lOMoARcPSD|50504552

Chemistry notes

Nutrition and Dietetics (Eldoret Technical Training institute)

Scan to open on Studocu

Studocu is not sponsored or endorsed by any college or university

Downloaded by Elizabeth Wanjiru (ew286259@[Link])
 lOMoARcPSD|50504552

CHEMISTRY
NUTRITION AND DIETETICS NOTES
PREPARED BY
MADAM CYNTHIA CHEPKOECH

CHAPTER ONE.

Downloaded by Elizabeth Wanjiru (ew286259@[Link])

 lOMoARcPSD|50504552

ATOMIC STRUCTURE.
 Atom is the smallest particle of an element that can take part in a chemical reaction.
 2 main parts of an atom:
Nucleus-99.9% of the atom’s mass Electron cloud or energy rings
-Atoms are made of subatomic particles: protons, neutrons, & electrons

Proton – Positively charged particle found in the nucleus of an atom. It is 1800 times larger
than an electron.

Neutron – Neutral particle (no charge) found in the nucleus of an atom. It is also 1800
times larger than an electron.

Electron – Negatively charged particle found outside the nucleus of an atom within
specific regions of space. It is 1800 times smaller than a proton (or neutron). In
comparison, the mass of an electron is negligible in comparison. So the entire mass of an
atom is based on the mass of neutrons and protons.

particle Relative atomic mass Electric charge Comments.

proton 1 +1(positive) In the nucleus
neutron 1 0(zero) In the nucleus
electron 1 -1(negative) Arranged in the
1850 energy level

Atomic Number – the number of protons that are in a given atom. Atoms of the same element
always have the same atomic number. Elements are arranged in the order of increasing
atomic number on the Periodic Table.

Mass Number -- the number of protons + the number of neutrons in a given atom of an
element.

Average Atomic Mass – the weighted average of all of the isotopes of a given element.
This is what is found on the Periodic Table

Isotopes

It is interesting to note that atoms of a given atomic number can have different
number of neutrons.

Downloaded by Elizabeth Wanjiru (ew286259@[Link])

 lOMoARcPSD|50504552

Atoms of elements having the same atomic number with different mass numbers are
called isotopes

Some examples are listed below:

Isotopes of Hydrogen

Hydrogen atom (Z=1) has no neutrons.

Number of protons = 1

Number of electrons = 1

Number of neutrons = 0

It has been reported that the hydrogen element has atoms with mass number 2 and 3
also i.e.

Isotopes of Chlorine

Nuclear composition of isotopes of chlorine:

Isotopes of Carbon

Nuclear composition of isotopes of carbon:

Relative Atomic Mass (Ram) of Isotopes

The relative atomic mass (Ar) is the average mass of an element, taking account of
its natural isotopes and their percentage abundance.

The strict definition of relative atomic mass is that Ar = average mass of all the
isotopic atoms present in the element compared to 1/12th the mass of a carbon-12
atom.

Example: chlorine consists of 75% chlorine-35 and 25% chlorine-37.

So the relative atomic mass of chlorine is 35.5 or Ar (Cl) = 35.5

Ion Formation

Downloaded by Elizabeth Wanjiru (ew286259@[Link])

 lOMoARcPSD|50504552

By the loss or gain of electrons a neutral atom is changed to an ion. Ions are
charged atoms or a group of atoms.

In other words, ions are particles formed by atoms by the donation or acceptance of
electrons.

Ionization potential (or ionization energy ) is the amount of energy

required to remove one or more electrons from the outermost shell of an
isolated atom in the gaseous state.

ELECTRONIC CONFIGURATION.

Electron configuration is the distribution of electrons of an atom or molecule (or other physical
structure) in atomic or molecular orbitals.

Quantum Numbers.

The quantum numbers describe the size, shape, and orientation in space of the orbitals on an
atom.

The principal quantum number (n) describes the size of the orbital. Orbitals for which n = 2
are larger than those for which n = 1, for example. Because they have opposite electrical charges,
electrons are attracted to the nucleus of the atom. Energy must therefore be absorbed to excite an
electron from an orbital in which the electron is close to the nucleus (n = 1) into an orbital in
which it is further from the nucleus (n = 2). The principal quantum number therefore indirectly
describes the energy of an orbital.

The angular quantum number (l) describes the shape of the orbital. Orbitals have shapes that
are best described as spherical (l = 0), polar (l = 1), or cloverleaf (l= 2). They can even take on
more complex shapes as the value of the angular quantum number becomes larger

magnetic quantum number (m), to describe the orientation in space of a particular

orbital. (It is called the magnetic quantum number because the effect of different
orientations of orbitals was first observed in the presence of a magnetic field.)

 The three quantum numbers (n, l, and m) that describe an orbital are integers: 0, 1, 2, 3,
and so on.
 The principal quantum number (n) cannot be zero. The allowed values of n are therefore
1, 2, 3, 4, and so on.
 The angular quantum number (l) can be any integer between 0 and n - 1. If n = 3, for
example, l can be either 0, 1, or 2.
 The magnetic quantum number (m) can be any integer between -l and +l. If l = 2, m can
be either -2, -1, 0, +1, or +2.

Downloaded by Elizabeth Wanjiru (ew286259@[Link])

 lOMoARcPSD|50504552

Shells and Subshells of Orbitals

Orbitals that have the same value of the principal quantum number form a shell. Orbitals
within a shell are divided into subshells that have the same value of the angular quantum
number. Chemists describe the shell and subshell in which an orbital belongs with a two-
character code such as 2p or 4f. The first character indicates the shell (n = 2 or n = 4). The
second character identifies the subshell. By convention, the following lowercase letters are
used to indicate different subshells.

ORBITALS

S orbital-carries a maximum of 2-electrons

P orbital-carries a maximum of 6-electrons

D orbital-carries a maximum of 10-electrons

 B (Z=5) configuration: 1s2 2s2 2p1

 C (Z=6) configuration:1s2 2s2 2p2
 N (Z=7) configuration:1s2 2s2 2p3
 O (Z=8) configuration:1s2 2s2 2p4
 F (Z=9) configuration:1s2 2s2 2p5
 Ne (Z=10) configuration:1s 2 2s2 2p6

CHAPTER TWO
PERIODIC TABLE.

Groups and Periods

Rows in the periodic table are called periods. As one moves from left to right in a given
period, the chemical properties of the elements slowly change.

Elements in the same period have the same number of shells, but the number of electrons
occupying the last shell increase from left to right i.e. from one to eight.

Columns in the periodic table are called groups. Groups move from top-down.

The number of shells increases down a group.

However, the number of electrons in the last shell of each element is the same.

Downloaded by Elizabeth Wanjiru (ew286259@[Link])

 lOMoARcPSD|50504552

Elements in a given group in the periodic table share many

H similar chemical and physical properties. He
Some of the Groups have Names and some have Numbers.

Group 1 is called The Alkali Metals.

Group 2 is called The Alkaline Earth Metals.
Transition Metals are in the middle. They have no group number.
Group 7 is called The Halogens.
Group 8 is called The Noble Gases

Atomic radius is the distance between the nucleus of an atom and outermost energy level.

The atomic radius increases down the group.

Why atomic or ionic radius increases down the group:

From one element to the next, an extra shell of electrons is added. This increases
the electron 'bulk' and the outer electrons are increasingly less strongly held .

The radii of the adjacent Group 2 atom is smaller than Group 1 atom on the same
period, because the nuclear charge has increased by one unit (L to R ), but is
attracting electrons in the same shell

Li Be B C N O F Ne

Na Mg Al Si P S Cl Ar

K Sr Ga Ge As Se Br Kr

Downloaded by Elizabeth Wanjiru (ew286259@[Link])

 lOMoARcPSD|50504552

Rb Ba In Sn Sb Te I Xe

Cs Ra Ti Pb Bi Po At Rd

i ii iii iv v vi
Ionisation energy (I.E.) decreases down the group

This is the energy required to remove one mole of electrons from the outermost
shell of an atom to form a positively charged ion.

As you go down the group from one element down to the next, the atomic radius
gets bigger due to an extra filled electron shell.

The outer electrons are further and further from the nucleus and are also shielded by
the extra full electron shell of negative charge .

Therefore the outer electrons are less and less strongly held by the positive nucleus
and so less and less energy is needed to remove them

Why reactivity increases down the group

When an alkali metal atom reacts, it loses an electron to form a singly positively
charged ion e.g. Na Na+ + e- (in terms of electrons 2.8.1 2.8 and so forming a stable
ion with a noble gas electron arrangement).

As you go down the group from one element down to the next the atomic radius gets
bigger due to an extra filled electron shell.

The outer electron is further and further from the nucleus and is also shielded by the
extra full electron shell of negative charge.

Therefore the outer electron is less and less strongly held by the positive nucleus.

Trends across Period 3

First ionisation energy generally increases going across Period 3 .

Going across Period 3:

Downloaded by Elizabeth Wanjiru (ew286259@[Link])

 lOMoARcPSD|50504552

• There are more protons in each nucleus so the nuclear charge in each element
increases.

• Therefore the force of attraction between the nucleus and outer electron is
increased, and.

• There is a negligible increase in shielding because each successive electron enters

the same energy level

• So more energy is needed to remove the outer electron.

Atomic radius decreases going across Period 3.

The number of protons in the nucleus increases so

• The nuclear charge increases.

• There are more electrons, but the increase in shielding is negligible because each
extra electron enters the same principal energy level.

• Therefore the force of attraction between the nucleus and the electrons increases.

• So the atomic radius decreases.

As the number of electrons in each atom increases going across Period 3, you might
expect the atomic radius to increase

Trend in electrical conductivity

Electrical conductivity increases going across Period 3 from sodium to aluminium,

then decreases to silicon.

For an element to conduct electricity, it must contain electrons that are free to
move.

In general, metals are good conductors of electricity and non-metals are poor
conductors of electricity.

Sodium, magnesium and aluminum

Sodium, magnesium and aluminum are all metals.

Downloaded by Elizabeth Wanjiru (ew286259@[Link])

 lOMoARcPSD|50504552

They have metallic bonding, in which positive metal ions are attracted to
delocalized electrons.

The delocalized electrons are free to move and carry charge. Going from sodium to
aluminum:

• The number of delocalized electrons increases...

• There are more electrons which can move and carry charge...

• So the electrical conductivity increases.

• Melting points generally increase going from sodium to silicon, then decrease
going to argon (with a “bump” at sulphur).

• Boiling points generally increase going from sodium to aluminium, then decrease
to argon (again with a “bump” at sulphur)

Melting

When a substance melts, some of the attractive forces holding the particles together
are broken or loosened so that the particles can move freely around each other but
are still close together.

The stronger these forces are, the more energy is needed to overcome them and the
higher the melting temperature.

Boiling

When a substance boils, most of the remaining attractive forces are broken so the
particles can move freely and far apart.

The stronger the attractive forces are, the more energy is needed to overcome them
and the higher the boiling temperature.

REACTION OF METALS WITH AIR

Magnesium burns vigorously with a bright white flame when strongly heated in air/oxygen to
form a white powder of magnesium oxide.

Magnesium + oxygen magnesium oxide

Downloaded by Elizabeth Wanjiru (ew286259@[Link])

 lOMoARcPSD|50504552

2Mg(s) + O2 (g) 2MgO(s)

Calcium burns quite fast with a brick red flame when strongly heated in air/oxygen to form the
white powder calcium oxide.

Calcium + oxygen calcium oxide

2Ca(s) + O2 (g) 2CaO(s)

Lithium

Lithium tarnishes slowly due to its relatively slow reaction with oxygen.

lithium + oxygen → lithium oxide

4Li(s) + O2(g) → 2Li2O(s)

Sodium

Sodium tarnishes more quickly than lithium, which is further evidence for the greater reactivity
of sodium when compared to lithium.

sodium + oxygen → sodium oxide

4Na(s) + O2(g) → 2Na2O(s)

Potassium

Potassium tarnishes so quickly that it is difficult to see that potassium is actually a shiny metal.
This is further evidence that potassium is a more reactive metal than both lithium and sodium.

potassium + oxygen → potassium oxide

4K(s) + O2(g) → 2K2O(s

REACTION WITH WATER

Magnesium will not react with cold water. Even finely powdered magnesium reacts only very
slowly. Magnesium will react with gaseous water (steam) to form magnesium oxide and
hydrogen.

Magnesium + steam magnesium oxide + hydrogen.

Mg(s) + H2O (g) Mgo(s) + H2(g)

Magnesium oxide is a base. It will not dissolve in water. In fact magnesium is so reactive, it will
even burn in carbon dioxide, the products being white magnesium oxide powder and black
specks of elemental carbon! 23

Downloaded by Elizabeth Wanjiru (ew286259@[Link])

 lOMoARcPSD|50504552

Magnésium + carbon dioxide ==> magnesium oxide + carbon 2Mg(s) + CO2(g) ==> 2MgO(s)
+ C(s) 2.

Calcium (and the metals below calcium in group 2) will react with cold water. They will sink as
they react, unlike the group 1 metals which floa

t. Calcium + water calcium hydroxide + hydrogen.

Ca(s) + 2H2O(l) Ca(OH)2(s) + H2(g)

Calcium hydroxide is called slaked lime and will dissolve a little in water to form lime water

Lithium

When lithium is added to water, lithium floats. It fizzes steadily and becomes smaller, until it
eventually disappears.

lithium + water → lithium hydroxide + hydrogen

2Li(s) + 2H2O (l) → 2LiOH(aq) + H2(g)

Sodium

When sodium is added to water, the sodium melts to form a ball that moves around on the
surface. It fizzes rapidly before it disappears.

sodium + water → sodium hydroxide + hydrogen

2Na(s) + 2H2O(l) → 2NaOH(aq) + H2(g

Potassium

When potassium is added to water, the metal melts and floats. It moves around very quickly on
the surface of the water. The metal self-ignites, which also ignites the hydrogen gas. This results
in sparks and a lilac flame. There is sometimes a small explosion at the end of the reaction.

potassium + water → potassium hydroxide + hydrogen

2K(s) + 2H2O(l) → 2KOH(aq) + H2(g)

REACTION WITH ACIDS

Magnesium is very reactive with dilute hydrochloric acid forming the colourless soluble salt
magnesium chloride and hydrogen gas.

Magnesium + hydrochloric acid ==> magnesium chloride + hydrogen

Mg(s) + 2HCl(aq) ==> MgCl2(aq) + H2(g)

Downloaded by Elizabeth Wanjiru (ew286259@[Link])

 lOMoARcPSD|50504552

Calcium is very reactive with dilute hydrochloric acid forming the colorless soluble salt calcium
chloride and hydrogen gas.

Calcium + hydrochloric acid ==> calcium chloride + hydrogen

Ca(s) + 2HCl(aq) ==> CaCl2(aq) + H2(g)

Not very reactive with dilute sulphuric acid because the colourless

calcium sulphate formed is not very soluble and coats the metal inhibiting the reaction, so not
many bubbles of hydrogen

. Calcium + sulphuric acid ==> calcium sulphate + hydrogen

Ca(s) + H2SO4 (aq) ==> CaSO4 (aq/s) + H2(g)

Thermal decomposition of metal compounds.

Calcium carbonate breaks down when heated strongly. This reaction is called thermal
decomposition. Here are the equations for the thermal decomposition of calcium carbonate and

hydrogen carbonates:

Other metal carbonates decompose in the same way, including:

 sodium carbonate
 magnesium carbonate
 copper carbonate
For example, here are the equations for the thermal decomposition of copper carbonate:

2 NaHCO3 (s) Na2 CO 3 (s) + CO 2(g) + h2 O(l).

Heating metal nitrates and hydroxides

The effect of heat on metal nitrates (NO3) and hydroxides (OH-) can help to determine their
places in the reactivity series

Downloaded by Elizabeth Wanjiru (ew286259@[Link])

 lOMoARcPSD|50504552

Reactivity series Action on OH- Action on NO3

Potassium, Sodium, Stable - does not Decompose to metal nitrite +

Calcium, Magnesium decompose on heating oxygen

Decompose to metal Decompose to metal oxide +

Zinc, Iron, Copper
oxide + steam oxygen + nitrogen dioxide

Silver nitrate and mercury nitrate decompose to form nitrogen v oxide and oxygen gas.

Reactivity of Metals Decomposition of Metal Nitrates

Nitrates of highly reactive metals decomposes thermally to form metal nitrite and oxygen gas
when heated. Such as group1 compounds.
Nitrates of moderately reactive metals produce brown fumes of nitrogen dioxide gas when
heated, as well as the metal oxide and oxygen gas. Such as group2 compounds.
Nitrates of low reactive metals decompose thermally to form the metal, nitrogen dioxide and
oxygen.

Heating suphate compounds

Only copper and iron sulphate decompose on heating

2 FeSO 4 (s ) FE2 O3 + SO 3 + SO2

(Fe)2 ¿ ¿ (s) Fe2 O 3(s) + SO 3(g).

cuso 4 (s) Cuo(s) +

SO 3(g)

Solubility of metal compounds

.Solubility is the amount of substance that will dissolve in a given amount of solvent to give a saturated

solution, under specified conditions.

soluble salts insoluble salts

all nitrate salts

All suphate salts excepts the one on right Ba, Ca and Pb

Downloaded by Elizabeth Wanjiru (ew286259@[Link])

 lOMoARcPSD|50504552

Silver and lead(soluble in hot water).

all chloride except the one on the right

All phosphates salts are soluble

All hydrogen carbonate and hydrogen sulphate

salts are soluble.
All K, Na and ammonium salts are soluble

All K, Na and ammonium carbonate salts are

soluble

CHAPTER THREE
CHEMICAL EQUATIONS.
 Writing chemical formulae of compounds
A substance formed by combining two or more elements is called a compound

Valence electrons are electrons that can be lost or gain by an atom to attain stability.

Valances 1 2 3 4
Metals K, Na Mg, Ca,Ba, Al,
Non-metal H, Cl, F. Br, O,S N ,p C, Si

Elements with more than one valences

Element Valency
Iron (Fe) 2 and 3
Copper (cu) 1 and 2
Mercury (Hg) 1 and 2
Lead (Pb) 2 and 4
Silver (Ag) 1 and 2
Tin (Sn) 2 and 4

Radicals are group of atoms with a net charge that exist and react as a unit during chemical
reactions.

Downloaded by Elizabeth Wanjiru (ew286259@[Link])

 lOMoARcPSD|50504552

Valence 1 2 3

Radicals NH +¿¿
4
2−¿ ¿
CO 3
−¿¿ 2−¿ ¿ 3−¿¿
OH SO 4 PO 4
−¿ ¿
HCO3
−¿¿ ¿
NO 3 SO 2−¿
3
HSO−¿¿
4

Balancing Chemical Equations

o There are a few simple steps that will enable you to balance any chemical equation
1. Count the atoms of each element in the equation in its unbalanced form. Make a
table for the reactant side (left) and one for the product side (right) showing the
quantity of each element or polyatomic ion.
2. Balance the atom or polyatomic ion that appears only once on each side by
inserting a coefficient in front of the whole formula. Note: you cannot change the
subscripts in the formulas since this would change the substance in the reaction!
Sometimes an element or polyatomic ion will appear more than once on one side.
Save these instances for later.
3. Balance the other elements and polyatomic ions one by one, leaving O and H for
last.
4. Update your table for each change you make to the equation.
5. When you are done, each element or polyatomic ion will have the same number
next to it in both the reactant table and the product table.

This is a chemical conservation law of atoms and later it may be described as the 'law of
conservation of mass

b) the equations are first presented in 'picture' style and then written out fully with state symbols

c) The individual formulas involved and the word equations have already been presented above

Stoichiometric equations

Downloaded by Elizabeth Wanjiru (ew286259@[Link])

 lOMoARcPSD|50504552

CHAPTER FOUR
STRUCTURE AND BONDING.
Bonding is a mutual force of attraction that holds particles together when atoms
combined during chemical reactions.

Atoms bond to attain stability.

TYPES OF BONDS.

1. Ionic or electrovalent bonding

2. Covalent bonding
3. Coordinate or dative covalent bonding
4. Metallic bonding
5. Hydrogen bonding
1. IONIC BONDING
 It is a bonding that occurs between a metal and non-metal e.g. Nacl, Mgo. Ti involves
transfer of electrons from the metal to non-metal.

 Electrons are transferred from one atom to another resulting in the formation of positive
and negative ions.
 The electrostatic attractions between the positive and negative ions hold the compound
together.

Properties of ionic compounds

 All compounds with ionic bonding produce giant ionic structures.

 Consist of oppositely charged ions arranged in an ionic lattice, the ions are held together
by strong ionic bonds. e.g. NaCl is composed of Na+ ions and Cl- ions
 These bonds are hard to break, therefore ionic substances have very high melting and
boiling points.
 All exist as solids.
 They conduct electricity when molten, because the ions are free to move, but do not
conduct when solid.

Downloaded by Elizabeth Wanjiru (ew286259@[Link])

 lOMoARcPSD|50504552

 They conduct electricity in the aqueous state because the ions are free to move.
 Most ionic substances are soluble in water because the polar water molecules can
accommodate the charged ions.
2. COVALENT BONDING.
 It occurs between non-metals
 It involves sharing electrons between the elements. Such as in HCl.

Characteristics of Covalent Compounds

1) Covalent compounds consist of molecules and not ions. The molecules do not
have any electric charge on them. The molecules are held together by weak forces
called Van der Waal's forces.

2) Covalent compounds are gases, volatile liquids or soft solids. As there are weak,
Van der Waal's forces between the molecules, they are not held in rigid position.

The state depends on the bond energy. If the bond energy is very low, they stay as
gases, if it is appreciable they are volatile liquids. If very high, they exist as soft
solids.

3) Covalent compounds generally have low melting and boiling points.

As Van der Waal's forces are weak, a very small amount of energy is required to
break the bond between the molecules corresponding to low melting point and
boiling point.

4) Covalent compounds dissolve in organic solvents. As they do not contain ions,

solvation does not take place when water is added to the compound. Hence they do
not dissolve in water.

5) Covalent compounds are bad conductors of electricity.

They do not contain ions in the fused state, nor do ions migrate on application of an
electric potential. Hence, there is no conduction of current.

6) Covalent compounds are less dense when compared to water.

Downloaded by Elizabeth Wanjiru (ew286259@[Link])

 lOMoARcPSD|50504552

3. COORDINATE OR DATIVE COVALENT BONDING

Is special type of covalent bond in which one element is involves in the contribution of a lone
pair of and electrons to another element such as in ammonium ion, carbon (ii) oxide and other
covalent compounds.

4. METALLIC BONDING.
It is a bonding that occur in metals

Properties of metals:
This strong bonding generally results in dense, strong materials with high melting
and boiling points.

Usually a relatively large amount of energy is needed to melt or boil metals.

a. Metals are good conductors of electricity because these 'free' electrons carry the
charge of an electric current when a potential difference (voltage!) is applied across
a piece of metal.

b. Metals are also good conductors of heat. This is also due to the free moving
electrons.

Non-metallic solids conduct heat energy by hotter more strongly vibrating atoms,
knocking against cooler less strongly vibrating atoms to pass the particle kinetic
energy on.

In metals, as well as this effect, the 'hot' high kinetic energy electrons move around
freely to transfer the particle kinetic energy more efficiently to 'cooler' atoms.

c. Typical metals also have a silvery surface but remember this may be easily
tarnished by corrosive oxidation in air and water.

Downloaded by Elizabeth Wanjiru (ew286259@[Link])

 lOMoARcPSD|50504552

d. Unlike ionic solids, metals are very malleable; they can be readily bent, pressed
or hammered into shape.

5. Hydrogen Bonding

Polar molecules, such as water molecules, have a weak, partial negative charge at
one region of the molecule (the oxygen atom in water) and a partial positive charge
elsewhere (the hydrogen atoms in water).

Thus when water molecules are close together, their positive and negative regions
are attracted to the oppositely-charged regions of nearby molecules.

The force of attraction, shown here as a dotted line, is called a hydrogen bond. Each
water molecule is hydrogen bonded to four others.

The hydrogen bonds that form between water molecules account for some of the
essential — and unique — properties of water.

• The attraction created by hydrogen bonds keeps water liquid over a wider range of
temperature than is found for any other molecule its size.

• The energy required to break multiple hydrogen bonds causes water to have a high
heat of vaporization; that is; a large amount of energy is needed to convert liquid
water, where the molecules are attracted through their hydrogen bonds, to water
vapor, where they are not

 CHAPTER FIVE.
 REDOX REACTIONS.
 Redox reaction is a chemical reaction in which oxidation and reduction takes place
simultaneously.
 Oxidation is the addition of oxygen, removal of hydrogen and loss of electron and
increase in oxidation number.
Example
4Na(s) + O 2( g) 2 Na2 o (s)

 Reduction is the removal of oxygen, addition of hydrogen, gain of electrons and

decrease on oxidation number.
 Oxidizing agent is the species doing the oxidizing. Acceptor of electrons.
• Reducing agent is the species doing the reducing. Donor of electrons.

TYPES OF REDOX REACTIONS

Downloaded by Elizabeth Wanjiru (ew286259@[Link])

 lOMoARcPSD|50504552

1. Combination

Combination reactions “combine” elements to form a chemical compound. As usual, oxidation

and reduction occur together.

General equation: [latex]A + B \right arrow AB[/latex]

Sample 1. equation: 2 H2 + O2 → 2 H2O

The sum of oxidation states in the reactants is equal to that in the products: 0 + 0 → (2)(+1) + (-
2)

In this equation, both H2 and O2 are the molecular forms of their respective elements and
therefore their oxidation states are 0. The product is H2O: the oxidation state is -2 for oxygen and
+1 for hydrogen.

2. Decomposition

Decomposition reactions are the reverse of combination reactions, meaning they are the
breakdown of a chemical compound into its component elements.

General equation: AB → A + B

Sample 2. equation: 2 H2O → 2 H2 + O2

Calculation: (2)(+1) + (-2) = 0 → 0 + 0

In this equation, the water is “decomposed” into hydrogen and oxygen, both of which are neutral.
Similar to the previous example, H2O has a total oxidation state of 0, with each H taking on a +1
state and the O a -2; thus, decomposition oxidizes oxygen from -2 to 0 and reduces hydrogen
from +1 to 0.

3. Displacement

Displacement reactions, also known as replacement reactions, involve compounds and the
“replacing” of elements. They occur as single and double replacement reactions.

General equation (single displacement): A + BC → AB + CA

A single replacement reaction “replaces” an element in the reactants with another element in the
products.

Sample 3. equation: Cl2 + 2 NaBr → 2 NaCl + Br2

Calculation: 0 + [(+1) + (-1) = 0] [latex]\right arrow [/latex] [(+1) + (-1) = 0] + 0

Downloaded by Elizabeth Wanjiru (ew286259@[Link])

 lOMoARcPSD|50504552

In this equation, Cl is reduced and replaces Br, while Br is oxidized.

General equation (double displacement): AB + CD → AD + CB

A double replacement reaction is similar to a single replacement reaction, but involves

“replacing” two elements in the reactants with two in the products.

Sample 4. equation: Fe2O3 + 6 HCl → 2 FeCl3 + 3 H2O

In this equation, Fe and H as well as O and Cl trade places.

4. Combustion

Combustion reactions always involve oxygen and an organic fuel. In the following image, we see
methane combusting to release energy.

5. Disproportionation

In some redox reactions, substances can be both oxidized and reduced. These are known as
disproportionation reactions. One real-life example of such a process is the reaction of hydrogen

peroxide, H2O2, when it is poured over a wound. At first, this might look like a simple
decomposition reaction, because hydrogen peroxide breaks down to produce oxygen and water:

2 H2O2(aq) → 2 H2O(l) + O2(g)

OXIDATION NUMBER •
 Oxidation number (O.N.) is also known as oxidation state
 • It is defined as the charge the atom would have if electrons were not shared but were
transferred completely.
RULES OF ASSIGNING OXIDATION NUMBER
1. The oxidation number of uncombined element is zero e.g Mg, Zn, cu [Link].
2. The charge of an ion containing one element is equal the oxidation number of that
element e.g. mg2+¿ ¿ is +2.
3. The oxidation number of hydrogen in all compounds that contain heat is +1 except metal
hydride where is -1.
4. Oxidation number of oxygen in all compounds that contain heat is -2 except in peroxide
where it is -1.
5. Oxidation number of a compound is zero.

Downloaded by Elizabeth Wanjiru (ew286259@[Link])

 lOMoARcPSD|50504552

+¿¿ 3−¿¿
6. Oxidation number of a radicals is equal to the charge of radical e.g. NH 4 is 1, PO 4 is
-3.

• Determine the oxidation number (O.N.) of each element in these compounds:

a) CaO (s) b) KNO3 (s) c) NaHSO4 (aq)

CHAPTER SIX
INTRODUCTION TO ORGANIC CHEMISTRY.
 Organic chemistry deals with the chemistry of carbon and compounds of
carbon, most usually hydrocarbons (carbon and hydrogen compounds.)

Classification of Organic Compounds.

Depending upon the arrangement of carbon atoms in their structure, organic compounds are broadly
categorized into

 Acyclic or Open Chain compounds

 Cyclic or Closed Chain compounds

Acyclic or Open Chain Compounds

The carbon atoms are present in the form of an open [Link] chain may either be a straight chain
or a branched chain. These were initially known as Aliphatic compounds because the compounds of
this class were derived from either animal or vegetable fats

 Straight Chain Compounds: The carbon skeleton is in the form of a straight chain. Examples:
n-Propane CH3-CH2-CH3

Propene CH2=CH-CH3

 Branched Chain Compounds: The carbon skeleton is in the form of a branched chain.

Examples: Isobutylene

Downloaded by Elizabeth Wanjiru (ew286259@[Link])

 lOMoARcPSD|50504552

Cyclic or Closed Chain Compounds

They are marked by the presence of one or more closed chains or ring of atoms in their structure.
Depending on whether there is a presence of any other atom apart from carbon in the constitution of
the ring, they are further classified as:

 Homocyclic or Carbocyclic Compounds

 Heterocyclic Compounds

Homocyclic or Carbocyclic Compounds

The rings in these compounds are entirely made up of carbon atoms. No other atom is present in the
ring [Link] can be further divided into two sub-classes:

 Alicyclic Compounds

 Aromatic Compounds
Alicyclic Compounds
Their name is attributed to their resemblance to Aliphatic compounds in their properties. The
examples of this category include cyclopropane, cyclobutane, cyclopentane, cyclohexane, etc.

Aromatic Compounds
These are cyclic unsaturated compounds. They derive their name from the Greek
word Aroma which means “fragrant smell” since most of these compounds bear a pleasant smell.
These are further classified into two types:

 Benzenoid Aromatic Compounds: They are characterized by the presence of one or more
fused or isolated benzene rings as well as their derivatives in their structure. Depending upon
the number of benzene rings that are fused together in their structure, they can be further
classified as Monocyclic, Bicyclic, Tricyclic.

 Non-Benzenoid aromatic Compounds: They are characterized by the presence of a single

benzene ring to which other groups are attached.

Downloaded by Elizabeth Wanjiru (ew286259@[Link])

 lOMoARcPSD|50504552

Aniline

Bicyclic and Tricyclic Compounds

These are characterized by the presence of two or more rings in their [Link] include
Naphthalene, Phenanthrene as well as Anthracene.

Naphthalene

Downloaded by Elizabeth Wanjiru (ew286259@[Link])

 lOMoARcPSD|50504552

Phenanthrene

Anthracene

Non-Benzenoid Aromatic Compounds

Aromatic compounds that contain other highly unsaturated rings in place of the benzene ring are
called non-benzenoid aromatic compounds. Examples include

Azulene

Tropolone

Heterocyclic Compounds

When one or more heteroatoms such as oxygen, nitrogen, sulphur, boron, silicon etc, are present in
the ring such compounds are known as heterocyclic compounds.

Downloaded by Elizabeth Wanjiru (ew286259@[Link])

 lOMoARcPSD|50504552

 Alicyclic heterocyclic compounds: Aliphatic heterocyclic compounds that contain one or

more heteroatoms in their rings are called alicyclic heterocyclic compounds.

 Aromatic heterocyclic compounds Aromatic heterocyclic compounds that contain one or

more heteroatoms in their ring skeleton are called aromatic heterocyclic compounds.

Properties of Carbon Compounds:

 Carbon forms four covalent bonds that may be single, double, or triple.
 Carbon has four unpaired electrons in its ground state. The four unpaired
electrons want to be as far apart from each other as possible, lending carbon to
have a natural tetrahedral shape for bonding.
EMPIRICAL FORMULAE
 The empirical formula of a chemical compound is the simplest positive integer ratio of
atoms present in a compound.
 A simple example of this concept is that the empirical formula of sulfur monoxide, or
SO, would simply be SO, as is the empirical formula of disulfur dioxide, S2O2.

Calculating Empirical Formula (from experimentally determined masses)

Multiply the mass of each element (in grams) by 1/molar mass of that element
Continue with steps 3 & 4 from IV above

Example. An organic compound contains carbon and hydrogen only in the ratio of 85.7 %
carbon to 14.3 % hydrogen. Calculate it empirical formulae.

SOLUTION

element C H
℅ mass 85.7% 14.3%
Rmm 12 1

Downloaded by Elizabeth Wanjiru (ew286259@[Link])

 lOMoARcPSD|50504552

moles 85.7 14.3

=7.1 =14.3
12 1
Mole ratio 1 2

Thereof the empirical formula isCH 2.

Molecular formula of a compound:

The molecular formula for a compound is simply the empirical formulae multiplied by some
whole number (1, 2, 3, etc)

Knowing the molar mass of the compound enables the molecular formula of it to be found

Finding Molecular Formulas (when molar mass is known)

Calculate the empirical formula

Use the equation: (empirical formula mass)x n = molar mass
Find value for n: n = molar mass/empirical formula mass

Example1

The actual molar mass of the compound in the previous example is 42 g mol-1 What
is the molecular formula for this compound?

Molar mass =(CH 2)n

42=(12+2)n

N=3

Molar mass is there fore ( CH 2 ) 3

C3 H6

Example 2:

1.35g of aluminium was heated in oxygen until there was no further gain in weight

The white oxide ash formed weighed 2.55g

Deduce the empirical formula of aluminium oxide

Downloaded by Elizabeth Wanjiru (ew286259@[Link])

 lOMoARcPSD|50504552

Note: to get the mass of oxygen reacting, all you have to do is to subtract the mass
of metal from the mass of the oxide formed

Example 3:

A chlorinated hydrocarbon compound when analysed, consisted of 24

24% carbon, 4

04% hydrogen, 71.72% chlorine

The molecular mass was found to be 99 from another experiment

Deduce the empirical and molecular formula

(you can 'treat' the %'s as if they were grams, and it all works out like examples 1
and 2)

HOMOLOGOUS SERIES.

 homologous series is a series of compounds with the same functional group and
similar chemical properties in which the members of the series can be branched or
unbranched

 Organic compounds belong to different families, though all are based on

carbon C, hydrogen H, and other elements such as oxygen O and nitrogen N
etc The compounds in each family have a similar chemical structure and a
similar chemical formula

 Each family of organic compounds forms what is called a homologous series

 Different families arise because carbon atoms readily join together in chains
(catenation) and strongly bond with other atoms such as hydrogen, oxygen
and nitrogen

 The result is a huge variety of 'organic compounds'

 The name comes from the fact that most of the original organic compounds
studied by chemists came from plants or animals

Downloaded by Elizabeth Wanjiru (ew286259@[Link])

 lOMoARcPSD|50504552

 Members of homo logous series from each other by CH 2

 A homologous series is a family of compounds which have a general formula

and have similar chemical properties because they have the same functional
group of atoms (e.g C=C alkene, C-OH alcohol or -COOH carboxylic acid).

Hydrocarbons

 A hydrocarbon is a compound containing hydrogen and carbon only.

ALKANES

These are obtained directly from crude oil by fractional distillation.

They are saturated hydrocarbons and they form an homologous series called alkanes
with a general formula CnH 2 n+2 Saturated hydrocarbons have no C=C double
bonds, only carbon-carbon single bonds, and so has combined with the maximum
number of hydrogen atoms

i.e no more atoms can add to it

Alkanes are the first homologous series

Examples of alkanes are:

The gases 1. Methane CH 4 , 2. Ethane C 2 H 6 , 3. propane C 3 H 8 , 4. butane C 4 H 10

Liquids 5. Pentane C 5 H 12 ,6. hexane C 6 H 14 C7H 16 etc

The Names of all alkanes end in ...ane

Names

Alkanes are the simplest homologous series of compounds and their names follow
this pattern,

CH4 - methane

Downloaded by Elizabeth Wanjiru (ew286259@[Link])

 lOMoARcPSD|50504552

C2H6 - ethane

C3H8 - propane

C4H10 - butane

C5H12 - pentane

I.e they have a prefix (meth-, eth-, prop-, but-, etc), which depends on the number
of carbon atoms in the molecule and a common suffix (-ane)

The general chemical form la for an alkane is CnH 2 n+2

Structural formulae

As well as using a normal type of molecular formula to describe an organic

molecule, they can be represented by drawing out their structure i.e by showing how
the atoms are connected, or bonded to each other.

ISOMERISM

Isomers are compound that have the same molecular formula but different structural
formulae. There are types of isomer;

1. Structural isomers
2. Positioned isomers

Isomerism

Downloaded by Elizabeth Wanjiru (ew286259@[Link])

 lOMoARcPSD|50504552

Isomerism occurs when two or more compounds have the same chemical formula
but have different structures, e.g for the molecular formula C 4 H 10 there are two
possibilities - one 'linear' and one with carbon chain 'branching’

Butane is linear while its branched isomer is methyl propane

Physical properties of alkanes

 Physical state Lower molecular weight alkanes are gases

 Methane, ethane, propane and butane are gases at ordinary room temperature
 Higher alkanes up to those having 17 carbon atoms are liquids; higher
alkanes are solids at room temperature
 Melting and boiling points Homologous alkanes show increase in melting and
boiling points
 Similar to the behavior of elements in the same group in a periodic table
 Solubility Alkanes, like all other organic chemicals are insoluble in water
 They are however soluble in organic liquids
 Alkanes are non-polar and are hence solub le in other non-polar liquids and
not in water, as water is a polar molecule

Chemical Reactions of Alkanes

1. Substitutional reactions of alkanes

Alkanes are most inert of all homologous series

They are not very reactive unless burned

But they will react with strong oxidizing chemicals like chlorine when heated or
subjected to u.v light

CH 4 (g) + Cl 2(g) U.v CH 3 Cl (g) + HCl (g).

A substitution reaction occurs and a chloro-alkane is formed e.g a hydrogen atom is
swapped for a chlorine atom and the hydrogen combines with a chlorine atom
forming hydrogen chloride

This process is called halogenations

Downloaded by Elizabeth Wanjiru (ew286259@[Link])

 lOMoARcPSD|50504552

The UV light causes the formation of free radical halogen atoms by providing
enough energy for the bond between the two halogen atoms to break

A halogen atom attacks the alkane, substituting itself for a hydrogen atom

This substitution may occur many times in an alkane before the reaction is finished

2. Combustion

Alkanes, along with all other types of hydrocarbon, will burn in an excess of
oxygen to give carbon dioxide and water only as the products,

e.g CH 4 (g) + 2O 2 (g) CO 2 (g) + 2H 2 O(g) in general,

CnH 2 n+2(g) + (1.5n+0.5)O 2 (g) nCO 2 (g) + (n+1)H 2 O(g)

If there is not enough oxygen present then instead of carbon dioxide, carbon
monoxide, CO, is produced

Carbon monoxide is particularly toxic and absorbed into blood, through respiration,
very easily

For domestic heating systems it is particularly important that enough air can get to
the flame to avoid carbon monoxide being generated in the home

Car engines also require a lot of air and there is a lot of research going on to make
the internal combustion engine more efficient, and so put out less carbon monoxide

3. Reactivity

Alkanes are saturated hydrocarbons

Molecules of saturated hydrocarbons contain only single bonds between all carbon
atoms in the series

Hence their reactivity with other chemicals is relatively low

ALKENES.

 Hydrocarbons, which contain two hydrogen atoms less than the corresponding alkanes,
are called alkenes

Downloaded by Elizabeth Wanjiru (ew286259@[Link])

 lOMoARcPSD|50504552

 They have one double bond and are unsaturated carbon compounds
 Alkenes cannot be obtained directly from crude oil
 They can only be obtained by cracking of alkanes

Cracking

In industry the fractions obtained from the fractional distillation of crude oil are heated at high
pressure in the presence of a catalyst to produce shorter chain alkanes and alkenes

E.g C10H22 C5H12 + C5H10

They are unsaturated hydrocarbons with a general formula CnH2n

Unsaturated means the molecule has a C=C double bond to which atoms or groups can add after
breaking the double bond

Alkenes all have a C=C double bond in their structure and their names follow this pattern

Their names end i.e ....ene

C2H4 - ethene

C3H6 - propene

C4H8 - butene

C5H10 - pentene

The general chemical formula for an alkene is CnH2n

The general chemical formula for an alkene is CnH2n

(2) Addition reactions of alkenes:

(i) Bromination

The double bond of an alkene will undergo an addition reaction with aqueous bromine to give a
dibromo compound

The orange bromine water is decolourised in the process

E.g ethene reacts with bromine water to give 1,2-dibromoethane,

C 2 H 4 (g) + Br2 (g) C 2 H 4 Br 2(g)

(ii) Hydrogenation

Downloaded by Elizabeth Wanjiru (ew286259@[Link])

 lOMoARcPSD|50504552

Alkenes may be turned into alkanes by reacting the alkene with hydrogen gas at a high
temperature and high pressure

A nickel catalyst is also needed to accomplish this addition reaction

E.g ethene reacts with hydrogen to give ethane,

This reaction is also called saturation of the double bond

In ethene the carbon atoms are said to be unsaturated

In ethane the carbon atoms have the maximum number of hydrogen atoms bonded to them, and
are said to be saturated

(iii) Oxidation

The carbon-carbon double bond may also be oxidised i.e have oxygen added to it

This is accomplished by using acidified potassium manganate (VII) solution at room temperature
and pressure. The purple manganate (VII) solution is decolourised during the reaction

C 2 H 4 (g) + KMNO 4 CH 2OHCH 2OH(aq)

E.g ethene reacts with acidified potassium manganate (VII)(aq) to give ethan-1,2-diol,

(3) Addition polymerisation :

All alkenes will react with free radical initiators to form polymers by a free radical addition
reaction

Some definitions

monomer - a single unit e.g an alkene

The alkene monomer has the general formula:

Where R is any group of atoms, e.g R=CH3 for propene

The reaction progresses by the separate units joining up to form giant, long chains

Polymer- a material produced from many separate single monomer units joined up together

An addition polymer is simply named after the monomer alkene that it is prepared from

The structure above shows just 4 separate monomer units joined together

Downloaded by Elizabeth Wanjiru (ew286259@[Link])

 lOMoARcPSD|50504552

In a real polymer, however, there could be 1000's of units joined up to form the chains

This would be extremely difficult to draw out and so the structure is often shortened to a repeat
unit

There are 3 stages to think about when drawing a repeat unit for a polymer

1) Draw the structure of the desired monomer

2) Change the double bond into a single bond and draw bonds going left and right from the
carbon atoms

3) Place large brackets around the structure and a subscript n and there is the repeat unit

Laboratory preparation of ethene gas

In the lab ethene is prepared by cracking kerosene or candle wax

Kerosene is poured over sand and this is kept at the bottom of a hard glass test tube

A few pieces of pumice stone or porcelain is kept a little distance away

The sand is slowly heated

After a while the porcelain portion of the test tube is heated

This is done alternately

The heated kerosene first vaporizes and then cracks

When the vapours pass over the hot porcelain, they crack again into smaller and smaller
molecules

The gases are then passed over water

Ethene is collected by downward displacement of water

It can be understood that this method for collecting ethene gas does not give pure ethene gas

This is because from cracking, we get many types of molecules

All those, which are lighter than water and insoluble in water, will be collected

Ethene by dehydration of alcohols

To obtain pure ethene gas, another method is followed

Downloaded by Elizabeth Wanjiru (ew286259@[Link])

 lOMoARcPSD|50504552

This is from a chemical reaction with ethanol and concentrated sulphuric acid

The temperature of the mixture of ethanol or ethyl alcohol and concentrated sulphuric acid is
increased to 160°C

The acid acts as a dehydrating agent and picks up a water molecule from the ethanol molecule,
leaving the reaction product as ethene gas

The laboratory equipment to produce ethene gas is shown below

About 20 to 25 ml of ethanol is taken in a round bottomed flask

Concentrated sulphuric acid is added to it from a thistle funnel slowly

Heat is supplied from a Bunsen burner and the temperature of the flask is raised to 160°C

Ethene gas starts evolving and it can be collected over water by downward displacement of water

Uses of ethene

 Ethene is used for manufacturing organic compounds such as ethyl alcohol and ethylene
glycol

Ethylene glycol is used for making artificial fibbers like polyesters

 Ethene is used for manufacture of plastics

These plastics are made from polymerization of ethene into polythene

Polythenes are used for making bags, electrical insulation, etc

Ethene is used artificial ripening of fruits such as mangoes, bananas, etc

ALKYNES
Hydrocarbons that have two carbon atoms in a triple bond are called alkynes

They are unsaturated bonds

Their general formula is CnH2n-2 and their names are derived from the alkanes by changing the
ending “ane’ of the alkane by “yne”, for example, ethyne, propyne, butyne, etc

The simplest of alkynes has two carbon atoms in triple bond and is called ethyne

The table below gives names of the first three alkynes

Downloaded by Elizabeth Wanjiru (ew286259@[Link])

 lOMoARcPSD|50504552

Chemical properties of ethyne

1. Combustion: Ethyne burns in air with a sooty flame

It forms carbon dioxide and water and gives out heat

The sooty flame is due to higher amount of carbon in ethyne than in methane

All the carbon atoms cannot get oxidized while burning this makes the flame sooty

But if ethyne is burnt with a proper control, for example, if the gas is made to pass through a
small nozzle, then it gets ample air mixture to burn completely

This type of complete combustion is used for acetylene lamps in industries

Acetylene lamps produce very luminous non-sooty flame

Ethyne combined well with oxygen can burn to give a flame whose temperature is 3000°C

This oxy-acetylene flame is used for welding metals, where very high temperatures are required

2. Reactivity: Alkynes are more reactive than the alkanes or alkenes due to the presence of
unsaturated bonds

Such a reaction is called addition reaction

In an addition reaction, the alkynes will become an alkane

 For example if ethyne is reacted with chlorine, it becomes 1,1,2,2 tetra-chloro-ethane

 Similarly, addition reaction with bromine will give rise to 1,1,2,2, tetra-bromo-ethane
 Bromine water decolorizes on reaction with ethyne
 This is a prominent test for testing unsaturated nature of hydrocarbons
 When hydrogen is added to ethyne, and heated in the presence of nickel, it becomes
ethene and then proceeds to become ethane
 The bonds become saturated
 This is known as the process of hydrogenation
 The addition of hydrogen to a double or triple bonded hydrocarbon leads to saturation of
the bonds
 When hydrochloric acid is added to ethyne, it becomes first chloro-ethene and then 1,1-
dichloro-ethane
 The reaction is shown below

Uses of ethyne

 Ethyne burns in oxygen to give a very luminous light

Downloaded by Elizabeth Wanjiru (ew286259@[Link])

 lOMoARcPSD|50504552

Hawkers use this as lamps

 Ethyne is used for oxy-acetylene flame used for industrial welding

 Ethyne is used for manufacture of synthetic plastics, synthetic rubbers, and synthetic fibers
 Ethyne is also used making many industrially useful organic compounds like acetaldehyde,
acetic acid, etcmal constituents by volume
ALKANOLS
These are compounds made up of carbon, hydrogen and oxygen.

They contain OH as their functional group and are sometimes referred to as derivative of water
where hydrogen of water is replace by the alkyne group.

General formula (ROH(C N H 2 n+1

Nomenclature (primary alcohols upto 10 carbon atoms)
Name Molecular formula Structural formula Condense formula
Methanol CH 3 OH CH 3 OH
Ethanol C 2 H 5 OH CH 3 CH 2 OH
Propanol C 3 H 7 OH CH 3 CH 2 CH 2 OH
Butanol C 4 H 9 OH
Pentanol C 5 H 11 OH
ISOMERS
Preparation of alkanols from.
 Hydrolysis of alkenes
E.g ethene + water ethanol
 Fermentation of carbohydrates
e.g C 6 H 12 O6 zymase C 2 H 5OH + CO 2
 Hydrolysis of halide of alkane using alkali
e.g CH 3 CH 2 Cl NaOH CH 3 CH 2 OH + NaCl
 Oxidation of alkene using potassium manganate vii or potassium chromate vi
Physical properties.
 Are colourless liquid at room temperature
 Dissolve in water to form neutral solution.
 Have high melting and boiling point

Chemical properties:
1. Combustion

Downloaded by Elizabeth Wanjiru (ew286259@[Link])

 lOMoARcPSD|50504552

Alkanols are higly flammable and burns completely in air to produce carbon iv oxide and water.
2. Reaction with metal
Alkanols react with metal to produce salt and hydrogen gas.
2 C2 H 5 OH + Na 2 C 2 H 5 ONa + H 2
sodium ethoxide
3. Oxidation.
Alkanols can be oxidized to form alkanoic acid and water using potassiumn
permanganate vii(kmno 4 ) or potassium chromate vi(k 2 cr 2 o7 ).
4. Dehydration
Alkanols are dehydrated using conc. Sulphuric acid at 180ºc to alkenes
5. Esterification.
Alkanols react with alkanoic acid to form esters and water in the presence of conc. Silphuric
acids.
CH 3 CH 2 OH + HCOOH conc. H 2 SO4 HCOOCH 2 CH 3 + H 2 O
Ethyl ethanoate and water
Uses: solvents, fuels and pharmaceuticals

ALKANOIC ACIDS.
These are organic compounds made up of carbon, hydrogen and oxygen. There general formula
isC n H 2 n+ 1 COOH .
There functional group is carboxyl group
O
( -C-OH).
Nomenclature
Name Molecular f. Structural f. Condense f.

Methanoic acid HCOOH HCOOH

Ehanoic acids CH 3 COOH CH 3 COOH

Propanoic acids C 2 H 5 COOH CH 3 CH 2 COO

PREPARATION OF ALKANOIC ACIDS.

It can be prepared by oxidation of corresponding alkanols to alkanoic acid and water using
potassiumn permanganate vii(kmno4 ) or potassium chromate vi(k 2 cr 2 o7 ).

Downloaded by Elizabeth Wanjiru (ew286259@[Link])

 lOMoARcPSD|50504552

C 2 H 5 OH K 2 Cr2 O2 CH 3 COOH
Physical properties
 Colorless at room temperature
 Sharp characteristics smell
 Soluble in water because of hydrogen bonding.
 Solubility decreases with increase in molecular formular.
Chemical properties.
1. It react with metals to give salt and hydrogen gas
2 CH 3 COOH + Na 2 CH 3 COONa + H 2
sodium ethanoate∧hydrogen gas
2. It neutralizes the bases
CH 3 COOH + NaOH CH 3 COONa + H 2 O

3. Reacts with carbonates and hydrogen carbonates to give salts, carbon IV oxide and water.
CH 3 COOH + Na 2 CO 3 CH 3 COONa + CO 2 + H 2 O
4. It reacts with alkanols to produce esters in the presence of conc. Sulphuric acids.
C 3 H 7 OH + C 3 H 7 COOH C 3 H 7 COOC 3 H 7 + H 2 O

Uses of alkanoic acids.

 As a solvent in making dyes and seasoning foods
 Making artificial fibers’
 As a vinegar in flavorings and preservation of foods.
CARBONYL GROUP AND CARBONYL COMPOUNDS
These compounds have carbonyl (C=O) as their functional group. These are the aldehyde and ketones. If
the carbonyl functional group is at the end of structure it is an aldehyde and the end with –al e.g. butanal
and if in within the structure is ketone and name end with –one e.g. butanone.

IUPAC Nomenclature of Aldehyde 11

The characteristic suffix in the substitutive /systematic/IUPAC names of open-chain aliphatic
aldehydes is –al. IUPAC names aliphatic aldehyde are derived by adding the –al suffix to the
IUPAC name of the parent alkane. Aliphatic aldehydes are thus named as alkanals.

IUPAC Nomenclature of Cyclic Ketones 24

Downloaded by Elizabeth Wanjiru (ew286259@[Link])

 lOMoARcPSD|50504552

Cyclic ketones are named as cycloalkanones. In cyclic ketones the carbonyl carbon is by
convention assigned as C-1 and the rest of the substituents on the ring are given the lowest
possible number.
Synthesis of carbonyl compound.

Alcohols

Alkynes hydration aldehyde& ketones oxidative alkenes

Cleavage
Synthesis of Aldehyde and Ketones
Oxidation of Alcohols to Aldehyde and Ketones .
The most common method for preparing aldehyde and ketones involves oxidation of alcohols.
The oxidation of a primary alcohol gives either an aldehyde or a carboxylic acid depending on
the strength of the oxidizing agent and the solvent employed.
Primary alcohol oxidizing agent aldehyde water hydrated aldehyde o. agent
carboxylic acid
The oxidation of a secondary alcohol gives a ketone irrespective of the strength of the
oxidizing agent or reaction solvent. Further oxidation of a ketone is not possible.

Strong Oxidizing Agents

Since most strong oxidizing agents are inorganic reagents that are only soluble in water, they
oxidize primary alcohols all the way to carboxylic acids.
Oxidation of primary alcohols with strong oxidizing agents cannot therefore be used to prepare
aldehydes. There is need to consider alternative strategies
Strong oxidizing agents oxidize secondary alcohols to ketones

CHAPTER SEVEN.
THERMOCHEMISTRY.
 Energy is the ability to do work.
 Thermochemistry is the study of energy changes in chemistry.
 Activation Energy (Ea) is the minimum amount of energy which the reactants
must overcome before they react.
Types of heat reactions.

Downloaded by Elizabeth Wanjiru (ew286259@[Link])

 lOMoARcPSD|50504552

1. Exothermic reaction occurs when energy is lost to the surrounding. It is a reaction that
gives out heat to the environment. It results to an increase in temperature during chemical
reaction. It occurs during bond formation.

Energy reactants
Change of
Enthalpy
Products

Reaction path

ÐH=-ve

2. Endothermic reactions are reactions that gain heat from the environment i.e. the heat
used in bond breaking. It results in the fall in temperature.

Energy
Changes

products

reactants

Reaction pathway
DH=+VE

Factors influencing rate of reaction

(a)Concentration

(b)Pressure

Downloaded by Elizabeth Wanjiru (ew286259@[Link])

 lOMoARcPSD|50504552

(c) Temperature

(d)Surface area

(e)Catalyst

a) Influence of concentration on rate of reaction

The higher the concentration, the higher the rate of a chemical reaction. An increase
in concentration of the reactants reduces the distance between the reacting particles
increasing their collision frequency to form products.

B). pressure

An increase in pressure therefore increases the rate of reaction by reducing the time for
reacting particles of gases to react.

At industrial level, the following are some reactions that are affected by pressure: (a)Haber
process for manufacture of ammonia

N2(g) + 3H2(g) -> 2NH3(g)

c)Influence of temperature on rate of reaction

An increase in temperature increases the kinetic energy of the reacting particles by

increasing their collision frequency.

Increase in temperature increases the particles which can overcome the activation
energy (Ea).

d)Influence of surface area on rate of reaction

Surface area is the area of contact. An increase in surface area is a decrease in

particle size.

An increase in surface area of solids increases the area of contact with a liquid
solution increasing the chances of successful/effective/fruitful collision to form
products.

Bond Enthalpies

 Bond enthalpy (also known as bond energy) is defined as the amount of energy required
to break one mole of the stated bond.

Downloaded by Elizabeth Wanjiru (ew286259@[Link])

 lOMoARcPSD|50504552

 For example, the bond energy of a O-H single bond is 463 kJ/mol. This means that it
requires 463 kJ of energy to break one mole of O-H bonds.
 Note: In order to break any bond, energy must be absorbed. Therefore, bond breaking is
always an endothermic change (ΔH > 0). Conversely, energy is always released upon the
formation of a bond. Therefore, bond making is always an exothermic change (ΔH < 0).
Find a list of bond energies in the table shown at the bottom of this page.
 Example
Chemical reactions are bond breaking and then bond making. Bond breaking requires energy and
is an Endothermic process. Bond making releases energy and is an exothermic process.
The enthalpy change can be determined by using the average bond enthalpies in an energy cycle.

Enthalpy required to break bonds = ∑(bond enthalpies in reactants)

Enthalpy required to make bonds = ∑(bond enthalpies in products)

Therefore:
ΔH = ∑(bond enthalpies in reactants) - ∑(bond enthalpies in products)

ΔH is the Change in Enthalpy.

EXAMPLE:
CH4(g) + 2O2(g) → CO2(g) + 2H2O(g)
4(C-H) + 2(O=O) → 2(C=O) + 4(O-H)

(4 x 413) + (2 x 497) (2 x 805) + (4 x 463)

∴ ΔH = [(4 x 413) + (2 x 497)] - [(2 x 805) + (4 x 463)]

= -816 kj mol-1
These values are always negative.

Single bonds

Downloaded by Elizabeth Wanjiru (ew286259@[Link])

 lOMoARcPSD|50504552

Bond energie (kj/moles Of bonds

s
H C N O S F Cl Br I
H 436
C 413 346
N 391 305 163
O 463 358 201 146
S 347 272 - - 226
F 565 485 283 190 284 155
Cl 432 339 192 218 255 253 242
Br 366 285 - 201 217 249 216 193
I 299 213 - 201 - 278 208 175 151

MULTIBLE BONDS
C=C 602 C=C 835 N=N 418 N=N 945 C=N 615 O=O 498 C=N 887 C=O
799 C=O 1072
ENTHALPY CHANGES.

The amount of heat evolved or absorbed in a reaction carried out at constant pressure is called
enthalpy changes. It is given the symbol ΔH, read as "delta H".

It is important to remember that the term "enthalpy change" only applies to reactions done at
constant pressure. The standard enthalpy changes apply when the reaction is run at standard
conditions, which are :

 298 K (25°C)
 a pressure of 1 bar (100 kPa).
 where solutions are involved, a concentration of 1 mol dm-3
If we know the standard enthalpies of formation, ΔH, of the reactants and products of a reaction
we can calculate the enthalpy change of the reaction using the following shorthand version of
Hess's law:

Where Σ ΔH indicate the sum of the change of enthalpies.

Downloaded by Elizabeth Wanjiru (ew286259@[Link])

 lOMoARcPSD|50504552

A reaction is exothermic when it releases energy, and ΔH = negative. On the other hand, a
reaction is defined endothermic when it absorb energy, therefore the ΔH = positive.

In an exothermic reaction

1. Heat is a product of the reaction.

2. Temperature of reaction mixture increases.
3. Hproducts < Hreactants
4. ΔH = Hproducts - Hreactants = a negative number
In an endothermic reaction

1. Heat is a reactant in the reaction.

2. Temperature of reaction mixture decreases.
3. Hproducts > Hreactants
4. ΔH = Hproducts - Hreactants = a positive number
example and take in consideration the following reaction: calculate the enthalpy change

5. CS2(l) + 3 O2(g) → CO2(g) + 2 SO2(g)

Given values:
C(s) + O2(g) → CO2(g); ΔH = -393.5 kJ/mol
S(s) + O2(g) → SO2(g); ΔH = -296.8 kJ/mol
C(s) + 2 S(s) → CS2(l); ΔH = 87.9 kJ/mol
To solve this type of problem, we can follow a few rules:
-The reaction can be reversed. This will change the sign of ΔH.

-The reaction can be multiplied by a constant.

Downloaded by Elizabeth Wanjiru (ew286259@[Link])

 lOMoARcPSD|50504552

-The value of ΔH must be multiplied by the same constant. Any combination of the first two
rules may be used.

Let's start finding one of the reactants or products where there is only one mole in the
reaction. In our case, one CO2 and the first reaction has one CO2 on the product side.
C(s) + O2(g) →CO2(g), ΔH= -393.5 kJ/mol
This gives us the CO2 we need on the product side and one of the O2 moles we need on the
reactant side. To get two more O2moles, use the second equation and multiply it by two.
Remember to multiply the ΔH by two as well.
2 S(s) + 2 O2(g) → 2 SO2(g), ΔH = 2(-326.8 kJ/mol)
Now we have two extra S and one extra C molecule on the reactant side.

The third reaction also has two S and one C on the reactant side. Reverse this reaction to
bring the molecules to the product side. Remember to change the sign on ΔHf.

CS2(l) → C(s) + 2 S(s), ΔHf = -87.9 kJ/mol

When all three reactions are added, the extra two sulfur and one extra carbon atoms are
canceled out, leaving the target reaction. All that remains is adding up the values of ΔH

ΔH = -393.5 kJ/mol + 2(-296.8 kJ/mol) + (-87.9 kJ/mol)

ΔH = -393.5 kJ/mol - 593.6 kJ/mol - 87.9 kJ/mol
ΔH = -1075.0 kJ/mol

Therefore, the answer to our initial question, the change in enthalpy for the above reaction is
-1075.0 kJ/mol.

LATENT HEAT.
It is the amount of heat needed to convert a solid into liquid at its melting point and liquid to gas
at its boiling point.
The amount of heat energy required to convert one mole of a solid substance at its melting point
to liquid is called molar heat of fusion. While to change from liquid to vapor at melting point is
molar heat of vaporization.
Molar Enthalpy Change
Data from a Calorimetry experiment can be used to calculate the molar enthalpy change of a
reaction.

Downloaded by Elizabeth Wanjiru (ew286259@[Link])

 lOMoARcPSD|50504552

Example:

The energy from burning 0.5 g of propane was transferred to 100 cm3 of water to raise its
temperature by 20°C. Calculate the molar enthalpy change (in kJ / mol).

Mass of Water = 100 cm3

Heat capacity of Water = 4.2 j / g

Temperature rise = 20°C

Energy transferred = 100 x 4.2 x 20 = 8400 J

*1000 J = 1 kJ

So 8400 J = 8.4 kJ

Mr of Propane = 44

Moles of Propane burned = 0.5 ÷ 44 = 0.01136

Molar Enthalpy change = 8.4 ÷ 0.01136 = 739

This Reaction is Exothermic so Enthalpy Change needs to be Negative

Molar Enthalpy change = – 739 kJ / mol

Molar enthalpy of combustion is the enthalpy change when one mole of a substance is
completely burnt in oxygen under standard conditions.

Example

The data below was obtained from the experiment. Used it to calculate the molar heat of
combustion

Volume of water in a can =400cm 3

Initial temperature of water = 22ºc

Downloaded by Elizabeth Wanjiru (ew286259@[Link])

 lOMoARcPSD|50504552

Final temperature of water = 32ºc

Initial mass of lamp + ethanol = 15.92g

Final mass of lamp + ethanol =15.00g

Mass of ethanol burnt = 0.92g

Specific heat capacity of water = 4.2kj/kg/k

Solution

Heat change of water

H=mass of water x specific heat capacity x change in temperature.

=400/1000x4.2x10

= -16.8kj

Number of moles of ethanol= 0.92/46=0.02moles

0.02moles= 16.8kj

1mole ?

=(1x 16.8)/0.02

=-840kj/moles

Molar enthalpy of solution is the heat evolved or absorbed when one mole of a substance
dissolved in a solvent to give an infinite dilute solution.

Example

The data below was obtained from the experiment. Used it to calculate the molar heat of
solution.

Downloaded by Elizabeth Wanjiru (ew286259@[Link])

 lOMoARcPSD|50504552

Volume of water in a can =100cm 3

Initial temperature of water = 24ºc

Final temperature of water = 22ºc

mass of ammonium nitrate = 0.8g

Specific heat capacity of water = 4.2kj/kg/k

H= MC T

=100 /1000X4.2X2

=+0.840KJ

Moles of ammonium nitrate=0.8/80=0.01moles

0.01moles=0.84kj

1 ?

=(80x0.84)/0.01

=+840kj/moles

Molar enthalpy of displacement is the enthalpy change when one mole of a metal is displaced
from its salt solution.

Example

The data below was obtained from the experiment. Used it to calculate the molar heat of
displacement.

Molarity of copper sulphate solution= 0.2

Volume of copper sulphate solution =50cm 3

Mass of copper sulphate solution=1g

Downloaded by Elizabeth Wanjiru (ew286259@[Link])

 lOMoARcPSD|50504552

Initial temperature of solution = 21ºc

Final temperature of solution = 27ºc

Specific heat capacity of solution = 4.2kj/kg/k

H= MC T

=50/100x4.2x6

=-1.26kj.

Moles of copper sulphate solution= (50x0.2)/1000

=0.01moles

0.01moles=1.26kj

1mole ?

(1x1.26)/0.01

=-12.6kj/moles

Thermo chemical equation

cuso 4 (aq) + Fe(s) cu(s) + Feso 4 (aq) H==-12.6kj/moles

Molar enthalpy of neutralization is the enthalpy change when an acid is neutralized by a base
to form one mole of water.

Example

The data below was obtained from the experiment. Used it to calculate the molar heat of
neautrilisation.

Downloaded by Elizabeth Wanjiru (ew286259@[Link])

 lOMoARcPSD|50504552

Volume of 2M HCl =20cm 3

Volume of 2M NaOH =20CM 3

Initial temperature of HCl= 25ºc

Initial temperature of NaOH = 25.5ºc

Final temperature of mixture= 38.5ºc

Mass of mixture = 40g

Specific heat capacity of water = 4.2kj/kg/k

H= MC T

= 40/100x4.2x13.5

=--2.226kj

No. of moles in 20cm3 of HCl=(20x2)/100

=0.04moles

0.04moles=2.226

1 ?

=(1x2.226)/0.04

= -55.56kj/moles

ENERGY LEVEL DIAGRAMS, THERMOCHEMICAL CYCLE’S AND HESS’S.

Hess’s law of constant heat summation states that the energy change in converting reactants to
product is the same regardless of the route by which the chemical changes occurs.

Example 1.

Downloaded by Elizabeth Wanjiru (ew286259@[Link])

 lOMoARcPSD|50504552

Use the information below to determine the enthalpy of combustion of carbon (formation of
carbon iv oxide).

1
CS + O CO g ; -110.45kj
2 2

1
CO g + O co 2(g ); ; -282.0 kj
2 2

Solution.

1
CS + O H1=-110.45KJ CO g ;
2 2

; H2=-282.0

1
+ O2 H3=? + O
2 2

co 2(g );

H3= H1 + H2

=-110.45 + (-282.0)

=-392.45Kj

Example 2

Use the information below to determine the enthalpy of formation of ethyne (formation ofC 2 H 2).

CS + O2 CO 2(G) ; -394kj/mol

1
H 2 (g) + O H 2O; - - 286kj/mol
2 2

1
C 2 H 2 ( g) + 1 o 2(g) 2co 2(g ) + H 2 O H=-13000kj/mol.
2

Downloaded by Elizabeth Wanjiru (ew286259@[Link])

 lOMoARcPSD|50504552

Thermo chemical cycle

2C s + H 2 ( g) ¿ H1 C 2 H 2 (g)
¿

+o 2(g ) + o 2(g )+o2 (g)

H3 H4 H2

2co 2 + H 2 O

H1= H3+ H4 - H2

=(2 X -394)+ (-286) – (-13000)

+226kj/mol.

Energy level diagram

Cs + H 2 ( g) ¿ H1
¿

1
2 o H3 C 2 H 2 (g)
2 2(g)

+21/2 o2 (g) H2

2co 2 + H 2 O

H1= H3- H1

CHAPTER EIGHT.
ELCTROCHEMISTRY.

Downloaded by Elizabeth Wanjiru (ew286259@[Link])

 lOMoARcPSD|50504552

 Electrochemistry can be defined as the study of the effects of electricity on

a substance/ compound and how chemical reactions produce electricity.
Electrochemistry therefore deals mainly with:

i) Reduction and oxidation

ii) Electrochemical (voltaic) cell

iii) Electrolysis (electrolytic) cell

 A half cell is one of the two electrodes in a galvanic cell or simple battery. For example,
in the Zn−Cu battery, the two half cells make an oxidizing-reducing couple. Placing a
piece of reactant in an electrolyte solution makes a half cell.
 An electrochemical cell is a device capable of either generating electrical energy from
chemical reactions or using electrical energy to cause chemical reactions.
 Conductors are substances which allow electric current to pass through since they free
electrons such as metal and graphite.
 Non- conductors are solid substances which do not allow electric current to pass them
since they do not have free electrons such as all non metals.
 Electric current is the flow of electrons.
 Electrolyte is a compound either in molten or solution state which allow electric current
to pass and they become decompose.
 Non-Electrolyte is a compound in molten or solution which does not allow electric
current to pass and decompose.
 Electrolysis is the process of decomposing an electrolyte by passing electric current.
 Anode is the electrode connected to the positive terminal.
 Cathode is the electrode connected to the negative terminal.
ROLE OF WATER IN ELECTROLYSIS.
Water dissolves ionic compounds. This is because its molecules are polar and therefore,
attract the positive and negative ions that make the ionic compound.
ELECTROLYSIS PROCESS

 During this process negative ions (anions) move to the anode while positive ions
(cations) move to the cathode where preferential discharge occurs.
Example
1. Electrolysis of molten lead (ii) bromide.
Ions present
2+¿ ¿ −¿ ¿
PbBr2 (s) Pb (aq) + 2 Br (aq)

Electrode; carbon (graphite).

Downloaded by Elizabeth Wanjiru (ew286259@[Link])

 lOMoARcPSD|50504552

Reactions at the cathode

 Pb
2+¿ ¿
ions move here
 Pb
2+¿ ¿
ions are discharged
2+¿ ( l ) +2 e¿
 Pb pb(s)
 Lead (pb) is deposited.
Reactions at the anode
−¿¿
 Br ions move here
−¿¿
 Br ions are discharge
−¿ ¿
 2 Br (l) Br2 (g) + 2e
 Bromine is formed.
2. Electrolysis of compound in aqueous solutions

Electrolysis of dilute sodium chloride solutions

Ions present

From Nacl (aq) Na +¿¿(aq) + Cl−¿¿(aq).

Reactions at the cathode

 Cathode- Na+ (aq) from Sodium chloride solution (NaCl) and H + (aq) from water
(H2O)
 Anode- Cl- (aq) from sodium chloride solution (NaCl) and OH- (aq) from water
(H2O) III.
 Write the equation for the reaction during the electrolytic process at the:
 Cathode 2H+ (aq) + 2e -> H2(g) H + ions selectively discharged instead of Na+ ions
at the cathode)
 Anode 2Cl- (aq) -> Cl2(g) + 4e (Cl- ions with a higher concentration block the
discharge of OH- ions at the anode)

c)To determine the products of electrolysis of molten sodium chloride

(i)Decomposition of electrolyte into free ions; NaCl (l) -> Na + (l) + Cl- (l) (Compound
decomposed into free cation and anion in liquid state)

(ii)At the cathode/negative electrode (-); 2Na+ (l) + 2e -> Na (l) (Cation / Na+ gains / accepts /
acquires electrons to form free atom)

(iii)At the anode/positive electrode (+); 2Cl- (l) -> Cl2 (g) + 2e (Anion / Cl- donate/lose
electrons to form free atom then a gas molecule)

(iv)Products of electrolysis therefore are;

Downloaded by Elizabeth Wanjiru (ew286259@[Link])

 lOMoARcPSD|50504552

[Link] the cathode grey beads /solid sodium metal.

[Link] the anode pale green chlorine gas.

 Name the products of electrolysis of Magnesium sulphate(VI) solution

Cathode-Hydrogen gas (colourless gas that extinguishes burning splint with explosion/
“pop” sound

Oxygen gas (colourless gas that relights /rekindles glowing splint)

 The quantitative amount of products of electrolysis can be determined by

applying Faradays 1 st law of electrolysis.

Faradays 1 st law of electrolysis states that “the mass/amount of substance

liberated/produced/used during electrolysis is directly proportional to the

quantity of of electricity passed/used.”

(a)The SI unit of quantity of electricity is the coulomb(C). The coulomb may be defined as
the quantity of electricity passed/used when a current of one ampere flow for one second.i.e;

1Coulomb = 1 Ampere x 1Second

The Ampere is the SI unit of current(I)

The Second is the SI unit of time(t) therefore;

Quantity of electricity(in Coulombs) = Current(I) x time(t)

Practice examples

1. A current of 2 amperes was passed through an electrolytic cell for 20 minutes.

Calculate the quantity of electric charge produced.

Working:

Quantity of electricity(in Coulombs) = Current(I) x time(t)

Substituting /converting time to second = 2 x (20 x 60)

= 2400 C

2. A current of 2 amperes was passed through an electrolytic.96500 coulombs of charge were

produced. Calculate the time taken.

Downloaded by Elizabeth Wanjiru (ew286259@[Link])

 lOMoARcPSD|50504552

Working:

Time(t) in seconds = Quantity of electricity(in Coulombs)

Current(I) in amperes

Substituting = 96500

= 48250 seconds

Practice examples

[Link] the mass of copper deposited at the cathode when a steady current of

4.0 amperes is passed through copper(II)sulphate(VI) for 30 minutes in an

electrolytic cell. (Cu=63.5, 1F = 96500C)

Working:

Quantity of electricity(in Coulombs) = Current(I) x time(t)

Substituting /converting time to second = 4 x (30 x 60)

= 7200 C

Equation at the cathode: Cu 2+ (aq) + 2e -> Cu(s)

2 mole of electrons = 2 Faradays = 2 x 96500 C produce a mass =molar mass of

copper thus;

2 x 96500C -> 63.5 g

72000C -> 7200 x 63.5 = 2.3689 g of copper

2 x 96500

2.a)If 3.2 g of Lead were deposited when a current of 2.5 amperes was passed

through an electrolytic cell of molten Lead(II)bromide for 20 minutes,

determine the Faraday constant.(Pb = 207)

Working:

Quantity of electricity (in Coulombs) = Current(I) x time(t)

Substituting /converting time to second = 2.5 x (20 x 60)

Downloaded by Elizabeth Wanjiru (ew286259@[Link])

 lOMoARcPSD|50504552

= 3000 C

If 3.2g of Lead -> 3000C

Then 207 g of Lead -> 207 x 3000 = 194062.5 C

3.2

Equation at the cathode: Pb 2+ (l) + 2e -> Pb(l)

From the equation: 2 moles of electrons = 2 Faradays = 194062.5 C

1mole of electrons = 1 Faraday => 194062.5 = 97031.25 C

b)What is the volume of bromine vapour produced at the anode at room

temperature(1mole of gas at room temperature and pressure = 24000cm3)

Method 1

Equation at the anode: Br - (l) -> Br 2 (g) + 2e

From the equation: 2 moles of electrons = 2 Faradays = 194062.5 C -> 24000cm3

3000 C -> 3000 x 24000

194062.5

=371.0145cm3

Method 2

Equation at the anode: Br - (l) -> Br 2 (g) + 2e

Mole ratio of products at Cathode: anode = 1:1

Moles of Lead at cathode = 3.2 = 0.0155moles = moles of Bromine

207

1 moles of bromine vapour -> 24000cm3

0.0155moles of Bromine -> 0.0155 x 24000 = 372 cm3

Method 3

Downloaded by Elizabeth Wanjiru (ew286259@[Link])

 lOMoARcPSD|50504552

Equation at the anode: Br - (l) -> Br 2 (g) + 2e

Ratio of Faradays used to form products at Cathode: anode = 2:2

=> 2 x 97031.25 C produce 24000cm3 of bromine vapour

Then: 3000 C -> 3000 x 24000cm3 = 371.0145cm3

2 x 97031.25

[Link] mass of copper remain from 2.0 at the anode if a solution of

copper(II)sulphate(VI) is electrolysed using a current of 1 ampere flowing

through an electrolytic cell for 20 minutes.(Cu= 63.5, 1Faraday = 96487

coulombs)

Working:

Quantity of electricity (in Coulombs) = Current(I) x time(t)

Substituting /converting time to second = 1 x (20 x 60)

= 1200 C

Equation at the cathode: Cu 2+ (aq) + 2e -> Cu(s)

2 mole of electrons = 2 Faradays = 2 x 96500 C erode/dissolve a mass =molar mass

of copper thus;

2 x 96500C -> 63.5 g

1200C -> 1200 x 63.5 = 0.3948g of copper deposited

2 x 96500

Mass of copper remaining = Original mass – mass dissolved/eroded

=> 2.0 -0.3948 = 1.6052 g of copper remain

4. Calculate the current passed if a mass of 0.234 g of copper is deposited in 4

minutes during electrolysis of a solution of copper (II)sulphate(VI).

(Cu= 63.5 ,1F = 96500C)

Working:

Downloaded by Elizabeth Wanjiru (ew286259@[Link])

 lOMoARcPSD|50504552

Equation at the cathode: Cu(s) -> Cu 2+ (aq) + 2e

2 mole of electrons = 2 Faradays = 2 x 96500 C produce a mass =molar mass of

copper thus;

43

63.5 g -> 2 x 96500C

0.234 g -> 0.234 x 2 x 96500 = 711.2126 C

63.5

Current(I) in amperes = Quantity of electricity(in Coulombs)

Time(t) in seconds

Substituting/converting time to second= 711.2126 C

4x 60

= 2.9634 Amperes

5. (a)What quantity of electricity will deposit a mass of 2.43 g of Zinc during electrolysis of a
solution of Zinc (II)sulphate(VI).

(Zn= 65 ,1F = 96500C)

Working:

Equation at the cathode: Zn 2+ (aq) + 2e -> Zn(s)

2 mole of electrons = 2 Faradays = 2 x 96500 C erode/dissolve a mass =molar mass

of Zinc thus;

65 g -> 2 x 96500

2.43 g -> 2.43 x 2 x 96500 = 7215.2308 C

65

(b)Calculate the time (in minutes) it would take during electrolysis of the

solution of Zinc (II)sulphate(VI) above if a current of 4.0 Amperes is used.

Time(t) in seconds = Quantity of electricity(in Coulombs)

Downloaded by Elizabeth Wanjiru (ew286259@[Link])

 lOMoARcPSD|50504552

Current(I) in amperes

Substituting = 7215.2308 = 1803.8077 seconds = 30.0635 minutes

4 60

[Link] a current of 1.5 amperes was passed through a cell containing M 3+ ions

of metal M for 15 minutes, the mass at cathode increased by 0.26 g.(Faraday

constant = 96500C

a) Calculate the quantity of electricity used.

Quantity of electricity (in Coulombs) = Current(I) x time(t)

Substituting /converting time to second = 1.5 x (15 x 60)

= 1350 C

b) Determine the relative atomic mass of metal M

Equation at the cathode: M 3+ (aq) + 3e -> M(s)

1350 C of electricity -> 0.26 g of metal M

3 mole of electrons = 3 Faradays = 3 x 96500 C produce a mass =molar mass of M

thus;

RAM of M = 0.26 g x 3 x 96500 = 55.7556(No units)

1350

[Link] element “P” has a relative atomic mass [Link] a current of 0.5 amperes

was passed through fused chloride of “P” for 32 minutes and 10seconds ,0.44 g

44

of “P” was deposited at the cathode. Determine the charge on an ion of

“P”(Faraday constant = 96500C)

Working:

Quantity of electricity (in Coulombs) = Current(I) x time(t)

Substituting /converting time to second = 0.5 x ((32 x 60) + 10)

Downloaded by Elizabeth Wanjiru (ew286259@[Link])

 lOMoARcPSD|50504552

= 965C

0.44 g of metal “P” are deposited by 965C

88g of of metal “P” are deposited by: 88 x 965= 193000 C

0.44

96500 C = 1 mole of electrons = 1 Faradays = single charge

193000 C -> 193000 = 2 moles/Faradays/charges => symbol of ion = P 2+

96500

8. During purification of copper by electrolysis 1.48 g of copper was deposited

when a current was passed through aqueous copper (II)sulphate(VI) for 2 ½

hours. Calculate the amount of current that was passed. (Cu= 63.5

,1F = 96500C)

Working:

Equation at the cathode: Cu 2+ (aq) + 2e-> Cu(s)

2 mole of electrons = 2 Faradays = 2 x 96500 C produce a mass =molar mass of

copper thus;

63.5 g -> 2 x 96500C

1.48 g -> 1.48 x 2 x 96500 = 4255.1181 C

63.5

Current(I) in amperes = Quantity of electricity(in Coulombs)

Time(t) in seconds

Substituting/converting time to second= 4255.1181C

(( 2 x 60) + 30) x60

= 0.4728 Amperes

17. Practically Faraday 1 st law of electrolysis can be verified anode-

Downloaded by Elizabeth Wanjiru (ew286259@[Link])

 lOMoARcPSD|50504552

ELECTROCHEMICAL (VOLTAIC) CELL

1. When a metal rod/plate is put in a solution of its own salt,

Some of the metal ionizes and dissolve into the solution i.e

. M(s) -> M+ (aq) + e ( monovalent metal)

M(s) -> M2+(aq) + 2e ( divalent metal) M(s) ->

M3+(aq) + 3e ( Trivalent metal)

The ions move into the solution leaving electrons on the surface of the metal rod/plate.

2. The metal rod becomes therefore negatively charged while its own solution positively
charged. As the positive charges of the solution increase, some of them recombine with the
electrons to form back the metal atoms

M + (aq) + e -> M(s) ( monovalent metal)

M 2+(aq) + 2e -> M(s) (divalent metal)

M 3+(aq) + 3e -> M(s) (Trivalent metal)

3. When a metal rod/plate is put in a solution of its own salt, it constitutes/forms a half-cell.
The tendencies of metals to ionize differ from one metal to the other. The difference can be
measured by connecting two half cells to form an electrochemical/voltaic cell as in the below
procedure:

To set up an electrochemical /voltaic cell

To compare the relative tendency of metals to ionize

Place 50cm3 of 1M Zinc(II) sulphate(VI) in 100cm3 beaker. Put a clean zinc rod/plate into
the solution. Place 50cm3 of 1M Copper(II) sulphate(VI) in another 100cm3 beaker. Put a
clean copper rod/plate of equal area (length x width) with Zinc into the solution.
Connect/join the two metals(to a voltmeter) using connecting wires. Dip a folded filter paper
into a solution of Potassium nitrate(V) or sodium(I) chloride(I) until it soaks. Use the folded
soaked filter paper to connect/join the two solutions in the two [Link] whole set up
should be as below

CHAPTER NINE
GASES.

Downloaded by Elizabeth Wanjiru (ew286259@[Link])

 lOMoARcPSD|50504552

 Gas laws
Boyle’s law

The pressure of a fixed mass of gas is inversely proportional to its volume if its
temperature is kept constant

Consider a gas trapped in a container as shown

The mass, hence number of moles are constant and do not change during the course
of the investigation

The piston is frictionless and moves smoothly without allowing the gas to escape

When the pressure changes,

V ∝ 1/P
Or
P ∝ 1/V
Or
PV = k1
Where V is the volume of the gas, P is the pressure of the gas and K1 is the constant. Boyle’s
Law can be used to determine the current pressure or volume of gas and can be represented also
as;
P1V1 = P2V2

Boyle’s Law-Related Problem

1. An 18.10mL sample of gas is at 3.500 atm. What will be the volume if the
pressure becomes 2.500 atm, with a fixed amount of gas and temperature?
Solution:
By solving with the help of Boyle’s law equation
P1V1 = P2V2
V2 = P1V1 / P2
V2 = (18.10 * 3.500atm)/2.500atm
V2 = 25.34 Ml

Downloaded by Elizabeth Wanjiru (ew286259@[Link])

 lOMoARcPSD|50504552

2. A 17.50mL sample of gas is at 4.500 atm. What will be the volume if the pressure
becomes 1.500 atm, with a fixed amount of gas and temperature?

Charles’ Law

The volume of a fixed mass of gas is directly proportional to its absolute

temperature if the pressure is kept constant

We can then say that the volume V is directly proportional to the absolute
temperature T, ie doubling T doubles V, etc Therefore

V ∝ T or V = constant X T

Or V/T = Constant

Volume V1 = 1dm 3 V 2 = 2dm 3 V 3 = 3 dm 3

Temperature (OC) 0 ºC 273 ºC 546 ºC

Temp (K) 273 K 546K 819K

Volume/Temp 1/273 2/546 3/819

Equation ∴ V 1 /T 1 = V 2 /T 2 = V 3 /T 3

∴ V/T = constant

A sample of Carbon dioxide in a pump has a volume of 21.5 mL and it is at 50.0 oC. When the
amount of gas and pressure remain constant, find the new volume of Carbon dioxide in the pump
if the temperature is increased to 75.0 oC.
Solution:
V2 = V1T2/T1

V2 = 7,485.225/ 323.15

V2 = 23.16 mL

Pressure law

Downloaded by Elizabeth Wanjiru (ew286259@[Link])

 lOMoARcPSD|50504552

The pressure of a fixed mass of gas is directly proportional to its absolute

temperature if the volume is kept constant

p ∝ T or p = constant X T

Or p/T = Constant

The three equations can be combined giving

Pv = constant

T For cases in which p, V and T all change from say p 1 , V 1 and T 1 to p 2 , V 2 and T 2 ,
then P 1 V 1 = p 2 V 2 T 1 T 2

Combined Gas Law

The combined gas law allows you to do calculations for situations in which only the amount of
gas is constant

. Example:

The volume of a gas filled balloon is 30.0 L at 313 K and 153 kPa. What would the volume be at
STP? PV= K P1V1 = P2V2 T T1 T2 Freddie M

Ideal Gas Law

PV = nRT The moles of gas is no longer a constant, and is now represented by “n”. There is
also a gas constant, “R”. The gas constant depends on the unit for pressure.

R = 0.0821 L*atm mol*K R = 8.31 L*kPa mol*K

Example: A deep underground cavern contains 2.24 x 106 L of CH4 gas at a pressure of
1.50 x 103 kPa and a temperature of 420C. How many moles of CH4 gas does the cavern
contain

Graham’s Law of Diffusion

Graham’s law of diffusion relates the rate of diffusion of a gas to its density

It states that the rate of diffusion of a gas at constant temperature and pressure is
inversely proportional to the square root of its density

Downloaded by Elizabeth Wanjiru (ew286259@[Link])

 lOMoARcPSD|50504552

CHAPTER TEN
CHEMICAL EQUILIBRIUM.
 Chemical equilibrium: A state in which the rates of the forward and reverse reactions
are equal and the concentrations of the reactants and products remain constant. ⇒
 Equilibrium is a dynamic process ñ the conversions of reactants to products and
products to reactants are still going on, although there is no net change in the number
of reactant and product molecules.
 For the reaction: N2O4(g) 2NO2(g)
 The Equilibrium Constant For a reaction:
aA + bB cC + dD equilibrium constant:
c d
(C) (D)
Kc =
( A)a (B)b
 The equilibrium constant, Kc, is the ratio of the equilibrium concentrations of products
over the equilibrium concentrations of reactants each raised to the power of their
stoichiometric coefficients.
 Example. Write the equilibrium constant, Kc, for N2O4(g) 2NO2(g)
 Law of mass action - The value of the equilibrium constant expression, Kc, is constant
for a given reaction at equilibrium and at a constant temperature.
 ⇒ The equilibrium concentrations of reactants and products may vary, but the value for
Kc remains the same.
 Other Characteristics of Kc

1) Equilibrium can be approached from either direction.

2) Kc does not depend on the initial concentrations of reactants and products.

3) Kc does depend on temperature.

Magnitude of Kc

⇒ If the Kc value is large (Kc >> 1), the equilibrium lies to the right and the reaction mixture
contains mostly products.

⇒ If the Kc value is small (Kc << Kc < 10), the mixture contains appreciable amounts of
both reactants and products.

⇒ If the Kc value is close to 1 (0.10 < Kc < 10), the mixture contains appreciable amounts of
both reactants and product

Calculating Equilibrium Constants, Kc

Downloaded by Elizabeth Wanjiru (ew286259@[Link])

 lOMoARcPSD|50504552

 Kc values are listed without units ⇒ don't include units when calculating Kc
 . If equilibrium concentrations are known, simply substitute the concentrations into
the equilibrium constant expression:
 Example. For the reaction, CO + 3H2 CH4 + H2O,
 calculate Kc from the following equilibrium concentrations: [CO] = 0.0613 M; [H2]
= 0.1839 M; [CH4] = 0.0387 M; [H2O] = 0.0387 M.
Homogeneous equilibria: reactants and products exist in a single phase.
For the gas phase reaction: N2O4 (g) 2NO2 (g)
The equilibrium constant with the concentrations of reactants and products expressed
in terms of molarity, Kc, is:
( N O 2)2 ❑❑ ❑❑
Kc =
¿¿¿
Gas Phase Expressions can also be expressed by K p
⇒ The K p expression is written using equilibrium partial pressures of reactants &
products.
For the reaction given above, the K p expression is:
K p = P ¿¿¿
K p is related to K c

Since pressure and molarity are related by the Ideal Gas Law, the following equation relates K p

and K c :

K p = K c (RT )≜ n

l . atm
where R = 0.0821
k . mol

; T = temperature in Kelvin

∆n = moles of gaseous products – moles of gaseous reactants

⇒ Note that K c = K p when the number of gas molecules are the same on both sides.

Example. Does K c = K p for (a) H 2 (g) + F 2 (g) 2HF (g) ?

(b) 2SO 2 (g) + O 2 (g) 2SO 3 (g) ?

Example. For the reaction, 2SO 2 (g) + O 2 (g) 2SO 3 (g) (a) write the equilibrium constant

expression, K p . (b) What is the value for K p if K c = 2.8x10 2 at 1000 K?

Heterogeneous Equilibria and Solvents in Homogeneous Equilibria

Heterogeneous equilibria: reactants and products are present in more than one phase.

Downloaded by Elizabeth Wanjiru (ew286259@[Link])

 lOMoARcPSD|50504552

Example. Write the K c expression for CaCO 3 (s) CaO (s) + CO 2 (g)

• Omit concentration terms for solids and liquids from K c and K p expressions; only

include terms for gases (g) and aqueous substances (aq).

Example. Write the K c expression for the following reaction:

3Cu (s) + 2NO 3 - (aq) + 8H + (aq) 3Cu 2+ (aq) + 2NO (g) + 4H 2 O (l)

FACTORS THAT AFFECT CHEMICAL EQUILIBRIUM

Le Chatelier's Principle: If a system at equilibrium is disturbed by an external stress, the

system adjusts to partially offset the stress as the system attains a new equilibrium position.

Changes in Concentration

⇒ Adding a reactant or product, the equilibria shifts away from the increase in order to

consume part of the added substance.

⇒ Removing a reactant or product, the equilibria shifts toward the decrease to replace part of

the removed species.

E.g. For H 2 + I 2 2HI, does the equilibria shift left or right if we: a) add H 2 ? b) remove I
2?

Changes in Volume and Pressure

Because the pressure of gases is related directly to the concentration by P = n/V, changing the

pressure by increasing/decreasing the volume of a container will disturb an equilibrium system.

⇒ If P increases (V decreases), the system shifts to the side with a smaller number of gas

molecules (this effectively reestablishes equilibrium by decreasing the pressure).

⇒ If P decreases (V increases), the system shifts to the side with a greater number of gas

molecules.

Example. For N 2 (g) + 3H 2 (g) 2NH 3 (g) , does the equilibrium shift left or right if the
pressure is increased?

Changes in Temperature

Heat can be considered a reactant in an endothermic rxn and a product in an exothermic rxn.

Downloaded by Elizabeth Wanjiru (ew286259@[Link])

 lOMoARcPSD|50504552

Endothermic ( ∆ H > 0) R + Heat Products

Exothermic ( ∆ H < 0) R Products + Heat

Recall that both K c and the position of the equilibrium system will vary with temperature:

• K c is larger when the reaction shifts right. This occurs if T is increased for an

Endothermic Reaction or T is decreased for an Exothermic reaction.

• K c is smaller when the reaction shifts left. This occurs if T is decreased for an

Endothermic Reaction or T is increased for an Exothermic reaction.

Example. If the temperature is decreased for the reaction: 2CO 2 2CO + O 2 , ∆H = 566 kJ.

a) Will the equilibrium shift left or right? b) Does K c become larger or smaller?

Effect of a Catalyst

⇒ Catalysts lower E a for the reaction, so a catalyst decreases the amount of time taken to reach

equilibrium for both the forward and reverse reactions.

⇒ The catalyst does not affect the equilibrium concentrations of reactants and products in the

equilibrium mixture; thus, the K c value does not change.

Choosing Optimum Conditions

Le Chatelier’s principle can be used to select optimum conditions to form a substance.

e.g. To form more NH 3 , predict the optimum conditions for temperature and pressure.

N 2 (g) + 3H 2 (g) 2NH 3 (g) ∆ H = -91.8 kJ

CHAPTER ELEVEN
SOLUTIONs
A solution is defined as
a homogenous mixture which mainly comprises two components namely solute and solvent.

Different Types of Solutions

Depending upon the dissolution of the solute in the solvent, solutions can be categorized
into supersaturated solution, unsaturated and saturated solutions.

Downloaded by Elizabeth Wanjiru (ew286259@[Link])

 lOMoARcPSD|50504552

 A supersaturated solution comprises a large amount of solute at a temperature wherein it

will be reduced, as a result the extra solute will crystallize quickly.
 An unsaturated solution is a solution in which a solvent is capable of dissolving any
more solute at a given temperature.
 A saturated solution can be defined as a solution in which a solvent is not capable of
dissolving any more solute at a given temperature.
The solutions are of two forms, depending on whether the solvent is water or not.

 Aqueous solution – When a solute is dissolved in water the solution is called an aqueous
solution. Eg, salt in water, sugar in water and copper sulfate in water.

 Non-aqueous solution – When a solute is dissolved in a solvent other than water, it is

called a non-aqueous solution. Eg, iodine in carbon tetrachloride, sulphur in carbon
disulfide, phosphorus in ethyl alcohol.
Solutions are spoken of as having two components, the solvent and the solute. Another
classification of the solution depends on the amount of solute added to the solvent.

 A dilute solution contains a small amount of solute in a large amount of solvent.

 A concentrated solution contains a large amount of solute dissolved in a small amount of
solvent.

 Non-aqueous solution – When a solute is dissolved in a solvent other than water, it is

called a non-aqueous solution. Eg, iodine in carbon tetrachloride, sulphur in carbon
disulfide, phosphorus in ethyl alcohol.
Solutions are spoken of as having two components, the solvent and the solute. Another
classification of the solution depends on the amount of solute added to the solvent.

 A dilute solution contains a small amount of solute in a large amount of solvent.

 A concentrated solution contains a large amount of solute dissolved in a small amount of
solvent.

Mixtures
A mixture is composed of two or more substances, but they are not chemically combined. In
contrast, the compound contains various elements that are bonded to each other. For instance,
consider a mixture of salt that is when salt is dissolved in water it is a mixture but ideally, salts
consist of two components namely sodium and chlorine.

Homogenous and Heterogeneous Solutions

Downloaded by Elizabeth Wanjiru (ew286259@[Link])

 lOMoARcPSD|50504552

Homogeneous solutions are solutions with uniform composition and properties throughout the
solution. For example a cup of coffee, perfume, cough syrup, a solution of salt or sugar in water,
etc.
Heterogeneous solutions are solutions with non-uniform composition and properties throughout
the solution. A solution of oil and water, water and chalk powder and solution of water and sand,
etc.

CHAPTER TWELVE
SOLUTION AND CONCENTRATION.
 concentration of a solution is the quantity of a solute that is contained in a particular
quantity of solvent or solution.

units used to express concentration:

 Percent Composition (by mass)

 Molarity
 Molality
 Mole Fraction

Molarity: the number of moles of solute in one liter of solution.

M = amount of solute (moles) OR grams of solute/molar mass of solute volume of solution (

liters) L of solution

A bottle labeled 6M HCl is pronounced 6 molar HCl and it was prepared by mixing 6 moles
of HCl with enough water to make 1 liter of solution. Molarity is always moles/liter. Ex: 6M
is 6 moles/ liter

Example Molarity Problems:

1. Calculate the molarity, M, of a solution prepared by dissolving 11.85 g of potassium

permanganate in enough water to make 750. mL of solution.

2. Calculate the mass of NaCl needed to prepare 175 ml of 0.500 M saline solution.

Downloaded by Elizabeth Wanjiru (ew286259@[Link])

 lOMoARcPSD|50504552

3. Calculate the volume (in mL) needed to prepare a 2.48 M sodium hydroxide solution
containing 31.52 g of the dissolved solid.

4. How many grams of calcium chloride must be dissolved in water to make 350. mL of a
l.75 M solution?

5. What is the molar mass of 55.0 grams of a solute that has been dissolved in enough
solvent to make 500. mL of a l.5 M solution?

Molality

Molality, m, tells us the number of moles of solute dissolved in exactly one kilogram of solvent.
(Note that molality is spelled with two "l"'s and represented by a lower case m.)

We need two pieces of information to calculate the molality of a solute in a solution:

 The moles of solute present in the solution.

 The mass of solvent (in kilograms) in the solution

Percent Composition (by mass)

We can consider percent by mass (or weight percent, as it is sometimes called) in two ways:

 The parts of solute per 100 parts of solution.

 The fraction of a solute in a solution multiplied by 100.

We need two pieces of information to calculate the percent by mass of a solute in a solution:

 The mass of the solute in the solution.

 The mass of the solution

Mole Fraction

The mole fraction, X, of a component in a solution is the ratio of the number of moles of that
component to the total number of moles of all components in the solution.

To calculate mole fraction, we need to know:

 The number of moles of each component present in the solution.

Dilutions – you need to make 800.0 mL of a 0.25 M solution of HCl. The only available HCl is
concentrated (12 M). How would you do this? Being able to prepare dilutions is a very common
application of chemistry. Our department buys concentrated acids, but normally uses more dilute
solutions of these acids in our labs. Therefore, it is important to know how to correctly dilute.

Downloaded by Elizabeth Wanjiru (ew286259@[Link])

 lOMoARcPSD|50504552

M1V1 = M2V2 where M1 = concentrated solution V1 = volume of concentrated solution M2 =

dilute solution V2 = volume of dilute solution In the above problem, M1 = 12.0 M M2 = 0.25 M
Vl = ? V2 = 800.0 ml therefore (12.0 M) (V1) = (0.25 M)(800 mL) and V1 = 16.67 ml.

This 16.67 mL is the amount of concentrated acid we will take out, but we still have to make 800
mL of 0.25 M. The other 783.3 mL of solution must be water (800 – 16.67). Therefore we would
place 16.67 mL of HCl into 783.3 mL of water and we would have our diluted solution

. Practice Dilutions Problems:

6. How would you prepare 485 mL of 0.39 M solution of NaCl when a l.0 M solution of NaCl is
all you can find?

7. If 300.0 mL of a 2.5 M solution of nitric acid is added to 500.0 mL of water, what is the
molarity of the dilute solution?

8. Prepare 500. mL of a dilute solution (0.50 M ) of nitric acid from the l5.0 M stock solution.
You will need 600. mL of the dilute solution.

9. How would you prepare 500. mL of a 0.250 M solution of NaCl from a 3.00 M stock solution?

10. Tell how you would prepare enough 0.75 M NaCl solution so that 78 students working in
groups of 2 will have 12 mL of solution for a lab. The stock solution is 3.5 M NaCl

Downloaded by Elizabeth Wanjiru (ew286259@[Link])