Chapter 10 - Jacksonian Democracy, 1820–1840

10.1: A New Political Style: From John Quincy Adams to Andrew Jackson
DEMOCRATIC REFORMS
1. Expansion of Voting Rights (Suffrage Reform)
 One of the most significant democratic reforms was the abolition of property
qualifications for voting.
 In the early Republic (late 1700s), only white men who owned property could
vote — meaning that political participation was limited to the wealthy.
 By the 1820s–1830s, most states removed property requirements, allowing
all white men (not just landowners) to vote.
 This shift dramatically expanded the electorate — millions of working-class white
men gained political power.
 This movement was often called “universal white manhood suffrage.”
Effect:
 It transformed elections from elite affairs into mass public events.
 Politicians now had to appeal directly to ordinary citizens — farmers, mechanics,
and laborers — instead of just elites.
 It also encouraged popular campaigning (parades, rallies, slogans, songs).

2. Rise of Party Organization

 Democratic reforms led to new political party systems.
 The old system (where Congress chose candidates through caucuses) collapsed
after 1824.
 Martin Van Buren and others built organized parties that used loyalty,
newspapers, and patronage (the spoils system) to mobilize voters.
 Ordinary citizens joined local party clubs, attended rallies, and participated in
political culture as never before.
🎯 Effect:
 Politics became more democratic but also more partisan.
 Political machines gained influence, rewarding loyal supporters with jobs and
power.

3. Popular Campaigning and Public Participation

 Elections became mass spectacles — with songs, posters, slogans, and huge
voter turnout.
 Candidates portrayed themselves as “men of the people”, especially Andrew
Jackson.
 Political messages appealed to emotions and identity rather than just policy or
philosophy.

4. Limits of Democracy
 Despite these reforms, democracy remained exclusive.
 Voting rights expanded only to white men — women, Native Americans, and
Black Americans were still excluded.
 In fact, racial prejudice deepened during this period; the “will of the majority”
often meant the will of white voters.
 Many reformers worried that majority rule could become tyranny of the
majority, silencing minorities and dissenters.

5. Broader Impact
  These reforms laid the foundation for Jacksonian Democracy — a political
culture that emphasized equality (for white men), individualism, and distrust of
elites.
 They also redefined what it meant to be an “American citizen” — someone who
participated actively in politics.
 By 1840, mass democracy had become a defining feature of U.S. political life.
PARTY POLITICS AND THE ELECTION OF 1824
1. The Breakdown of the “Era of Good Feelings”
 After the War of 1812, the U.S. entered a period known as the Era of Good
Feelings, when political conflict seemed to fade away because only one major
party — the Democratic-Republicans — remained.
 However, this unity was more illusion than reality. Beneath the surface,
regional tensions and personal rivalries were growing.
 As the country expanded westward and the economy diversified, different regions
began to develop conflicting priorities: industry in the North, slavery and cotton
in the South, and land settlement in the West.
 By the early 1820s, these divisions made it impossible for one party to hold
everyone together.

2. Factionalism within the Democratic-Republican Party

 Because there was no opposition party (the Federalists had collapsed), factions
formed inside the Democratic-Republican Party itself.
 Each faction supported its own leader and vision for America’s future.
o Nationalists wanted a strong central government, internal improvements,
and tariffs.
o States’ rights advocates preferred a weaker federal government and
greater local control.
 These divisions came to a head in the presidential election of 1824.

3. The Candidates and Their Regional Support

 Four main candidates ran, all from the same party but representing different
regional and ideological interests:
o Andrew Jackson – a national war hero from Tennessee, seen as the
champion of the “common man.”
o John Quincy Adams – the son of former President John Adams, favored by
New England and educated elites.
o William H. Crawford – from Georgia, supported by the old Jeffersonian
states’ rights faction.
o Henry Clay – Speaker of the House from Kentucky, the architect of the
American System (tariffs, internal improvements, and a national bank).
 Because of these competing visions, no single candidate could unite the
entire nation.

4. The Election Results and the “Corrupt Bargain”

 When the votes were counted, Andrew Jackson won the most popular and
electoral votes, but not a majority of the electoral college (which is required
by the Constitution).
 Therefore, the House of Representatives had to choose the president from
among the top three candidates (Jackson, Adams, and Crawford).
 Henry Clay, who placed fourth, was eliminated but still held major influence as
Speaker of the House.
  Clay used his influence to support John Quincy Adams, who then won the
presidency.
 Shortly after, Adams appointed Clay as Secretary of State — a position often
seen as a stepping stone to the presidency.
 Jackson and his supporters furiously denounced this as a “Corrupt Bargain,”
claiming Adams and Clay had made a secret deal to cheat the people’s choice.
 This scandal divided the nation and destroyed any remaining unity within the
Democratic-Republican Party.

5. Political Consequences and the Birth of New Parties

 The election of 1824 marked the end of the Era of Good Feelings and the
start of modern party politics.
 Jackson’s followers, angry about the “Corrupt Bargain,” built a new political
movement dedicated to defending the will of the common people — this became
the Democratic Party.
 Adams and Clay’s supporters formed the National Republican Party, which
later evolved into the Whig Party.
 The spirit of democracy was spreading — more states removed property
requirements for voting, allowing ordinary white men to participate.
 The political scene became more competitive, organized, and populist,
setting the stage for the rise of Andrew Jackson in 1828.

10.2 The Rise of American Democracy

THE CAMPAIGN AND ELECTION OF 1828
Background: Expanding Democracy
 By the 1820s, democratic reforms had expanded voting rights — property
requirements were abolished, allowing most White men to vote.
 New political party organizations emerged, helping mobilize ordinary voters.

1. Democratic Reforms and Expansion of the Electorate

 During the early 1800s, democratic reforms gradually eliminated property
qualifications for voting, allowing more white men to participate in elections.
 This marked a major shift from elite-controlled politics toward mass democracy
and popular participation.
 The 1828 campaign reflected this progress by emphasizing the voice of the
“common man” rather than the privileged few.
 Jackson’s supporters contrasted his frontier background with John Quincy
Adams’s aristocratic, intellectual image, summarized by the slogan:
👉 “Adams who can write / Jackson who can fight.”

2. Organization of the Jacksonian Campaign

 The 1828 campaign was unlike earlier elections because it relied on a
strongly organized national party structure.
 Jackson’s team built a network of local and state committees, coordinated
through partisan newspapers and campaign literature.
 From Nashville, Tennessee, Jackson’s headquarters published pro-Jackson
editorials celebrating him as the “Hero of New Orleans” and attacking Adams
as corrupt.
  Though Jackson himself did not campaign widely, he gave one major public
speech in New Orleans on January 8 (anniversary of his 1815 victory) and met
with politicians at his home, the Hermitage.

3. Use of Symbolism and Political Propaganda

 The Jacksonians revived the “Corrupt Bargain” accusation from 1824 —
claiming that Adams and Henry Clay had cheated the people’s will by trading
political favors.
 Political cartoons and newspapers spread this idea; for example, “Symptoms of a
Locked Jaw” mocked Clay as trying to “sew up” Jackson’s mouth, symbolizing
political suppression.
 Such imagery strengthened Jackson’s image as a victim of elite conspiracy and
a defender of popular rights.

4. Local Mobilization and Popular Campaigning

 At the local level, Jackson’s supporters worked tirelessly to mobilize new
voters.
 They organized rallies, parades, and public celebrations, creating a sense of
community and enthusiasm around Jackson’s candidacy.
 Hickory Clubs (named for Jackson’s nickname, Old Hickory) spread across the
country to campaign, distribute literature, and get out the vote.
 These efforts reflected the new democratic culture—mass participation, public
spectacle, and emotional connection to candidates.

5. Election Results and Significance

 In November 1828, Jackson won 56 percent of the popular vote and 68
percent of the electoral vote, defeating John Quincy Adams by a wide margin.
 The victory marked a transfer of power from elite, old-style politics to a new
mass-based democratic party system—the birth of the Democratic Party.
 Like Jefferson’s triumph in 1800, Jackson’s win represented a “revolution of the
people” and the end of politics based on deference to social superiors.
 The 1828 election thus symbolized the climax of expanding democracy and
set the tone for the Jacksonian Era of popular political participation.

10.3 The Nullification Crisis and the Bank War

The Nullification Crisis (1828–1833)

Background
 The Tariff of 1828 (called the “Tariff of Abominations” in the South) imposed high
import duties to protect Northern industries.
 Southerners believed this policy favored Northern manufacturing while
hurting Southern cotton exporters, who depended on imported goods and
foreign markets.
 Many Southerners viewed this as proof that a democratic majority (the North)
could act against minority interests (the South).

Calhoun’s Theory of Nullification

 John C. Calhoun, Vice President under Jackson, secretly wrote “South Carolina
Exposition and Protest” (1828).
  He argued that states had the right to nullify (invalidate) federal laws they
believed unconstitutional.
 This idea aimed to protect Southern sovereignty against federal overreach,
especially fearing future attacks on slavery.

Economic Context
 Cotton prices had fallen drastically—from 31¢ per pound in 1818 to 8¢ in
1831—hurting Southern planters.
 They blamed the tariff for worsening economic hardship.
 Wealthy slaveholders, feeling politically isolated, began to see nullification as a
defense of their economic and social order.

Crisis in South Carolina

 1832: South Carolina passed the Ordinance of Nullification, declaring the 1828
and 1832 tariffs null and void.
 President Andrew Jackson rejected nullification, insisting “The Union must
and shall be preserved.”
 Jackson asked Congress for authority to enforce federal law, leading to the Force
Bill (1833), allowing military action if necessary.
 Meanwhile, Senator Henry Clay proposed the Compromise Tariff of 1833,
gradually lowering duties.
 South Carolina accepted the compromise but symbolically nullified the Force
Bill, showing ongoing resistance.

Significance
 The crisis revealed deep sectional tensions between North and South.
 It highlighted the conflict between states’ rights and federal authority.
 The event foreshadowed future debates over slavery and secession that would
lead to the Civil War

The Bank War (1832–1837)

Background
 The Second Bank of the United States (established 1816) was designed to
stabilize the national economy and regulate currency.
 Many Americans viewed it as a tool of the wealthy elite, incompatible with
democratic ideals.
 President Andrew Jackson, a self-made man, distrusted paper money and
favored hard currency (gold/silver).

The Conflict
 The Bank’s director, Nicholas Biddle, became a symbol of elite arrogance,
claiming to have more power than the President.
 In 1832, Henry Clay and pro-bank politicians pushed for an early recharter of
the Bank.
 Jackson vetoed the bill, calling the Bank “a monster” that made “the rich richer
and the poor poorer.”
 His veto became a popular cause—ordinary citizens saw Jackson as defending
them against corruption.

Aftermath
  Jackson removed federal deposits from the national bank and placed them in
state “pet banks.”
 Biddle retaliated by restricting loans, tightening the money supply and
worsening financial strain.
 Jackson later issued the Specie Circular (1836), requiring land purchases to be
paid in gold or silver.
 Combined with a financial slowdown in Britain, this led to the Panic of 1837—a
severe economic depression.

Significance
 The Bank War represented a clash between democratic populism and
economic centralization.
 Jackson’s actions strengthened the executive branch but destabilized the
economy.
 His policies inspired the rise of a new opposition party—the Whigs.
 The Rise of the Whig Party (from 1834)
 Jackson’s use of power (vetoes, Specie Circular, removal of deposits) led
opponents to call him “King Andrew the First.”
 These opponents formed the Whig Party (named after the British Whigs who
opposed monarchy).
 The Whigs supported:
o A strong federal government
o Internal improvements (roads, canals)
o A national bank and protective tariffs
 In the Election of 1836, Jackson’s chosen successor Martin Van Buren
defeated several Whig candidates, but the Panic of 1837 ruined his presidency.
 The Whigs later regrouped and won the 1840 election with William Henry
Harrison.

10.4 Indian Removal

THE INDIAN REMOVAL ACT (1830)
1. Background and Jackson’s View
 In his first message to Congress, President Andrew Jackson declared that
Native American tribes living within state borders posed a threat to state
sovereignty.
 He referred especially to tribes in Georgia, Alabama, and Mississippi — the
Five Civilized Tribes: the Cherokee, Creek, Choctaw, Chickasaw, and
Seminole.
 These groups had adopted Anglo-American customs — they spoke English,
practiced Christianity, and even owned enslaved people — earning the label
“civilized.”
 Despite their assimilation, many White settlers coveted Native lands, especially
after gold was discovered in Cherokee territory (northern Georgia).
 Whites viewed Natives as racially inferior and incapable of becoming full citizens,
no matter how “civilized” they became.

2. The Indian Removal Act (1830)

 Jackson’s popularity among White settlers and his anti-Native stance led Congress
to pass the Indian Removal Act in 1830.
 The law authorized the forced relocation of the Five Civilized Tribes from their
homes in the Southeast to lands west of the Mississippi River — mainly in
present-day Oklahoma.
 Jackson described the policy as “benevolent,” claiming it would bring peace and
progress — though in reality, it was driven by greed and racism.
 He celebrated that “two important tribes” had already agreed to move, expecting
others to follow.

3. Cherokee Resistance and Legal Battles

 The Cherokee Nation resisted removal and pursued legal action instead of
violence.
 With support from Henry Clay, Daniel Webster, and former Attorney General
William Wirt, they sued the state of Georgia.
  In Cherokee Nation v. Georgia (1831), Wirt argued that the Cherokee were a
foreign nation and that Georgia laws violating their sovereignty should be
stopped.
 The Supreme Court, however, ruled that the Cherokee were not a foreign
nation, and thus could not sue in federal court.
 The next year, in Worcester v. Georgia (1832), missionary Samuel Worcester
challenged Georgia’s law prohibiting Whites from living on Native lands.
 Chief Justice John Marshall ruled in favor of Worcester, stating that the
Cherokee were “distinct political communities” with sovereign rights.
 However, Jackson refused to enforce the ruling, reportedly saying, “John
Marshall has made his decision; now let him enforce it.”

4. The Trail of Tears (1838–1839)

 Without federal protection, the Cherokee and other tribes were forcibly removed
by the U.S. Army.
 About 15,000 Cherokee were marched westward to Oklahoma, and around
4,000 died from disease, hunger, and exposure along the way.
 This tragic journey became known as the Trail of Tears.
 Other tribes — the Creek, Choctaw, Chickasaw, and Seminole — also suffered
forced relocations.

5. Significance
 The Indian Removal Act revealed how majority opinion in a democracy can
oppress a minority when driven by racism and greed.
 It demonstrated the limits of the Supreme Court’s power when the executive
branch refuses to comply.
 The event remains a dark example of how Jacksonian democracy expanded
rights for White men while denying justice to others.

10.5 The Tyranny and Triumph of the Majority

1. Concerns About Majority Rule
 The growth of democracy raised fears that the majority could suppress minority
voices.
 Native Americans and Black Americans were especially vulnerable to majority
oppression.
 Some worried that individual rights and minority opinions would never be safe.
 Mass democracy also transformed how elections and campaigns were run.

2. Alexis de Tocqueville and His Observations

 Background:
o A French aristocrat sent to the U.S. in 1831 to study prison reforms.
o Authored Democracy in America (1835 & 1840).
 Key ideas:
o Admired American equality before the law.
o Believed democracy was an unstoppable global force that would
eventually replace monarchies.
o Warned about the “tyranny of the majority” — where majority rule
could silence minorities and individuality.
o Noted that in America, majority power dominated every level of
government and society.
 o Claimed that Americans lacked “true independence of mind and freedom
of discussion.”

3. The Second Party System

 By 1840, the Democratic and Whig parties had replaced older political parties.
 Political competition became more organized and national in scope.
 Voter turnout increased dramatically — from 25% in 1828 to nearly 80% in
1840.

4. Party Differences
 Whigs: favored federal government action for economic growth and internal
improvements; supported wealthy and business interests.
 Democrats: supported smaller government and portrayed themselves as
defenders of the common man.
 Whigs tended to be upper class (planters, merchants); Democrats represented the
working class.

5. The 1840 Presidential Campaign

 Whigs nominated William Henry Harrison and John Tyler (“Tippecanoe and
Tyler too!”).
 Democrats mocked Harrison as a lazy man content with hard cider in a log cabin.
 Whigs turned the insult into a campaign image — portraying Harrison as a
humble, common man.
 The “Log Cabin Campaign” became famous, featuring parades, songs, and
whiskey (“booze” came from this campaign).
 Whigs blamed Democrats for the Panic of 1837 and economic problems.

6. Outcome and Significance

 Harrison won the election of 1840.
 The campaign marked the beginning of modern mass political campaigning in
the U.S.
 Demonstrated the power of image-making and public participation in democratic
politics.