CHAPTER ONE

1.0Introduction

1.1Background of the Study

The phenomenon of nominalisation occupies a central place in linguistic description

because of its dual role as both a morphological and syntactic process. It is the

mechanism by which a verb, adjective, or even a whole clause is converted into a

noun, thereby expanding the lexical resources of a language and enabling speakers to

package information in diverse ways. For instance, a verb like to sing can be

nominalised as singing (action/event), singer (agent), or song(result). This shows that

nominalisation is not a mere word-formation device but also a tool for structuring

meaning and discourse (Koptjevskaja-Tamm, 2002; Grimm, 2022).

In African languages, nominalisation has been documented as highly productive. In

Niger-Congo languages, for example, it serves functions ranging

from agentive (naming participants of an action), instrumental (naming tools used for

actions), resultative (referring to outcomes of processes), to abstract (forming

concepts). Languages often employ affixation, reduplication, tone change, or

compounding in nominalisation. Some also use clausal nominalisation, where entire

verbal clauses function as noun phrases (Asante, 2020).

The Etulo language, also referred to wrongly as Utur by the Tiv people of Benue

State, belongs to the Idomoid subgroup of Benue-Congo, within the Niger-Congo

phylum (Williamson & Blench, 2000). It is spoken predominantly in Katsina-Ala and

Buruku Local Government Areas of Benue State and Wukari Local Government Area

of Taraba State. The Etulo people trace their historical roots to the Kwararafa

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confederacy, a pre-colonial political entity in central Nigeria, migrating alongside the

Jukun, Ijaw, Igala and Idoma before settling along the Katsina-Ala - Buruku river

basin. Fishing, farming, and riverine trade remain the backbone of their economic life

(Mbapuun & Jones, 2020).

Demographically, Etulo is a minority language with an estimated 30,000–35,000

speakers (Ethnologue, 2023). While it is still spoken actively in rural communities, its

vitality is threatened in urban centres due to bilingualism and language shift towards

Tiv, Jukun, Hausa, and Nigerian Pidgin. Intergenerational transmission remains

stronger in rural settings, but weaker in towns where Etulo children often acquire Tiv

or Pidgin as dominant languages (Mbapuun & Jones, 2020).

Despite these sociolinguistic pressures, Etulo continues to be a marker of identity for

its speakers. Recent studies (Ezenwafor-Afuecheta, 2023; Ezenwafor-Afuecheta,

2021) have described aspects of its phonology, pluralisation, and basic morphosyntax.

However, nominalisation in Etulo has not been systematically studied, even though it

plays a fundamental role in word formation and syntax across Niger-Congo

languages.

This background underscores the importance of investigating Etulo nominalisation.

Beyond filling a gap in descriptive linguistics, the study will contribute

to comparative Benue-Congo studies, shed light on how minority languages deploy

morphosyntactic resources, and provide data that may support documentation and

revitalisation efforts for Etulo.

1.2 Statement of the Problem

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Although Etulo has been described in terms of phonology,

morphology and nominal pluralisation (Ezenwafor-Afuecheta, 2023),

there is still a notable absence of research dedicated to

nominalisation. The processes, productivity, and semantic

distinctions of nominalised forms in Etulo remain largely

undocumented.

This gap poses three major problems:

i. it hinders the development of a full grammatical description of

Etulo

ii. it limits comparative studies between Etulo and related Idomoid

languages such as Idoma and Igede

iii. it reduces the availability of linguistic materials necessary for

documentation, revitalisation, and language development.

This study therefore sets out to examine nominalisation in Etulo,

identifying its morphological and syntactic processes, semantic

functions, and comparative implications.

1.3Objectives of the Study

The main objective of the Study is to analyse the processes of

nominalisation in Etulo language, with a focus on their

morphological strategies, syntactic patterns, and semantic

functions. The specific objectives of this research are to:

i. identify and describe the morphological strategies of

nominalisation in Etulo

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ii. examine syntactic strategies of nominalisation, including clause

nominalisation

iii. analyse the semantic distinctions expressed by Etulo

nominalised forms

iv. assess the productivity of nominalisation processes in Etulo

v. compare Etulo nominalisation patterns with those of other

Benue-Congo languages.

1.4Research Questions

The following questions guide the study:

i. what morphological devices are employed in nominalisation in

Etulo?

ii. what syntactic strategies are used to derive nominalised forms

in the language?

iii. what semantic distinctions do nominalised forms in Etulo

encode?

iv. how productive are nominalisation processes in Etulo?

v. in what ways are Etulo nominalisation patterns similar to or

different from those in related Benue-Congo languages?

1.5Research Hypotheses

Based on the above questions, the study proposes the following

hypotheses:

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H0: Etulo employs both morphological and syntactic strategies in

nominalisation.

H1: Nominalisation in Etulo serves multiple semantic functions,

including agentive, instrumental, resultative, and action-

based meanings.

H2: Certain nominalisation strategies in Etulo are more productive

than others.

H3: Etulo shares some nominalisation features with other Benue-

Congo languages, but also exhibits unique processes.

1.6Significance of the Study

This study is significant in several respects. First, it is the first

comprehensive attempt to investigate nominalisation in Etulo,

thereby enriching the descriptive grammar of a Nigerian minority

language that has received little scholarly attention. By analysing

how Etulo derives nouns from verbs, adjectives, and clauses, the

research contributes valuable data to the growing documentation of

Niger-Congo languages and provides a useful reference material for

students and scholars of linguistics within and outside Benue State

University. Beyond description, the study also holds theoretical

relevance as it supplies empirical evidence that can be used to test

and refine existing morphological and syntactic theories of

nominalisation proposed in typological studies (Koptjevskaja-Tamm,

2002; Grimshaw, 2011; Grimm, 2022). In addition, the research has

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comparative importance since the patterns observed in Etulo can be

compared with those of related Benue-Congo languages such as

Idoma, Tiv, and Igede, thereby contributing to historical and

comparative studies of the Benue-Congo subgroup. From a

sociolinguistic perspective, the study is also timely because Etulo is

a minority and endangered language facing pressures from Tiv,

Hausa, and Nigerian Pidgin; documenting its nominalisation

strategies therefore contributes to language preservation and

sustains cultural identity. Finally, the study carries practical value

for language development since its findings may inform the creation

of orthographies, dictionaries, literacy materials, and teaching

resources for Etulo speakers, while also offering insights that could

be applied in the fields of education, translation, and even

computational linguistics.

1.7Scope of the Study

This study is restricted to the analysis of nominalisation processes in Etulo. Both

morphological strategies (affixation, reduplication, compounding) and syntactic

strategies (clausal nominalisation, zero-derivation) are examined.

The study does not cover other aspects of Etulo grammar such as tense, aspect, or

clause structure, except where they directly interact with nominalisation. Data for the

study are drawn from fieldwork elicitation and naturalistic speech samples from Etulo

speakers in Benue and Taraba States.

1.8Definition of Terms

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For clarity, the following key terms are defined as used in this study:

i. Nominalisation: The linguistic process by which a verb,

adjective, or clause is converted into a noun or noun phrase

(Koptjevskaja-Tamm, 2002).

ii. Morphological nominalisation: Nominalisation achieved

through affixation, reduplication, or other morphological devices.

iii. Syntactic nominalisation: The process of converting whole

clauses or verb phrases into noun-like structures.

iv. Agentive nominalisation: A type of nominalisation that refers

to the doer of an action (e.g., singer from sing).

v. Result nominalisation: A nominalised form referring to the

outcome of an action (e.g., building from build).

vi. Etulo: An Idomoid language of Benue-Congo spoken in Benue

and Taraba States, Nigeria.

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 References

Asante, R. K. (2020). Nominalization in Akan: Morphological and

syntactic perspectives. Ghana Journal of Linguistics, 9(2), 45–70.

Ethnologue. (2023). Etulo. In Eberhard, D. M., Simons, G. F., &

Fennig, C. D. (Eds.), Ethnologue: Languages of the world (26th
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Ezenwafor-Afuecheta, A. (2021). Plural marking in Etulo: A

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Ezenwafor-Afuecheta, A. (2023). Phonological processes and

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Grimm, S. (2022). Nominalization and its interfaces: A cross-

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