
living organisms), and cultural (social, economic, political, etc.) elements in several
ways, individually as well as communally.

Environmental sciences provides knowledge about what we should do to make a

sustainable environment and what should not. It suggests solutions to combat the
forthcoming problems/disasters, viz. global warming, environmental pollution, climate
change, etc. It also tells about the components of the environment, the issues affecting
the environment, the role of organisms in these issues, how best we can handle the
negative issues, and how best to enhance the positive ones.

1.6 NEED FOR PUBLIC AWARENESS

The unthoughtful and unabated consumption of natural resources to fulfill different
needs such as the development of sciences, technologies, agriculture, industries,
transport and communication services, comfort, and pleasure has depleted the
natural resources and degraded the vital life-supporting systems, e.g., air, water,
and soil besides disturbing the delicate ecological balance. Hence, to improve
the deteriorated environment and avoid further pollution, degradation of natural
resources, and maintaining sustainable ecological balance, there is a strong need
to educate everybody to contribute to protecting our environment by using natural
resources in an eco-friendly manner and avoiding further pollution.

Environmental issues received international attention about 36 years back in

Stockholm Conference, held on 5 June 1972. Since then, we celebrate World
Environment Day on 5 June. The United Nations Conference on environment and
development held in Rio de Janeiro in 1992, popularly known as ‘Earth Summit,’
first highlighted the key issues of global environmental concern and attracted the
22 general public’s attention toward the degrading environment. Any Government on
its own can not achieve the goals of sustainable development until the public has Introduction to
Environmental Science
not participated actively. Public participation is possible only by generating
awareness about ecological and environmental issues. Individuals can actively
participate in the progression of environmental improvement in the following
ways.
1) By minimization of natural resources consumption and saving them from
unwanted exhaustion such as rainwater harvesting, etc.
2) Energy should not be harnessed too much from fossil fuels’ burning (solid
fuels like coal, coke, etc. in thermal power plants, liquid and gaseous fuels
like petrol, diesel, LPG, automobiles, etc.
3) By step down in cutting trees for timber production to get aesthetic pleasure,
such as drawing rooms and houses.
4) Every individual can formulate and obey the moral codes meant for achieving
a better environment.
5) By preserving the greeneries and wildlife on a vast area of land.
The main goals targeted by various environmental scientists to protect our
environment include:
• Reduction of pollution from all sources to get zero pollution in future.
• Reduction, Recycling, and Reuse of waste materials.
• Cleanly converting non-recyclable materials into energy through direct
combustion or after conversion into secondary fuels.
• Minimizing societal consumption of non-renewable fuels.
• Development of alternative, green, low-sulfur, and renewable bio-energy
sources.
• Conservation and sustainable use of various natural resources, viz. water,
land, and air.
• Protection of representative ecosystems.
• Preservation of threatened and endangered species.
• The establishment of National Park, Sanctuaries, and Biosphere Reserves to
protect the biodiversity and ecosystems.

1.7 IMPORTANCE OF ENVIRONMENT

The environment is never static. The physical forces continuously change the earth’s
surface through weather, waves, and natural phenomena, such as earthquakes,
volcanoes, etc. These phenomena release gases, heat, vapor, and dust into the
atmosphere and reach the land or sea at a great distance from their sources. Ozone is
produced in the high atmosphere by chemical reactions and protects us from harmful
ultraviolet radiation coming from the sun.

The current increasing interest in the environment roots from the concern about
the disruption of natural processes and destruction of natural resources and
ecosystems by anthropogenic activities to the extent that threatened the quality of
life of living organisms. Many indicators would suggest that the world is at a
crisis point due to a drastic increase in population and consumption of natural
resources and a significant increase in waste and pollution, damaging the
23
Concepts of Environmental environment. The increased consumption of natural resources is responsible for
Science
the higher production of waste, which enhanced the pollution levels and generates
several unavoidable problems such as global warming, climate change, depletion
of the ozone layer, the introduction of incurable diseases, etc.

The environment belongs to all and is important to all without making any
differentiation between races, ages, types, etc. The importance of the environment
lies in the fact that human beings, well acquainted with nature, can lead a healthy,
spiritual, and long life. Study of environment helps us to maintain sustainable
environment all through in our vicinity.

A few importances of environmental science are pointed out below:

• Environmental science is concerned with the day to day interaction with the
surroundings, which are closely related to living beings
• Associated with most of the branches of science in an interdisciplinary
approach
• Concerned with the importance of wildlife and its protection
• Explains the significance of biodiversity conservation in establishing an
ecological balance
• Deals with different types of ecosystems, biotic and abiotic factors, and their
role in maintaining the ecological balance
• Concerned with different types of food chains, food webs, ecological
pyramids, productivity, biomass production, carrying capacity of ecosystems,
etc.
• Deals with various inter-relationships that exist between living organisms
and non-living things and among different living organisms such as symbiosis,
mutualism, commensalisms, parasitism, competition, antibiosis, etc.
• Describes the impact of population growth on the resource consumption,
national economy, and sustainability
• Deals with the impact of ethical principles in the conservation of wildlife,
biodiversity, and ecosystems
• Gives information about water conservation, watershed management,
rainwater harvesting, and their importance in various physiological,
biochemical, internal, and external environments.
• At present, many environmental issues have grown in size and complexity
day by day, threatening humanity’s survival on earth. Environment science
have become significant for the following reasons:
1) The global environmental issues are global warming, ozone layer depletion,
dwindling forest and energy resources, loss of global biodiversity, etc.
2) The localized environmental problems include the impact of mining, a
hydraulic project in an area, disposal, and management of solid waste, river
and lake pollution, soil erosion, water logging, salinization of soil, heavy
metal pollution, etc.
3) A few environmental problems associated with an individual are safe and
clean water, hygienic living conditions, clean and fresh air, fertile land, healthy
food, etc.
24
4) The importance of the environment can also be understood by different Introduction to
Environmental Science
environmental celebrations given in Table 1.2.
Table 1.2. Different environmental celebrations and their date.
Environmental celebration Date
World wetland day 2 February
World forest day 21 March
World day of water 22 March
World meteorological day 23 March
National Maritime day 5 April
Earth day 22 April
International biodiversity day 22 May
Anti-tobacco day 31 May
Van Mahotsava week 1-7 June
World Environment day 5 June
World ocean day 8 June
World day to combat desertification and drought 17 June
World population day 11 July
Ozone Week 16-23 September
World car-free day 22 September
Green consumer day 28 September
World farm animal day 2 October
World habitat day 3 October
Wildlife week 1-7 October
World food day 16 October
World conservation day 24 October
International day for natural disaster reduction day 13 October
National Children day 14 November
World fishery day 21 November
National Land resource and conservation week 21-27 November
World Aids day 1 December
Global day of action against corporate crime
(Bhopal Gas tragedy day) 3 December
International Mountain day 11 December
National Energy conservation day 14 December

25
Concepts of Environmental Check Your Progress 2
Science
Note: a) Use the space given below for your answers.
b) Check your answers with those given at the end of the unit
1. Discuss the importance of environmental issues
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2. Why there is a need for public awareness to preserve the environment?
Describe various means to create awareness?
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1.8 LET US SUM UP

We have studied in this unit about the definition and importance of the environment.
We have discussed in detail the scope, importance, and need for public awareness to
preserve the environment. We have also described various international efforts that
have been made to protect the environment.

1.9 KEY WORDS

Atmosphere: The gaseous envelope surrounding the Earth, held in place by gravity.
Atmospheric Inversion (temperature inversion): A relatively stable atmospheric
condition in which cool air is trapped beneath a warmer air layer.
Atmospheric Water: Water occurring in the atmosphere, in vapour, liquid, or
solid forms.
Biosphere: All life on Earth, plus their ecosystems and environments.
Climate: The prevailing, long-term, meteorological conditions of a place or region,
including temperature, precipitation, wind speed, and other factors.
Climate Change: Long-term changes in the air, soil, water temperature;
precipitation regimes; wind speed; or other climate-related factors.
Crust: The outermost layer of Earth’s sphere, overlying the lithosphere and
composed mostly of crystalline rocks.
Environmental science: An interdisciplinary branch of science that investigates
questions related to the human population, resources, and damages caused by
pollution and disturbance.

26
Concepts of Environmental The convention also provides technical assistance for the management and disposal
Science
of wastes, especially to developing countries, to prevent its impacts on people’s
health.

4.5 ENVIRONMENTAL ETHICS

Ethics is a philosophical term based on the morals of what humans believe is
right and wrong. Environmental ethics describes the views of human beings
towards the environment. ([Link]
).Broadly, how we perceive the environment, ecosystems, and natural resources
can be classified into three categories.

4.5.1 Anthropocentric View

It is a belief that puts humans, their needs at the focus and considers human beings
the most important and dominant species on earth. It believes that all the earth’s
resources belong to humans, and we can manage them. Some authors (Miller, Jr.,
G.T., 2007; Miller, and Spoolman,2013) explains it as a human-centered and life-
centered world view. It further explains that we would never run out of resources
because of technological development and management, leading to the possibility
of unfettered economic [Link] view considers that all the natural resources
on earth belong to humans.

4.5.2 Bio-centric View

It states that human beings and other creatures of the world are part of nature and
all are equal life forms. All the creatures of earth exist in interdependence with
each other to maintain [Link] theory also suggests that we, as humans, have
a moral responsibility towards fellow life forms. Conservationist Aldo Leopold,
in an essay “Land Ethic” from the book ‘A Sand County Almanac’ published in
1949, described human beings’ responsibility to protect wilderness as part of the
ethical treatment of fellow life forms (Misra and Pandey, 2018; Wright and Boorse,
2015). This view is sometimes also referred to as Environmental Stewardship,
which highlights that we should not waste natural resources and our success
depends on how well we manage earth’s life support system for us and the rest of
nature (Miller, 2007).

4.5.3 Eco-centric view

It states that the environment and the nature in which we exist are far wider and
more creative on their own. Humans are only one of the species found on earth
and exist as part of the larger community. It acknowledges and appreciates the
fact that every species has an intrinsic value attached to it. Every species plays an
important role in the functioning of natural processes and is valuable for the
ecosystem.

Environmental sustainability is intricately linked to environmental ethics as far as

the conservation of resources for future generations is concerned (Sulphey and
Safeer, 2017). The environmental ethics we follow today, says a lot about our
sustenance on earth, and certain ethics have been part of our tradition for a long
[Link] existence of Sacred Groves in different parts of our country shows that
conservation to protect all the essential ecosystem functions is not a new concept
84
for us. Religions like Hinduism, Islam, Jainism, Buddhism, and Sikhism, all preach Environmental Sustainability
to conserve the environment (Misra and Pandey, 2018). Development accompanied
by the code of ethics can take us a long way on the road to environmental
sustainability.
Check Your Progress 3
Note: (a) Write you answer in 50 words.
          (b) You can check your answers given at the end of the unit.
1. How environmental ethics and culture help in environmental protection?
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2. What are the different viewponts towards environment?
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4.6 LETS US SUM UP

In this unit, we discussed the concept of sustainable development and the essential
criteria to make it applicable. Various goals, like, the Millenium Developmet Goals
and the Sustainable Development Goals are set from time to time along with their
indicators to check its implementation status. As the idea of sustaianble development is
holistic and comprises of environmental conservation and social justice, it can be
successful only when the whole world takes action in a concerted [Link] the
help of international organisations like United Nations, many international conventions
and protocols have been formulated and implemented successfully for environmental
conservation and climate change prevention. Conferences like the Stockholm
Conference, 1972, the Earth Summit, 1992, the Kyoto Protocol, 1997, and many
more are landmarks to show that if the countries are willing and come forward to take
action, the earth can be saved. The success of all the efforts ultimately depends on how
we perceive the Earth and the environment. Are we, a part of the earth, or some
species that is there to consume the earth’s resources. We can only answer such
questions with the understanding of environmental ethics, that are the guiding principles
for interactions of humans with environment.

85
1-Introduction

The study of food chains helps in understanding some of the important aspects of the
ecosystem in particular and environment in general. The main function in the
ecosystem is the flow of energy. In ecosystem, all the living organisms (plants and
animals) are linked with each other in a systematic way in the form of a chain with
respect to their mode of getting food. This includes the manufacturing of food or
different feeding habits. For example in a simple grassland ecosystem, the entire
stock of green plants (herbs, shrubs and trees) manufacture food by utilizing the
radiant energy of the sun through the process of photosynthesis. These are therefore
termed as producers or autotrophs. These autotrophs are eaten up by plant eaters
which are known as herbivores which, in turn constitute the food of first level
carnivores also known as primary carnivores. The primary carnivores are then
subsequently eaten up by middle or secondary carnivores and top level or tertiary
carnivores.

Here we find that beginning with the producers, onwards to herbivores, first level
carnivores, middle level carnivores and top level carnivores, all the organisms are
inter-linked in a definite sequence.

2-Definitions and Characteristics of Food Chain

The sequential interlinking of organisms involving the transfer of food energy from
the producers, through a series of organisms with repeated eating and being eaten is
referred to as the food chain.

All trophic levels in an ecosystem are connected by transfer of food or energy. The
transfer of energy or food from one trophic level to the next trophic level is called
food chain.

Food chain is always straight and proceeds in a progressive straight line.

The green plants always occupy first level in any given food chain and are
commonly termed as the primary producers.
The stored energy in primary producers is then utilized by the plant eaters called as
the herbivores which are also known as primary consumers.

Herbivores are subsequently eaten by the flesh eating animals called as the
carnivores, also known as the secondary consumers.

The carnivores can be categorized into three categories namely, primary carnivores,
secondary carnivores and tertiary carnivores.

Some organisms are termed as omnivores as they eat the producers as well as the
carnivores at their lower level in the food chain. The classification of various
organisms in a food chain particularly relates to their function in the ecosystem so
that any two or more distinct species are likely to occupy the same trophic level.

Characteristics of food chain

1. In a food chain, there is unidirectional flow of energy from sun to producers and
subsequently to series of different types of consumers.

2. A food chain involves a nutritive interaction between the living organisms which
are the biotic components of an ecosystem. In a food chain, there occurs repeated
eating which means that each group eats the other and is subsequently eaten by some
other group of organisms.

3. A food chain is always straight and proceeds in a progressive straight line.

4. Usually there occur 4 or 5 trophic levels in the food chain. There cannot be too
many links in a single food chain because the animals at the end of the chain would
not get enough food (and hence energy) to stay alive.

5. The flow of energy is unidirectional i.e., non-cyclic. However, some energy is lost
at every state in the atmosphere. Generally 80-90 % of energy is lost as heat at each
transfer in accordance with second law of thermodynamics. Energy decreases as it
moves up trophic levels because energy is lost as metabolic heat when the organisms
from one trophic level are consumed by organisms from the next level. The main
reason for this loss is the second law of thermodynamics, which states that whenever
energy is converted from one form to another, there is a tendency toward disorder
(entropy) in the system. In biologic systems, this means a great deal of energy is lost
as metabolic heat when the organisms from one trophic level are consumed by the
next level.

6. Some organisms occupy different trophic positions in different food chains.

7. A change in the size of one population in a food chain will affect other
populations.

This interdependence of the populations within a food chain helps in maintaining the
balance of plant and animal populations within a community. For example, when
there are too many zebras; there will be insufficient shrubs and grass for all of them
to eat. Many zebras will starve and die. Fewer zebras means more time for the
shrubs and grass to grow to maturity and multiply. Fewer zebras also mean less food
is available for the lions to eat and some lions will starve to death. When there are
fewer lions, the population of zebra will increase.

3-Trophic levels

The trophic level of an organism is the position it occupies in a food chain. The
word trophic is derived from the Greek τροφή (trophē) referring to food or feeding.

The distinct sequential steps in the straight food chains are referred to as different
trophic levels. They are also known as nutritional levels.

The various trophic levels are:

First trophic level: Green plants which are producers stand on the first trophic
level. This is known as producer level.

Second trophic level: The plant eaters which are herbivores also called primary
consumers belong to second trophic level. This is known as primary consumer level.
Third trophic level: The flesh eaters which are carnivores also called secondary
consumers represent the third trophic level. This is known as the secondary
consumer level.

It should also be known that the quantum of available energy in a food chain
successively gets decreased at each trophic level as a result of waste of energy into
unavailable heat. This can be explained on the basis of second law of
thermodynamics according to which transformation of energy from one form to the
other is inefficient and involves dissipation of unavailable energy. This phenomenon
is known as loss of energy at successive levels. This restricts the size of food chain
in ecosystem to maximum of 4 to 5 steps.

4-Types of Food Chains

In nature, generally two types of food chains are distinguished namely, grazing food
chain and detritus food chain.

1. Grazing food chain

The common examples of the grazing food chain are those of grassland ecosystem
starting from grasses – herbivores – carnivores (i.e. primary, secondary, and tertiary)
and aquatic ecosystems starting from phytoplanktons – zooplanktons – small fishes
– large fishes.

In grazing food chain for example grassland ecosystem, green plants (producers)
constitute the first step. The plant biomass, in turn, is eaten by the herbivores such as
insects, rats and mice, grazing cattle, goats, sheep, deer, zebra, giraffe, horses,
donkeys etc. and these are subsequently consumed by a variety of carnivores like
lion, tiger, panther, cheetah, wolves, snakes etc. The grazing food chains are directly
dependent on an influx of solar radiations. Green plants, with the help of solar
radiations, manufacture food by the process of photosynthesis. These are longer food
chains and these always end at decomposer level. From energy point of view, these
grazing type of food chains are very important.
2. Detritus food chain

The detritus food chains depend upon the dead organic matter either in the form of
fallen leaves etc. or dead animal bodies. Hence, these are not directly dependent on
solar energy. The starting point , in a detritus food chain, is the dead bodies of
animals or fallen leaves etc. which are commonly termed as detritus. This dead
organic matter is first eaten by decomposers for example bacteria, fungi and
protozoans etc. These decomposing organisms have saprophytic mode of feeding
and are designated as primary consumers in this type of chain. These are also termed
as detritivores, meaning detritus eating. The detritivores, in turn, are eaten by their
predators like insect larvae, nematodes etc. The main function of the detritivores is
to release the inorganic elements into the ecosystem by decomposing the dead
organic matter. The recycling of inorganic elements in ecosystem helps in keeping
them fit.

In comparison to grazing food chains, the detritus food chains are generally shorter.

Common example of detritus food chain is given by Heald (1969) and Odum (1971)
after the study of mangrove leaves in the bralisk zone of southern Florida (USA).
The starting point of the detritus food chain is the fallen leaves of red mangrove
trees (Rhizophoramangle) that fall into the warm, shallow waters. The detritus eating
animals for example bacteria, fungi, protozoa etc. act upon the dead organic matter
of the dead leaves and convert them into simple inorganic substances. The
detritivores are subsequently eaten by consumers such as insect larvae, grass shrimp,
copepods, crabs, nematodes, bivalve mollusks, amphipodismmysids etc. The last
step in the detritus food chain is that detritus consumers are finally eaten by fishes.

A food chain having consumers in it is called predator food chain. The decomposers
may be excluded from the food chain because they act at all the trophic levels of a
food chain. The producers are also called energy transducers because they change
the radiant energy of the sun into chemical energy which is stored in organic
compounds.

5-Examples of Food Chains

The food relations are very complex, even in a small community, but may be
illustrated by two simplified examples:-

i) Food chain in a pond.

In a pond, rooted or floating plants and floating algae synthesize food materials from
dissolved nutrients by the process of photosynthesis. They, therefore, act as the
producers. Unicellular algae are eaten by protozoans (amoeba, paramaecium) and
water fleas. The snails, mosquito larvae and tadpoles take aquatic plants as food. All
these herbivore organisms are regarded as primary consumers. These are eaten by
Hydra, dragonfly larvae, water insects (giant water bugs, water scorpions, water
beetles etc.), and small fish. These carnivore organisms are secondary consumers.
They are fed upon by large fishes and frogs. These animals are tertiary consumers.
Frogs and fishes are eaten by snakes and birds, which are quaternary consumers. The
snakes and birds and also the organisms of other trophic levels, when dead, serve as
food for the bacteria and fungi of decay. The latter change the dead organisms into
simple inorganic materials for reuse by the producers. This completes the cycle.

ii) Food chain on land.

On land, grass grows by manufacturing food from carbon dioxide of air and water
and minerals of soil with the help of chlorophyll and sunlight. Grass, therefore, acts
as the producer on land. Grass is eaten by rabbits, the primary consumers. The latter
are preyed upon by cats, the secondary consumers. The cats may be taken by
wolves, the tertiary consumers, and the tigers may capture the wolves. The tigers
represent the quaternary or terminal consumers. They are not eaten by any predators.
The tigers as well as the other trophic levels of the chain, on death, are decomposed
by bacteria and fungi of decay to simple inorganic materials. The latter are reused by
grass.

Some other examples of land food chains:

a) Grass- grasshopper- frog-snake-peacock

b) Crop-aphids-ladybird beetles –birds

c) Crop- rats-owls

6-Length and Ecological principles derived from food chains

Length of food chains

A food chain may end at the:

i) Primary consumer (herbivore) level, for example, plants-elephants

ii) Secondary consumer (primary carnivore) level, for example, plants-rabbit-bear

iii) Tertiary consumer (secondary carnivore) level for example, plants-rabbit-wild

cat-tiger

iv) Quaternary consumer (tertiary carnivore) level for example plants-rabbit-cat-

wolf-tiger

There is perhaps no living thing that does not serve as a trophic level in some food
chain. Some animals may form a link in more than one food chain.

Food chains may be longer or shorter than those discussed, but usually there are only
4 or 5 successive trophic levels.

Ecological principals derived from food chains

Five important ecological principles emerge from the study of food chains:

i) To be complete and self-containing, a food chain must always begin with

photosynthesis and end with decay. A food chain must get energy from outside to
keep going.

ii) The shorter a food chain, the more efficient it is. The more steps it has, the greater
wastage of energy.
iii) The size of any population is ultimately determined by the number of trophic
levels in the food chain. With the decrease in useful energy at each step, very little
energy is available for a population of quaternary consumers. The size of a
population of quaternary consumers is less than that of tertiary consumers, a
population of tertiary consumers is smaller than that of secondary consumers, and so
on.

iv) In any food chain, the successive members are larger in size though fewer in
number.

v) An organism cannot always be assigned to just one trophic level. The

insectivorous plants, such as venus’s flytrap and pitcher plant, are producers as well
as consumers. Jackals are both carnivores and scavengers. A snake may feed on rats
(herbivores) or frogs (carnivores). Frog is herbivorous in the larval stage and
carnivorous in the adult stage.

Many mammals, such as fox, bear and man, are omnivorous and belong to many
trophic levels.

7-Food Web

In nature, food chains do not operate in isolation. These, in fact, are interconnected
forming a sort of interlocking pattern.

Definition

Food web is a network of food chains which become inter-connected at various

trophic levels so as to form a number of feeding connections amongst different
organisms of a biotic community.

Unlike food chains, food webs are never straight. Interlocking pattern in a food web
is supported by the fact that a single living organism may participate at different
trophic levels in different food chains. For instance, in grassland ecosystem, the
grass may be eaten by the grazing cattle. In the absence of grazing cattle in the biotic
community, grass may be eaten by a rabbit or in the absence of both, rat or mouse
may consume the grass. Similarly, rat or mouse may be eaten by predatory birds or
snakes. Snakes may also be eaten by predatory birds. To sum up, alternatives are
available in nature which results in a sort of interlocking pattern or the food web.
Thus, in food webs any given species may operate simultaneously at more than one
trophic level.

Characteristics of Food Web

1. Unlike food chains, food webs are never straight

2. Food web is formed by interlinking of food chains.

3. A food web provides alternative pathways of food availability.

4. In food web, greater are the alternative pathways more stable is the ecosystem.

5. Food webs also help in checking the over- populations of highly fecundive species
of organisms.

6. Food webs also help in ecosystem development.

7. There can be 3 types of food chains in a food web:

* Predator chains that begin with plants and proceed from small to large animals

* Parasitic chains which proceed from large to small organisms.

* Saprophytic chains that proceed from dead animals to microorganisms.

Significance of Food Web

Food webs provide stability to the ecosystem. Most animals are polyphagous, that is,
feed on more than one kind of organisms. If the population of a species decreases to
an endangered level, its predators shift to another prey and the endangered species
may get a chance to recover its population. Even a loss of a particular type of
organisms would not produce large fluctuations in the populations of other
organisms which uses it as food because they would have alternative food
organisms.
Conclusion

In this programme we have learned about Food Chains, its various types with
examples, Trophic levels and Food web. All these functions make the biosphere
complex and dynamic.
INTRODUCTION
‘Ecology’ is the study of the interrelationship between living organisms and their
environment. Ecology shows the interdependence of life and the environment and
deals with balance in nature.

Ecology studies ecosystems which are composed of dynamically interacting parts

including organisms, the communities they make up, and the non-living components
of their environment.

E.P. Odum (Eugene Pleasants) (1953) is regarded as the father of Ecosystem

Ecology. He brought forward the importance of ecology as a discipline. He adopted
and developed further the term "ecosystem".

R. Margalef (1968) suggested that ecology is ‘the study of ecosystems’.

Prof. Ramdeo Mishra who is called as the ‘Father of Indian Ecology’, defined it as
‘the study of interactions of form, function and factors’.

Ecology involves various biological organizations. The levels of biological

organizations of interest in ecology are:
Organism----Population----Community----Ecosystem-----Biosphere.

Ecosystem
A biotic community lives in an abiotic environment called ‘biotope’. The biotope
provides material and energy to the bio-community inhabiting it. This shows that
there is an interaction between a biotic community and its environment. Therefore,
a bio-community cannot live isolated from the biotope. A bio-comunnity and its
biotope together form an ‘ecological system’ or ‘ecosystem’. In Greek ‘eco’ means
‘environment’ and ‘system’ means an ‘interacting and interdependent complex’. The
term ecosystem was coined by [Link] (1935). Some other terms were also
coined for ecosystem e.g. ‘Biocoenosis’ by Carl Mobius (1877), ‘Microcosm’ by
S.A. Forbes (1887), ‘Geobiocoenosis’ or ‘biogeocoenosis’ by Sukhchev (1944).
Organisms such as plants, animals and microorganisms, interact with the physical
environment of their habitat, and form an ecological complex working system which
is termed as the ‘ecosystem’. The ecosystem has two interacting components. These
are:
- Organisms (biotic)
- Physical environment (abiotic)

Definition of Ecosystem
An ecosystem may be defined as ‘a structural and functional unit of the biosphere,
comprising living organisms and their nonliving environment that interact by means
of food chains and chemical cycles, resulting in energy flow, biotic diversity and
mineral cycling, to form a stable self-supporting system’. An ecosystem involves a
whole network of relationships, exchanges and interactions, between the living and
nonliving components. The relationship between a biotic community and the
nonliving environment is always a mutual one, that is, not only does the
environment affect the community but the community also modifies the
environment.

An ecosystem does not remain constant. Changes occur in it continuously in one

form of the other. It is significant that even a small change in one part of an
ecosystem is felt throughout the ecosystem. This establishes the importance of inter-
linkages in an ecosystem.

TYPES & STRUCTURE OF ECOSYSTEMS

Ecosystems may be classified on the basis of their nature, duration and size.

1. On the basis of nature: On this basis an ecosystem may be natural or

artificial. Common examples of natural ecosystems are a pond, a lake, a
meadow, a desert, grassland, a forest, a village, a flied, a hill- side etc. Even a
single log and edge of a pond are also instances of ecosystem.
Instances of artificial ecosystems are a manned spaceship, a flowerbed or
kitchen garden in the backyard, an aquarium and a pot of houseplants.

2. On the basis of duration : On this basis an ecosystem may be

temporary, such as a rainfed pond and laboratory culture of protozoa, or
permanent, such as a forest or a lake.
3. On the basis of size : On this basis an ecosystem may be very small,
called microecosystem, such as a flowerpot or a site under a stone or it may
be very large, termed macroecosystem, such as, an ocean, a forest etc.

Scope of the Study of an Ecosystem

The study of an ecosystem focuses on various aspects. Besides the organisms and
their environment, it also includes:
 Nutritive relationships between the organisms
 Interactions between the organisms and the environment
  Cycling of matter, and
 Flow of energy through it.

Structure of Ecosystem
To sustain itself and to last indefinitely, an ecosystem must have recourses for
supporting its resident organisms and for disposal of their wastes.
The necessary components of an ecosystem are matter (water, minerals,
carbon dioxide, and oxygen) and several species of organisms. An ecosystem must
also receive a continuous supply of energy.

The components of an ecosystem may be divided into two main types:

 Biotic components comprising the various kinds of organisms and
 Abiotic components comprising of environmental factors.

ABIOTIC COMPONENTS
Abiotic components of an ecosystem include the nonliving physical-chemical factors
of the environment. These components not only affect the distribution and structure
of organisms but also their behavior and interrelationships.
Abiotic components are of three types:
 Physical factors –light, heat, humidity, atmospheric pressure Organic
components – carbohydrates, proteins and lipids and
 Inorganic components – oxygen, nitrogen, carbon dioxide

Light
Sunlight is an essential abiotic factor in the ecosystem. It constitutes the main supply
of energy for all organisms. Plants with chlorophyll can change the light energy into
chemical energy through a process known as photosynthesis. This chemical energy
is stored as complex organic substances known as food. Besides the significant
function of food production, the light also regulates many biological processes.

Heat
Heat is essential for maintaining the body temperatures of ectothermic animals
which are not adapted to regulate their body temperature, for e.g. fishes, amphibians
and reptiles.

Plants make use of a little amount of heat to perform the photosynthetic

process. They are adapted to survive between great ranges of temperature. This is
also applicable for all the organisms from Archea to mammalia. Some
microorganisms can even tolerate extreme temperatures.

The earth receives heat from the sun. The heated earth emits infrared radiation,
which is absorbed by the atmospheric water vapour. This delays the release of heat
towards space. Thus, the atmosphere is kept warm. Besides water vapour other gases
like carbon dioxide and methane also absorb infrared radiation. This is known
as Green house effect.

Water
Water is an indispensable factor for life. Living beings originated in water and all
living beings need water to survive. Water is involved in diverse organic and
chemical processes. Water works as a thermo-regulator for the climate and living
systems, including warm blooded animals. Water is responsible for the maintenance
of stable climatic conditions on earth.

Organic Components
The main organic components of an ecosystem are carbohydrates, proteins and
lipids. They are the major biomolecules and they help in the sustenance of life
forms.

Inorganic Components
Various inorganic elements are essential for the metabolism of living organisms to
function properly. From the 92 known natural elements, only 25 elements are found
in living matter. From these 25 elements four elements- carbon, oxygen, hydrogen
and nitrogen, are present in 97% of the molecules of life. The remaining comprise
only 3% of living matter, the most important being phosphorus, potassium, calcium
and sulphur.

BIOTIC COMPONENTS
Living organisms present in an ecosystem form the biotic components. They are
interconnected through food. Matter and energy are transferred in the living world as
food. Organisms in an ecosystem can be classified on the basis of their mode of
obtaining [Link] are: plants, animals and microorganisms. Plants are called
called producers, animals are the consumers while microorganisms are the
decomposers, according to their role in keeping the ecosystem operating as a stable
unit.
Producers
Producers are mainly green plants having chlorophyll. They produce carbohydrates
by the process of photosynthesis. In this, the plants convert solar energy into
chemical energy, using water and carbon dioxide. They are called ‘autotrophs’ since
they produce their own food. Part of the food produced by autotrophs is utilized for
their own consumption for survival and growth, while the remaining is stored in the
plant parts for future consumption. This becomes the food for other biotic
components in the environment.

Consumers
Consumers are the organisms that gather energy by consuming organic material
from other organisms. Consumers derive their energy by aerobic respiration, which
converts sugar and oxygen into carbon dioxide and water to give them energy.
Since, they rely on the producers for their food requirements, consumers are also
called as ‘heterotrophs’. Consumers may be:
 Primary Consumers or Herbivores: ‘Primary consumers’ or ‘herbivores’
are also called ‘first order consumers’. They eat the producers or plants.
E.g. cattle like cows and goats, deer, rabbit etc.
 Secondary Consumers or Primary Carnivores: ‘Secondary Consumers’ or
‘Primary Carnivores’ are also called ‘second order consumers’. They eat
herbivores e.g. snakes, cats, foxes, etc.
 Tertiary Consumers: Tertiary Consumers are also called ‘third order
consumers’. They feed on secondary consumers. They are large
carnivores. E.g. wolf Quaternary Consumers: Quaternary Consumers are
also called ‘fourth order consumers’. They are very large carnivores and
feed on tertiary consumers and are not consumed by other animals. E.g.
lions and tigers.
 Omnivores: Organisms that consumes both producers and other
consumers are called as ‘omnivores’. Omnivores may be in the second
and higher trophic levels depending on their level of
consumption. Example Dogs and Humans Detrivores: Detrivores are
organisms that consume detritus matter - the tissues of dead organisms,
either producers or consumers - and organic waste. For Example
millipedes and earthworms.

Decomposers
Decomposers, also called as ‘saprotrophs’, are mainly microorganisms like
bacteria and. The dead organic materials of producers and consumers are their
food. They breakdown the organic matter into simple compounds and utilize
them in their metabolic processes. These simple compounds are nutrients which
are absorbed by the producers, thus completing a cyclic exchange of matter
between the biotic and abiotic components of the ecosystems.

FUNCTIONS OF AN ECOSYSTEM
Ecosystems are complex, dynamic and perform a variety of functions. The major
functions of ecosystems are energy flow and nutrient cycling through
biogeochemical cycles.

Energy Flow in an Ecosystem

The sun is the source of all our energy. Chlorophyll bearing plants 66 convert the
energy from sun into carbohydrates and sugars using carbon dioxide and water.
This process is known as ‘photosynthesis’. The generalized form of the
photosynthetic reaction is:
6CO2+ 12H20-----[Symbol] C6H12O6 + 6O2 +6H2O
The sun’s energy, thus, enters the living beings through photosynthetic
reactions and is passed from one organism to another in the form of food. The
flow of energy is unidirectional and governed by the thermodynamic law that
states that energy is neither created nor destroyed and can transform into different
forms.

Food Chain & Food Web

The food chain is an ideal model of the flow of energy in the ecosystem. Transfer
of food energy from green plants or producers, through a series of organisms,
with repeated eating and being eaten, is called ‘food chain’.
Each step in the food chain is called a ‘trophic level’. A food chain has three
main trophic levels; producers, consumers and decomposers, 84 though the
overall number of trophic levels might be five or six. The energy efficiency of
each trophic level is very low, which puts a limit on the number of trophic levels.
The shorter the food chain the greater will be the availability of food.
There are two types of food chains: Grazing Food Chains & Detritus Food
Chains.
i. Grazing food chains start from the green plants that make food for
herbivores, and herbivores in turn for the carnivores.
ii. Detritus food chains start from the dead organic matter to
the detrivore organisms, which in turn make food for many organisms,
from protozoans to carnivores etc.
The food chains are not linear chains or isolated chains and do not operate
independently. Several food chains remain linked together and form an
 interconnected network pattern known as ‘food web’. In a food web the
interconnections of food chains depend upon the availability, kind and choice of
food at each trophic level.
A Food web maintains the stability of the ecosystem by providing several
alternative sources of food. Greater is the number of interlinks, more stable is the
community.

Ecological Pyramid
Ecological pyramids are the graphic representations of trophic levels in an
ecosystem. They are pyramidal in shape and are of three types. – Pyramid of
Biomass, Pyramid of Numbers and Pyramid of Energy.
1. Pyramid of Biomass: A pyramid of biomass is a graphical
representation of biomass in an ecosystem at various trophic levels.
The pyramid shows that most of the earth’s biomass exists in producers, less
in primary consumers and increasingly less in higher trophic levels. In some
cases, the pyramid shape can vary.
 The pyramid of biomass in a terrestrial ecosystem 88 is upright.
 In an aquatic habitat, the pyramid of biomass is inverted or spindle
shaped where the biomass of a trophic level depends upon the
reproductive potential and longevity of the member.
2. Pyramid of Number: A pyramid of number represents the number of
organisms at each trophic level. E.g. in a grassland the number of grasses is
more than the number of herbivores that feed on them and the number of
herbivores is more than the number of carnivores. In some instances, the
pyramid of number may be inverted, that is herbivores are more than primary
producers as we may observe that many caterpillars and insects feed on a
single tree.
3. Pyramid of Energy: A pyramid of energy represents the total amount of
energy at each trophic level. Energy is expressed in terms of rate such as,
kcal/unit area/unit time; or cal/unit area/unit time. For E.g. in a
lake autotroph energy is 20810kcal/m/year. Energy pyramids are never
inverted.

BIOGEOCHEMICAL CYCLES
Several mineral cycles operate in ecosystems. The mineral elements are primarily
absorbed by plants from their surroundings, that is, air, water, soil and are then
passed on to animals. Later, the death and decomposition of plants and animals
release these elements into their surroundings and are reused by plants. All the
elements cycle continuously through the organisms and earth, and this transfer in a
cyclic manner is called ‘biogeochemical cycle’. Biogeochemical cycles are of two
types: Gaseous cycles and Sedimentary cycles.

Gaseous Cycles:
Gaseous biogeochemical cycles are the oxygen cycle, the carbon cycle and the
nitrogen cycle.
Oxygen Cycle: Molecular oxygen, through respiration, and combined oxygen in the
form of water, carbon dioxide, etc., enters the living system. Oxygen returns into the
atmosphere through photosynthesis and through a number of other biological
processes. Oxygen in the atmosphere is an indispensable element for life. It is
constantly taken in by animals and plants and is used in respiration. Oxygen
deficiency causes a number of effects in plants such as stunted growth, death of
roots, thin cell wall and poor root branching. This may be due to certain
environmental conditions like poor aeration in soil, water logging, swampy
habitat, etc., may create oxygen deficiency, even though sufficient quantity of
oxygen gas is present in the atmosphere.

Carbon Cycle: The ‘carbon cycle’ is the cycling of carbon between biotic and
abiotic systems. Biomass is part of the carbon cycle. Carbon from the atmosphere is
converted into biological matter by photosynthesis. On death or combustion the
carbon goes back into the atmosphere as carbon dioxide. Most of the carbon in the
form of carbon dioxide enters the living world through photosynthesis and is used in
the synthesis of organic compounds in living systems. By way of respiration,
decomposition of plants and animals by microorganisms or by burning of fuels etc.,
the carbon fixed in the form of organic compounds is released as carbon dioxide and
thus it returns into the atmosphere for reuse.

Nitrogen Cycle:
Nitrogen and its compounds form a vital ingredient in all forms of life in the
biosphere. Nitrogen is available in the atmosphere as molecular nitrogen in the
gaseous form, which cannot be directly absorbed by the plants or producers. In order
to be absorbed by the plants, it has to be converted into water-soluble compounds
with elements like hydrogen, carbon and oxygen. This process is known as ‘fixation
of nitrogen’.
Sedimentary Cycles:
The ‘Sedimentary Cycles’ of an ecosystem are: Sulphur cycle and Phosphorus
Cycle.

Sulphur Cycle:
Amino acids and proteins need sulphur compounds for their production. In the
atmosphere, it is present as sulphur dioxide and hydrogen sulphide, in the soil
as sulphates or sulphides.
Volcanic emissions and burning of fossil fuels supply sulphur dioxide to the
atmosphere, while bacterial emissions give hydrogen sulphide .
Atmospheric sulphur dioxide, eventually reaches the earth along with rainfall.
Sulphur bacteria also play a vital role in the interchange and movement of sulphur
compounds in the ecosystem. The sulphur compounds in the plant and animal parts
are absorbed by the soil after their death, decay and converted into sulphides
and sulphates by sulphur bacteria, which are subsequently used up by the plants.

Phosphorous Cycle
The bones and teeth of animals, including human beings, contain phosphates, which
are necessary for their development and growth. In addition, phosphates are essential
for cells in the production of DNA and RNA. Phosphates are available in the
lithosphere in rocks and soil in inorganic form.
Plants absorb phosphates and convert them into organophosphates. Phosphates are
also added to the soil through phosphate fertilizers. Soluble phosphates reaching
rivers and streams from agricultural lands made rich in phosphates, cause excess
algal growth. leading to eutrophication. Return of phosphates to the earth is by the
decay of plant and animal matter and subsequent absorption.

Conclusion
In this program we have studied the Ecosystem, its definition and types and the
scope of the study of an ecosystem. We have also talked about various functions of
an ecosystem. I hope you now understand the Structure of an Ecosystem, including
its biotic and abiotic components.