Introduction to

Academic Writing

MODULE 6

Introduction to Analytical Writing . . . . . . . . p. 2-5

Practising Simple Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . p. 6-7

Cautious Language, or “Hedging” . . . . . . . p. 8-9

Sample Essay and Outline . . . . . . . . . . . p. 10-14

Text Reconstruction Exercise . . . . . .. . . . p. 15-17

Instructor: Haidi Hartigan

College of Foreign Languages in Częstochowa

This module last updated 12.01.2015

 2
Introduction to Analytical Writing
1. The final genre of academic writing we will consider in this course is called ANALYSIS (also
ANALYTIC or ANALYTICAL WRITING).

2. In the field of writing, an analysis is a CRITICAL EVALUATION of a subject. In other words,

the writer examines some question or issue in order to arrive at a judgment or conclusion.

3. How is analysis is different from persuasion?

- Persuasion: You start with a THESIS and then use logos, pathos, and ethos to
convince your reader that thesis is valid. (“Smoking should be banned.”)

- Analysis: You start with a QUESTION or PROBLEM and then investigate the
problem to arrive at a reasonable conclusion. (“What should we do about the
health problems caused by smoking?”)

4. An analytical question can deal with any subject, large or small.

- “What were the causes of the Second World War?”

(historical analysis)

- “How does Emily Dickinson’s poetry reflect the values of 19th Century American
culture?” (literary analysis)

- “What is the most effective method for teaching English to young learners?”
(methodological analysis)

5. In short, analytical writing is the process of investigating and solving intellectual problems.
In humanistic disciplines, it is an essential skill. (Most MA theses in the field of literature are
essentially long analytical essays.)

How Do We Approach a Complex Question?

6. Good analytical writing brings precision and clarity to matters that might seem confusing
and complicated at first. How is this done?

7. Note that the root meaning of the word “ANALYZE” = to break something down into its
component parts (opposite of “synthesize”).

8. Analysis, then, is largely a matter of identifying the PARTS of a complex problem so that
they can be examined individually

9. Simple example.

College of Foreign Languages in Częstochowa

Introduction to Academic Writing © Dr. Sean Hartigan
 3

- Question: How successful is this persuasive essay?

- Analysis: What are the RELEVANT PARTS of an essay of this type?

o Thesis
o Organization
o Argument
o Sources, etc.

- How successful is each part individually?

- How do they interact?

10. Complex example.

- Question: What caused the Second World War?

- Analysis: What are the RELEVANT PARTS of a historical event of this kind?
o Economic factors
o Social changes
o Technological changes
o Political factors, etc., etc.

- How did each factor affect the start of the war?

- How did they interact?

11. Literary example:

- Question: How does Emily Dickinson’s poetry reflect 19th-century American

culture?

- Analysis: What are the RELEVANT PARTS of her poetry?

o Form
o Subject matter
o Diction
o Gender factors (i.e., she wrote as a woman)
o Class factors (i.e., she wrote as a member of the middle class)
o Other social factors (e.g., idea of the poet’s place in society, etc.)

- How does her poetry reflect (or fail to reflect) the ideas about literature current in
her time?
- How do these factors interact? (e.g., gender with subject matter?)

12. Focus only on parts of the subject that are relevant to your analysis. (As always, the
principle of APPROPRIATENESS.) For instance, the kind of clothing worn in 1939 probably
offers no clues to the causes of WWII.

College of Foreign Languages in Częstochowa

Introduction to Academic Writing © Dr. Sean Hartigan
 4
13. Note that you need to have adequate knowledge of a subject in order to analyze it well.
Without such knowledge, it’s difficult to evaluate (or even identify!) the relevant parts of a
problem.

14. In general, the more you know about a subject, the easier it is to do a good analysis.
RESEARCH is often important here.

What Makes a Bad Analysis?

15. Based on what we’ve talked about so far, what would make a bad analysis?

- Inadequate knowledge of subject

- Poor research (including inappropriate sources)
- Becoming distracted by one part of a problem; failure to identify all relevant parts
- Failure to consider how parts interact with each other
- Failure to think logically

Arriving at Useful Conclusions

16. The results of your analysis are called your CONCLUSIONS. These conclusions are the
answer to the question you have been working on.

17. Conclusions should be CLEAR and DEFINITE, as in this example:

- This persuasive essay is reasonable, well organized, and strongly argued. It is

likely to be very convincing to readers.

18. In academic writing, conclusions should NOT be vague or “wishy-washy,” as in these

examples:

- This persuasive essay could be successful, or it could be unsuccessful. Only

time will tell.

- It is up to each individual to decide whether he or she likes this essay.

19. Vague conclusions are useless to your reader. The reader of an analytic essay WANTS to
hear your opinions – but reasoned opinions.

Structure of an Analytic Essay (e.g., a thesis chapter)

- Introduction (usually with background info + statement of question or problem).

a) Optional: state answer to question? (could do this later)

College of Foreign Languages in Częstochowa

Introduction to Academic Writing © Dr. Sean Hartigan
 5
- Body of the essay, divided into SECTIONS based on natural divisions of the
subject. Most common body structure:
1. Consider relevant parts individually (1, 2, 3, etc.)
2. Consider how the parts relate to each other

- Address opposing thesis. How might someone criticize your answer? Are there
weaknesses in your analysis? Can you respond to your critics in advance??

- Concluding paragraph. Statement of conclusions (or repeat in different words)

Final remarks, comments, etc.

College of Foreign Languages in Częstochowa

Introduction to Academic Writing © Dr. Sean Hartigan
 6
Practicing Simple Analysis

A). Example for group discussion. How can we break this plan into parts?

1. Our plan for 2007 is to cut costs by 50%, hire three new staff members, and relocate our
main office to Warsaw.

B). Plan out strategies for answering these analytical questions. Begin by reading
each question carefully. Then think about how you could divide the problem into parts.

1. What can be done about underage drinking?

2. Should WSL students have longer winter holidays?

C). Imagine that you have been asked to judge the effectiveness of the short persuasive essay
below (NOTE: This essay is not formatted correctly). With the class, discuss possible
strategies for analyzing the text. Then, with your partner, analyze the essay and decide how
good it is.

Time For a Change

Although many people have successfully learned languages using older methods, the
nature of language teaching should change. Teachers once placed emphasis on grammar, but
today's teachers should focus on the practical use of language as a means of communication.

Language instruction used to focus on grammar practice. With an emphasis on the

structural components of language. But this method is very frustrating to students, and many of
them find grammar boring. Do we want to frustrate students so that they will hate learning
languages?

College of Foreign Languages in Częstochowa

Introduction to Academic Writing © Dr. Sean Hartigan
 7
For that reason, instruction and assessment should be based more on the ability to use
language in life. Speaking personally, I feel that my own language skills improved greatly when
I visited France and had to use the language to survive the classroom environment should be
like this. Grammar may be important, but so is eating!

As veteran language instructor Pat Martyny says, "Today we want students to become
communicators and to know how to work in the language." This is why language instruction
must change. Everyone should find the method that works best for him or her.

College of Foreign Languages in Częstochowa

Introduction to Academic Writing © Dr. Sean Hartigan
 8
Cautious Language, or “Hedging”
Analytical writing is often intended for critical or skeptical readers. For this reason, an important feature
of this kind of writing is cautious language, sometimes called "hedging."

Can you identify the hedging words and structures?

 The lives of Victorian women seem dull to modern women. (no hedging)

 The lives of Victorian women might seem dull to many modern women. (hedging)

 Recent studies of Northern Ireland prove that the Catholic population is moving westwards.
(no hedging)

 Recent studies of Northern Ireland suggest that the Catholic population is moving westwards.
(hedging)

Language Used in Hedging (source: [Link])

Introductory verbs
seem, tend, look like, appear to be, think, believe, doubt, be sure, indicate, suggest

Certain lexical verbs

believe, assume, suggest, claim

Certain modal verbs

will, must, would, may, might, could

Adverbs of frequency
often, sometimes, usually

Modal adverbs
certainly, definitely, clearly, probably, possibly, perhaps, conceivably

Modal adjectives
certain, definite, clear, probable, possible

Modal nouns
e.g. assumption, possibility, probability

Cautious introductory phrases

It could be the case that …

It might be suggested that …
It may be possible to …
It may be useful to …

College of Foreign Languages in Częstochowa

Introduction to Academic Writing © Dr. Sean Hartigan
 9
A. Assume that the following sentences are a bit too confident. Use hedging words and structures to
make the sentences more cautious. Try to find the words that seem most appropriate in context.

1. Belief in God in was stronger in 1957 than it is now.

2. Children love sweets, which proves that humans need sugary foods at a young age.

3. Listening to music will help students improve their grades.

4. Some scholars have asserted that the European Union will replace the USA as the dominant world
economy.

5. Bullying is a problem in schools.

6. We should study this question in more detail.

7. Weismann states that animals become old and die because if they did not, there could be no
evolution.

College of Foreign Languages in Częstochowa

Introduction to Academic Writing © Dr. Sean Hartigan
 10
Jan Kowalski

2nd Year Writing (Online)

Instructor: Haidi Hartigan

March 1, 2014

Winter Holidays at WSL: Are They Long Enough?

The question of whether WSL needs a longer winter holiday period seems at first to be

easy to answer. After all, who doesn’t like holidays? But the reality is that many factors must be

taken into consideration before a college can make major schedule changes of this kind. While

students and instructors both might benefit in some ways from longer holidays, there could be

problems and disadvantages as well. In this essay I hope to show that the holiday period is of

adequate length as it currently stands.

Since colleges exist for the benefit of students, their situation should perhaps be

considered first. Would lengthening the winter holiday improve their lives? On the one hand,

students experience a great deal of stress during exam periods, and the last weeks of a

semester can be a blur of tests, exams, and assignments. Surely, the more rest students get,

the better prepared they’ll be for the hard work that awaits them in the summer semester.

However, it is possible to have too much rest. As psychologist James Cole explains in an

interview with BBC News, “Vacations are very important, but students who get out of the habit

of working may find it difficult to return to their studies.”1 The current holiday period gives most

students enough rest, as we can see from the fact that most do well in the second semester. A

1
Ernest Lyer, “Are Students Working Too Hard?” BBC News, 2007. [Link] (10 May
2008).

College of Foreign Languages in Częstochowa

Introduction to Academic Writing © Dr. Sean Hartigan
 11
longer holiday might cause them to lose focus on their studies, which are, after all, more

important than skiing.

Instructors also need time to recover from the end-of-semester rush. The last weeks of

semester can often be a frantic time for college instructors, with stacks of student papers and

tests waiting to be graded, and exams scheduled day after day. The holiday period can be a

much-needed time of relaxation, as well as a time to prepare for the semester to come.

However, a longer holiday would also mean a reduction in pay, something most instructors

would not welcome. The current holiday period offers instructors sufficient time to recover

without hurting them financially.

Finally, we must consider the position of the college administration. Changing the length

of winter holidays would require major adjustments to the entire academic schedule. Since

students are by law required to spend a certain amount of time in classes, a longer winter

holiday would mean the shortening of other holidays. For example, the academic year might

have to be extended into the summer to make up for the lost hours, or other holiday periods

(such as Christmas or Easter) might have to be reduced. In either case, the process of

adjusting the entire schedule would be troublesome and of little value. No one wants to gain

holiday time in mid-winter and lose it at Christmas or in the summer.

All in all, it seems that the best option for WSL is to keep the winter holiday period as it

is. Since students and instructors already have adequate time for relaxation, it would be

wasteful to use more study time for this purpose. The administrative problems such a change

would cause would also not be worth the small (and doubtful) benefits. While relaxation is

important, it should not be overdone, and it should not cause more trouble than it is worth.

College of Foreign Languages in Częstochowa

Introduction to Academic Writing © Dr. Sean Hartigan
 12
BIBLIOGRAPHY

Lyer, Ernest. “Are Students Working Too Hard?” BBC News. 2007.

[Link] (10 May 2008).

College of Foreign Languages in Częstochowa

Introduction to Academic Writing © Dr. Sean Hartigan
 13
Jan Kowalski

2nd Year Writing (Online)

Instructor: Haidi Hartigan

March 1, 2014

Sentence Outline

Title: Winter Holidays at WSL: Are They Long Enough?

Topic question: Should WSL have longer winter holidays?

Answer: The holiday period is adequate as it is.

I. Introduction.

A. The question at first seems easy to answer.

B. While students and instructors might benefit from a change, there could be

problems as well.

C. State answer to topic question.

II. How would a longer holiday affect students?

A. Students experience a great deal of stress.

B. It is possible to get too much rest, however.

1. Quotation: James Cole in BBC News Online.

C. A longer holiday might cause students to lose focus.

III. How would a longer holiday affect instructors?

A. Instructors are very busy at the end of semester, too.

B. However, they would lose money if the holiday was longer.

College of Foreign Languages in Częstochowa

Introduction to Academic Writing © Dr. Sean Hartigan
 14

IV. How would a longer holiday affect the college administration?

A. Other holidays would have to be shortened.

B. It would be difficult to adjust the entire academic schedule.

V. Conclusion.

A. Restate answer to topic question: The best option is to keep things as they

are.

B. Summarize main arguments: students, instructors, administration, etc.

C. Final remark: Relaxation should not cause more trouble than it is worth.

College of Foreign Languages in Częstochowa

Introduction to Academic Writing © Dr. Sean Hartigan
 15
Text Reconstruction: Movies and Books
The following analytical essay examines the relative virtues of movies and books.

a) Put the sentences in each paragraph in the right order.

b) Can you identify any uses of cautious language, or “hedging”?

I.

Others insist that when a movie is made from a fine book, the movie is never as good as the
original.

Reviewing the similarities and differences between books and movies may help us to be better
judges of this controversy which began almost as soon as movie-making did.

Some people say that going to see a movie is better than curling up and reading a book.

II.

Within that message they both create vicarious experiences in which you can become totally
immersed.

Both begin with the basic purpose of transferring a lasting message to a distant audience.

Books and movies share important similarities.

You live the lives, experience the situations, and feel the emotions of the main characters, who
may be spies, murderers, common people dealing with everyday problems.

III.

They can take you back to the crowded streets of Rome, put you into the cockpit of a jet fighter
plane, or move you forward 50 years to when the earth is recovering from a nuclear war.

Both books and movies can provide you with avenues into the past, present, and future.

They can also make you look at society, at other people, and at yourself.

The ability to create these scenarios and arouse emotions is probably the greatest similarity
between movies and books.

Sometimes the view is pleasant and tender, as in peaceful or romantic scenes; sometimes it is
not, as in stories of crime, war, and poverty.

College of Foreign Languages in Częstochowa

Introduction to Academic Writing © Dr. Sean Hartigan
 16
IV.

The most basic difference is that participation in these two media demands the use of different
mental processes.

In spite of the similarities between books and movies, there are major differences as well.

Reading a book depends on skills developed over a long period of training and experience.

Using and enjoying books requires the ability to read well enough to create mental images of
the characters, visual settings and sounds.

The magic of cinematography has produced many stunning scenes with incredible visual
effects, like the dinosaurs in Jurassic Park, or the sinking of the ship in Titanic.

Movies, on the other hand, provide ready-made pictures for your eyes and sounds for your
ears.

Movies bring all of this to people, even if they cannot read and create detailed mental images
from print.

V.

Books usually offer a more in-depth view of people's thoughts and feelings, whereas movies
often limit themselves to outward actions.

Another difference between these media is the depth in development of the story and
characters.

Similarly, the sheer horror felt by the murder victims in the book Christine was not conveyed in
its film counterpart.

For instance, the film version of Gone With The Wind omits the emotional pain shared by
Scarlett and Rhett at the death of their daughter.

VI.

However, to see a film you must often be in a certain place at a certain time.

Books are portable and can be used at your convenience, in the setting of your choice.

The physical requirements of reading a book and viewing a movie are also very different.

As a moviegoer, you must rely on your memory of the experience or be willing to wait and pay
to see the film again.

College of Foreign Languages in Częstochowa

Introduction to Academic Writing © Dr. Sean Hartigan
 17
Moreover, books give you the freedom to savor your favorite parts over and over again
whenever and wherever you wish.

You must be ready to experience the entire presentation in a theater where the environment
may be unpleasant because of the noise, temperature, or smells.

VII.

In conclusion, both media have their own merits and offer experiences that can enrich our lives.

While I cannot say that all books are better than all movies, it seems clear that books provide a
richer and more accessible experience overall.

However, books seem to be particularly valuable because we can enjoy them at our own
convenience, and they usually provide a deeper understanding of people and situations.

College of Foreign Languages in Częstochowa

Introduction to Academic Writing © Dr. Sean Hartigan