Cognitive process (10 marks)

Attention
Intelligence
Learning – Definition of learning, types
Memory-
Thinking – types,level, reasoning
Aptitude
Psychometric assessment of cognitive processess introduction
Cognitive process- (Latin word Cognito- Think) Its a Higher mental complex process of Activities
which helps us to understand, interact, interpret the World and SELF.
Types of Cognitive process- Attention, Thought, Perception, Memory, Language, Reasoning,
Problem Solving and Decision Making.

Attention
Intelligence
Learning – Definition of learning, types
Memory-
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Types of Memory[/caption]
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Improve Memory[/caption]

Thinking – types,level, reasoning

Aptitude
Psychometric assessment of cognitive procesess introduction
Alteration in cognitive processesWord perception comes from the Latin word “Percipio” meaning
receiving or collecting, the information from the sensory organ to the brain, which later is
interpreted.
Definitions: A process by which individuals organized and interpret their sensory impressions in
order to give meaning to their environment (Stephen P. Robbins). The brain organizes and interprets
sensory information. refers to the stimuli that our sensory gain from the surrounding it is the
mechanism which enables a person to understand , organize his thoughts and ideas pertaining to his
environment.
Different people looking at the same thing may perceive different ways these are certain factors that
influence an individual’s [Link] 1Factors in the perceiver
Perceiver is the one who makes perception and gives meaning to his environment the personal
characteristics of the perceiver affect the perceptual process.
Attitude - It refers to a feeling manner or judgements with regards to a person's objects or events.
Motives - Individuals select their unsatisfied needs and Desires with extra strong influence on the
perception.
Interest- our focus on a selection of stimuli depends on our interest.
past experience- individuals purchase things based on their experience.
Expectations- it is related to the state of anticipation of a particular behaviour from a [Link]
in the target
size- l target of abnormal size are pursued easily in comparison to others.
intensity- bright light, loud sound, or strong smell can perceive easily.
Fig2motion a moving- object can Pursuit easilycontrast- it refers to the background against which
target is placed.
Fig3
Novelty those targets which are new or unique can perceive easily
Repetition repeated stimulus receives more attention than single one
Proximity- targets which are placed near to each other pursued to be close to each other
Fig 4
similarity- perceiver tends to pursue similar stimuli as a common group.
Fig 5
Factors in the situation
situational factors also affect the perception individuals perceive things according to the situation
and social setting. work setting
time the context in which we see objects or events is also important The time at which an object
event is seen can influence attention as can location light heat or any number of situational factors
for example at a night club on Saturday night you may not notice 22 year old female dress to the
mind yes the same women so attacked for you on Monday morning management class put certainly
Catch your attention of the target change between the started in night and Monday morning but the
situation different
Relation between sensation and perception
sensation the activation of receptors in various five sense organs.
five sensors site are smell, seeing, hearing, taste, and touch.
figure 6.
it is the process by which our sense organs receive information from the environment sensory
organs absorbs energy from physical stimuli in the environment, sensory receptors detect stimulus
energy and convert them neural impulses which are sent to the brain.
Perception the sorting out interpretation analysis and integration of stimuli involving our sense
organs and brain.
the brain organisers this Input and translates into a meaningful. it refers to the occurrence when the
brain performs organisation of information it obtains from the neural impulses and then begin the
process of translational and interpretation it is a vital process that help us to rationalise and make
sense of the information related to the physical stimulus.
relationship and perception are elements that balance and complement one another. they work
together to be able to identify and create meaning from the stimuli related information.
without sensation perception will not be possible except for people who believe in extra sensory
perception or E.S.P and without perception our sensations would remain to be unknown to us since
there is no mental processing of what we sense.
6. Describe sensory disorders explain nursing implications for sensory abnormalities?
Psychology of sensation it is a well-known fact that the human being has five sense organs eyes ear
nose tongue and skin these sense organs are the instruments by which the mind is brought into
relation with external world without this sense organs no information can reach the brain that is the
reason their called as Gateway Of knowledge in this background it may be described that sensation
is a process of shifting of information from sense organs to the brain sensation most of our
behaviour is dependent upon what our sense tell us the brain will evaluate this energy on the basis
past experience and other intellectual abilities and intercept it hence this process of shifting of
stimulus from sense organs to the Brain through the sensory nerve is called as sensation sensory
experience the census the sense organs are as follows vision, hearing, nose all fraction tongue taste
and skin tactile sensation each sensory system is a kind of channel consisting of sensitive element
known as receptors the nail the nerve fibres connect the these receptors to the Brain or via spinal
cord and various relationship areas within the brain in order to know about the world around us
physical energy must be converted into an activity within the nervous system the process of
converting physical energy into an activity within the nervous system is called as transduction
during the transduction process receptor cells convert physical energy into an electrical energy are
through the receptor.
the receptor potential itself directly triggers the nerve impulses that travel to the Brain or the spinal
cord the receptor potential heads to further electrical events which in turn Trigger Maru impulse this
is known as generator potential for any event in the environment thousands of Maru impulses are
generated and conductor to the central nervous system sometimes our sensations are not accurate
because our sense organs are part of the Maru complexes which produce sensations or abnormal
sick or injured when this happens the information we receive is inaccurate and our responses
become up normal disorders sensory modulation disorders sensory based motor disorders sensory
discrimination disorders figure 6 sensory modulation disorder it usually involves over or under
sensitivity of the information avoiding seeking low registration sensory based motor disorders
visual auditory tactile test / smell position or movement in interceptions sensory discrimination
disorders difficulty with moments and Sequencing food postal control figure number 7

Defnition of [Link] organization of perception.

Perception is the experience objects, events or relationships obtained by extracting information
from and inter-preting sensations.
When we perceive the word there are many different stimuli coming in at the same time.
Individuals tend to organize these stimuli into meaningful pattern or whole according to certain
principles. These principles try to explain when and how our minds perceive different visual
components as being part of the same group. The principles explained below area combination of
those proposed originally by Max Wertheimer(1993), Stephen Palmer (1999,2022) and other
contemporary Gestalt theorists.
Principle of figure -Ground Relationship
According to the principal of figure ground relationship a figure perceived in relationship to its
background. The perception of the object or figure in terms of color, size, and intensity etc depends
upon the figure against a background or background against the figure depending up on the
characteristics of the perceiver as well as the relative strength of the perceiver figure or ground
relationship is quite important from the angle of perception of the figure or the ground. In case
where such a relationship does not exist we may witness ambiguity in terms of clear perception.
Principles of grouping
According to Gestalt Principles objects can be perceived meaningfully when they are grouped
together. The following principles make our perception more meaningful.
Principles of proximity
Proximity means nearness. The objects are nearer to each other can be perceived meaningfully by
grouping them.
Principles of similarity: -There is a tendency to perceive objects of a similar size and shape or color
as a unit or figure.
Principles of continuity
Any stimulus which extends in the same direction or shape is perceived as a whole. Our attention is
held more by continuous patterns rather than discontinuous ones.
Principle principles of closure
While confronting an incomplete pattern one tends to complete or choose the pattern or fill in the
sensory gaps and perceive it as a meaningful whole.
Principles of symmetry
Object having symmetrical shape are perceived as group. Example brackets of different shapes
Principles of context
Perception organisation is also a governed by the principal of context for example i.e, an examiner
may award higher marks to the same answer book in a pleasant context then in an unpleasant one.
Principles of contrast
Perceptual organization is much affected through contrast effects as stimuli that are in sharp contrast
to nearby Stimuli may draw our maximum attention and carry different perceptual affects.
Principals of adaptability
The perceptual organisation for some stimuli depends upon the adaptability of the perceiver to
perceive similar stimuli. An individual who adopts a himself to work before an intense bright light
will percieve normal sunlight as quite dim.
Factors affecting perception describe the relationship between the sensation.
There are individual differences in perceptual abilities. Two people may perceive the same stimulus
differently.
Sense organs:-
Perception depends upon the sense organs or receptors on which the stimuli act and the sensory
neurons that transmit the nerve current from the receptors to the sensory area of the brain for
examples if cones are not developed in the area of retina, color cannot be perceived.
Brain:-
Perception depends upon the functioning capacity of both sensory and association areas of the brain
for example if the auditory area is destroyed, we cannot have auditory perception.
Memory Images of the past experience: -
Memory images help us in comprehension of the object or stimulus before us. Generally perception
involves the integration of sensory experience in the light of past experience and present
psychological conditions. Experiments have shown that whenever we come in contact with new
stimuli we are inclined to interpret them in terms of our experiences with the similar stimuli in the
past for example a child has come in contact with a horse for the first time.
We percieve those concerning our interests, attitudes,motives and expectations are mindset quickly
and [Link] acquired interests are also determine the object or objects which we percieve. A
person who has a hobby of collecting the stamps will quickly notice any new stamp on a letter.
Needs and desires:-
Our needs or desires also modify our perceptions. Besides those our beliefs, opinions, and cultural
ideals also modify our perception of things ,situations and objects.
Nature of the Stimuli:-
In addition to the above functional factors ,structural factors that affect the perception are nature of
physical stimuli such as size, background, novelty, motion and proximity of the stimuli and their
arrangements and the neural effects they evoke in the nervous system of the individuals.
Situational Factors:-
The context in which we see objects may influence our perception. These factors include time of the
day, social organization setting.
Intensity of stimulus:- In comparison to a weak stimulus, an intense stimulus attracts more attention
of an individual.
Our attention becomes easily directed to a loud sound, a bright light or a strong smell.
Size of the stimulus :- As a general rule larger objects in the environment are more likely to catch
our attention than the smaller objects.
A small object or a picture on a larger background also attracts attention.
Context change and Novelty:-Change and variety strike attention more easily than a routine
The use of a maps and the charts attract a student’s attention instantly when compared to the routine
verbal talk. Though we do not notice ticking of a clock in the regular course no sooner it stops and
it catches our attention.
Location of Stimulation
The location of a stimulus also affects the attention.
In case of visual stimuli the most effective location is to be right in the front of the eyes for example
advertisements given on the front page or on the upper half of any page attract more attention
Repetition of stimulus :- A repeated stimulus attracts our attention.
Though we may stimulus at the first instance when repeated several times it captures of attention.
But this picture of a repetition should be carefully used
Too much repetition of a stimulus may being diminishing returns.
Movement of stimulus:-A moving stimulus catches our attention more quickly than a stimulus that
does not move.
Define form of the object :-A sharply defined object attracts our attention more than a bead
indefinite object. Also a figure attracts more attention than the background
Isolation of stimulus:-
Isolation is important external determinant of an attention.
A student sitting alone in the corner of the class is seen first attracts more attention then others.
Internal factors or conditions
A person’s attention to a stimulus depends not only upon the characteristics of a stimulus or the
favorable environmental conditions but also upon the interest, motives, and the basic needs urges
etc.
Interest and attention:-
Interest is a way very helpful factor in sewing the attention also attends the objects in which is the
interested then those in which we are not interested.
Motives:-
The basic drives and urges of the individuals are very important in securing attention.
Thirst, hunger, sex, curiosity, fear are some of the important motives that exercise definite influence
upon attention.
Mental set -up
A person always attends to those objects towards which his mind has a leaning.
ex:- On the day of examination the slightest thing concerning the examination easily attracts the
attention of the students.
Past experience: -
Learning and previous experience facilitate attention.
If we know by our past experience that are particular person is sincere to us we pay attention to
what ever he advices.
Emotion:-
The emotional state of a person determines the level of attention. ex. A person attends only to bad
qualities of hos enemy.
Habit
It is also an important determinant of attention
A man develops that habit of attending to a necessary and desirable things and on the other hand
also develops a habit of not attending to unnecessary and undesirable things.
Aim:-
Every man has some immediate and ultimate aims
Thus a student where whose aim is to pass the examination will attend the attend to text books and
notes regularly.
Meaning:-
In comparison to meaningless stimuli meaningful stimuli attracts more attention.
Both are important internal factors which attract attention. example:- A man with religious
disposition and spiritual temperature will attend the religious matters sincerely.
An example of sense perception is someone knowing what fruit they are eating after tasting it.
The relation between sensation and perception is the interpretation of information from the
environment. So that we can identify its meaning.
Sensation usually involves sensing the existence of a stimulus. whereas perceptual systems involve
the determination of what is a stimulus.
Although perception relies on the activation of sensory reports, perception happens not at the level
of the sensory receptor but at the higher levels in the nervous system in the brain.
Sensation and perception affect people’s understanding of the environment like sensation provides
information about the physical and the perception interprets those physical sensation from the
environment.
The two psychological process sensation and perception important in observation.
Most psychologists believe that sensation is an important fact of bottom-up processing. This means
that sensation occurs when the sensory organs transmit information towards the brain and the other
hand perception is a pact of top - down processing.
Nursing implementation of sensory process and perception
The role of a registered nurse in assessing sensory perception is identify time, place and stimuli
surrounding the appearance of symptoms.
Asset client to develop strategies for dealing with sensory and thought disturbance.
Provide case for a client experiencing visual auditory or cognitive detection: - (Hallucinations)
Provide case in a non-threatening and non-judgmental.
Sensory perception is the perception simply implies the use of the senses in one possession to gain a
battle understanding of the wound around the us.
An individual or organism capable of processing the stimuli in their environment is called to have a
sensory perception:-for sensory perception is understanding gained through the use of one of the
senses such as sight, taste, touch or hearing.
An example of sense perception is someone knowing what song is playing on the radio after hearing
it
Factors influencing the attention?
External factor-: Nature of stimulus, intensity of stimulus, size of the stimulus and size of contest
change and the novelty, location of the stimulus, repetition of stimulus, movement of stimulus,
definite form of the object, isolation of stimulus
Internal factors:- Interest and attention motives, mental setup, past experience, emotion,l habit aim
meaning and disposition and temperature.
External (objective) Those found in ones environment.
Internal (subjective) Those within the person himself.
External factors or conditions
Nature of the stimulus:-All types of stimuli do not evoke the same degree of attention.
An attractive stimulus should always be chosen for capturing maximum attention
It has been found that comparison to the other sensations color and sound attract more attention.
Nursing implications of thinking
Critical thinking is applied by nurses in the process of solving problems of patients and decision
making process with a creativities to enhance the effect. It is an essential process for a safe efficient
and skillful nursing intervention .Critical thinking according to Sc riven and Paul is the mental
active process and subtle perception analysis and synthesis and evaluation of information collected
or derived from observation, experiences and reflexion reasoning or the communication leading to
the conviction for action.
Nurses must adopt positions that promote critical thinking and serine skills of critical reasoning in
order to meaningful assessment of both the previous and the new information and decisions taken
daily on hospitalization and use of limited resources forces you to think and act in the cases neither
a clear answer nor specific procedures and where opposing forces transform decision making in a
complex process.
Critical thinking applies to nurses as they are diverse multi faced knowledge to handle the various
situations encountered during the shift still face constant changes. In an environment with a
constant stress of changing conditions and make important decisions using critical thinking to
collect and interpret information that are necessary for making a decision.
Critical thinking, combined with the creativity resine the result as nurses can find a specific
solutions to specific problems with the creativities, taking place where tradition interventions are
not effective even with creativities, nurses generate new ideas quickly, get flexible and natural
create original solutions to problems, act independently and with the confidence even under
pressure and demonstrate the origins
Characteristics of perception
Perception is a process:perception is essentially a process rather than a product and outcome or
some psychological phenomenon.
Perception is information extractor: Our sensory receptors are born badder continuously by various
stimuli present in our environment perception forms the duty by extracting the relevant information
Perception is preparation to response: Perception is the first step towards the active behavior of an
organism. Our sensory receptors are just the receiving and transmitting centres the sensory
information,
Perception involves sensations: The relationship between sensation and the perception are directly
what we do have in sensation is always a part of perception.
perceptions provides organization in addition to the help provided in the deriving meaning to
sensory impression, perception also helps in its proper arrangement and organization.
Perception is highly individualized: Perception of one individual dissects significantly from another
person in the same situation. Different individuals do not perceive objects events or [Link]
much me same way event individual perceptions of the same event may vary.
Principles of perception organization.
Principle of figure - ground relationship: According to principals of figure ground relationship a
figure is the perceived in relationship to its background, the perception of the object or figure in
terms of color, size and shape and ancient intensity etc. depends upon the figure ground relationship
,we perceive a figure against a background or background against a figure depending up on the
characteristics of the perceive as well as the relative strength of the figure or ground. A proper
figure ground relationship is quite important from the angle of perception of the figure or the
ground. In case of where a relationship does exist we may witness ambiguity in terms of clear
perception.
Principles of grouping:-According to the Gestalt principle objectives can be perceived meaningfully
when they are group together the following principles make our perception more meaningful.
Principles of proximity:- Proximity means nearness. The objects which are nearer to each other can
be perceived meaningfully by grouping them. We use three sets of two lines each and not six
separate lines
Principles of similarity:- There is attend to perceive objects of a similar size and shape or color or
unit or figure we use vertical colors of circles and square.
Principles of continuity:- Any stimulus which extends in the same direction or shape is perceived as
a whole. Our attention is held more continuous ones we see a curved line with small semi – circles
above ana below.
Principles of closure:- While confronting and incomplete pattern one tends to complete or close the
pattern one tends to complete or close the pattern or fill in sensory gaps and perceive it as a
meaningful whole. This type of organization is extremely helpful in making the valuable
interpretation of various incomplete objects. Patterns or stimulus present in our environment.
This lines in may well be perceived as a curve and a square.
Principles of symmetry: Objects having symmetrical shape or perceived as groups for example
brackets of different shapes show in are perceived meaningfully because of the symmetrical ones
are grouped together.
Principles of context;- Perceptual organization is also governed by the principles of context that is
an examiner may award higher marks to the same answer book in a pleasant context than in an un
pleasant one.
Principles of contrast:- Perceptual organization is much affected through a contrast effects as stimuli
that are in sharp contrast to nearby stimuli may draw our maximum attention and carry different
perceptual affects for example the surrounding circles in make the central circle seem larger than
the central circle in even though the two are of the same size.
Principles of adaptability:- The perceptual organization for some stimuli depends upon the perceive
to perceive similar stimuli, an individual who adopts himself to a work before an intense bright light
will perceive normal sunlight as quite dim.
Varieties of attention:- There are two main types of attention voluntary (volitional) and involuntary
(non-volitional).
Voluntary attention
Voluntary attention demands a conscious effort on our part for example solving and assigned
problem in mathematics or ensuring a question in an examination needs voluntary attention.
It is further sub divided into two categories.
Implicit, Explicit ,Enforce and Spontaneous
Implicit volitional attention:- A single act of will is responsible for arousing the attention for
example a teacher assigns practice work to a child and warns of punishment, if not completed this
can be make him a exercise his will power attend to the assigned task and finish it properly.
Explicit volitional attention
attention is obtained by repeated acts of will hard struggle is essential to keep oneself attentive. It
requires strong motive will power under keen attention for the accomplishment of the task for
example the attention paid during the examination days for a good grades
Involuntary attention
This type of attention is a roused without the play of will or without making a conscious effort on
our parts for example we give voluntary attention to a loud sounds, bright lights and a strong orders
etc.
Involuntary or non- volitional attention aroused by the instincts is called enforced non-volitional
attention for example giving attention out of curiosity.
Non volitional attention aroused by sentiments is called spontaneous non volitional attention for
example we give an automatic or spontaneous attention to an object idea or a person around which a
sentiments are formed.
Alteration in cognitive process
Distraction means any stimulus whose presence interferes with the process of attention or draws
away attention from the object which we used to attend these attractions in attention reduce the
efficiency of work.
Sources of distraction
The sources of distraction vary very much. They affect and individual according to his own mental
setup and personality characteristics. The sources of distraction can be classified into external
factors and internal factors
External factors :-Noise ,music, improper lighting ,uncomfortable seats, unfavorable temperature
inadequate ventilation, defective methods of teaching and defective voice of teacher etc
Internal factors:- Emotional disturbance, ill health, boredom, lack of motivation, fatigue etc.
The nurse should take a great to get away all possible causes of distractions working area so as to
sustain attention.
Types of distraction
Continuous distraction:- The distraction is continuous in nature for example the sound of a radio
played continuously the noise at the market place etc experiments how shown the adjustment of to
continuous distraction takes place quickly.
Discontinuous distraction:- The distraction is irregular in nature for example the hearing of
somebody voice every now and then it interfes with the work because of the impossibility of
adjustment.
Some major means of removing the distraction are
Being active in work, disregard for distraction, making the distraction a part of the work.
Attention
Attention is defined as a process which compels the individual to select some particular stimulus
according to his interest and attitude out of the multiplicity of stimuli present in the environment.
Attention is the ability to actively process the specific information in the environment while turning
out other details. Attention is limited to in terms of both capacity and duration. So it is important to
have ways to effectively manage the attentional resources we have available in order to make a
sense of world.
Factors of Attention.
Internal factors or condition-personal interest or not interest
Interest and attention-
motives-Biological drives-thirst,hunger,sex,curiesity,fear.
mental set up-person always attends to those objects which he has a learning.
ex-examination-easily grabs the attention
past experience-previous expiernce facilitate attention.
Emotion-It determines the level of [Link] gives attention only to bad qualities of his
enemyor on good things on his close friends.
Habits-develops attention if it necesssary to get desirable things.
Aim-For immediate and ultimate aims.
Meaning-meaning full stimuli attract more attention.
Disposition(natural tendency)and temparment religious dispositionand spirutual temporment will
attend to religious matters sincerely.
Duration and Degree of Attention.
span of attention
span of visual attention-more normal of items or objects and a very short time mind can grass whole
meaning full things,familiar things.
span of auditory attention-perciency sounds-it is a rythenic more number sounds can percieve.
Duration of Attention-how long can give attention on objects without giving break.
Sustained Attention(ACT OF FIXATION OF MIND)Concentrating one's activity continously upon
some objects or a happening or a problem.
Shifting Attention-not possible to pay attention on one object continuosly when it is moving or
voluntary [Link]-tv movie+add.
Division of Attention-2 or more tacks [Link] is not [Link] will give-reason
may be ain performing two tasks simultaneously one of the two activities requires no attention at
all.
Attention rapidly shifts from one to the other.
Altrations in Attention(Distraction)-Distraction means any stimulus whose presence interferes with
the process of attention or draws away attention from object which we wish to attend.
Sources of distraction-External factors-noise music improper lighting, un comfortable seats un
favourable temperature,inadequate ventilation, detective methods of teaching,detective voice of
teacher.
Internal-Emotional disturbances ,ill health,boredom,lack of motivation,fatigive etc.
Types of [Link] distraction-continuous in nature ex-sound of mick
set,[Link] place-experiments shown that adjustment to continuous distraction takes place
quickly.
Discontinuous distraction-irregular in [Link]-hearing some voicein between it is interferes to
work be not able to adjustment.
Removing distraction-Being active in work -disregard for distraction,makring the distraction apart
of the work.
Extra sensory perception :-Detecting the information in some way other than through the normal
processes of sensation said to include telepathy, clairvoyance and precognition.
Three kinds of extra sensory perception
Telepathy - mind to mind communication.
Clairvoyance -Perceiving remote events- sense a friend hurt in a car accident.
Precognition receiving the future events.
Psychokinesis:- ‘mind over matter’ such as levitating things
Illusion :-It is Misinterpretation of actual perception when the interpretation of a particular stimulus
goes wrong. It gives a rise to a wrong perception or illusion for example a rope in the dark is
perceived as a snake or vice versa. The voice of an unknown person is mistaken of a friend voice
and unknown person is mistaken as a friend's voice. An unknown person standing at a distance may
be perceived as known person..
Illusions are caused by inadequacies of our sense organs distance of the object from the sense organ
which perceived misleading stimuli in the environment or perceived notions and expectancy.
Laws of proximity:- Laws of proximity describe how is the human eye perceives connections
between the visual elements.
Elements that are closed to each other or perceived to be related when compared with a elements
that are separate from each other.
proximity is a very important part of the making a text easy to read.
Ex:- A headline must have more space before then after. By being closer to the section it belongs it
feels more connected to it a line light is a another example.
INTELLIGENCE THEORIES
SPEARMAN’S TWO FACTOR THEORY
Charles Spearman (1863-1945), an English psychologist and the originator of factor analysis was
the first to claim that intelligence consists of general ‘g’ factor and specific‘s’ factors. His theory is
known as ‘Two Factor Theory’(1904).One of his major contributions to the history of psychology is
the development and use of ‘factor analysis’.
He used the techniques of factor analysis and corelational analysis to find out the ‘g’ and ‘s’ factor.
Factor analysis involves finding out the correlation of related variables, and then grouping the
variables to form clusters and derive the underlying factors. Thus a larger number of variables are
reduced to a lesser number of factors. In his book, ‘The Abilities of Man’ (1927), Spearman
elaborated that all intellectual activities share a single common factor that runs through all the
activities a person performs during his life. Spearman called this general factor as ‘mental energy’
which determined innately. A person cannot be trained to have a higher ‘g’factor. It is a part of who
they are. People possess general intelligence or ‘g’ in varying degrees. On the basis of this general
intelligence, we describe a person as either intelligent or dull. This ‘g’ is the major determinant of
one’s score in any intelligence test. In addition to this general or ‘g’ factor, he recognised the
specific factors, each called ‘s’, which are specific to different abilities. For example, test of
arithmetic, spatial relationships, verbal fluency, each of these specific intelligence measure a
separate ‘s’. An individual’s intelligence score reflects the amount of ‘g’ plus the magnitude of
various ‘s’ factors possessed by the individual. For example, one’s performance in spatial
intelligence test would be a function of a person’s general intelligence (g) and his spatial ability (s).
Spearman statistically analysed the interrelation among various scores obtained by different
individuals on various tests.A positive correlation between any two test or mental function implies a
factor common to both or ‘g’ and two specific factors ‘s’. Spearman’s theory states that the
objective of psychological tests should be to measure individual’s ‘g’as it runs through all the
abilities and predicts individual’s performance. Individuals differ on the basis of ‘g’ they possess.
Figure 4aF: ‘g’ and ‘s’ factors of Spearman’s Two Factor Theory Spearman has often been criticised
for his factor analytic approach to intelligence which was purely psychometric and ignored the
cognitive basis of intelligence.
Louis Thurstone (1935) objected to Spearman’s emphasis on general intelligence. He suggested that
intelligence can be divided into a number of primary abilities by using factor analysis However, the
contribution of Spearman to the field of psycology remains valuable his model of two factor theory
introduced factor analysis in psychology.
THURSTONE’S THEORY OF INTELLIGENCE Louis Leon Thurstone (29 May 1887 – 30
September 1955) suggested that intelligence is a composite of seven distinct primary mental
abilities (PMA). He recognizes the diversity of human abilities. Using improved statistical
techniques he developed a new factor model of intelligence. He analyzed the inter-correlation of the
scores of 57 tests on a large group subjects, and identified seven factors. These factors were called
primary mental abilities or PMA. These are described as follows:
[Link] Reasoning: The ability to find rules or the logical reasoning ability. It is the ability to
find general rules and principles from the given information.
[Link]: The ability to memorize and recall. It is the ability to memorize events, list of words,
mathematical formulas, dates, definitions etc.
[Link] Ability: The ability to solve arithmetic problems. It is the ability to use numbers with
speed and accuracy, to compute answers to mathematical problems.
[Link] Speed: The ability to visualize details rapidly (grasp perceptual details quickly and
accurately, to see differences and similarities among things).
[Link] Relations: The ability to understand relationship. The ability to visualise and manipulate
different geometric patterns, forms and imaginary objects in space.
[Link] Comprehension: The ability of reading comprehension; define and understand words,
concepts, ideas; verbal reasoning.
[Link] Fluency: The ability to produce words rapidly, i.e., to use words quickly and fluently in
performing tasks like naming word, rhyming, solving cross word puzzles. Thurstone views each of
these mental abilities as independent of each other. Each of them can be assessed separately and
there cannot be a single score for intelligence. He suggests a cognitive ability profile for the
individual rather than a single IQ score.
GUILFORD’S STRUCTURE OF INTELLECT (SI)
THEORY Joy Paul Guilford, an American psychologist, was born in March 7, 1897 in Marquette,
Nebraska. Unlike Spearman, Guilford believed that intelligence is a combination of multiple
activities. Traditional models prior to Guilford proposed intelligence as a monolithic and global
attribute. By the 1950’s, he tried to develop a system to classify the new mental abilities being
discovered and the first version of the Structure of Intellect (SI) model was presented. This model
was based on factor analysis. He argued that intelligence consists of numerous intellectual abilities.
He first proposed a model with 120, later on revised to 180 independently operating factors in
intelligence. In this Structure of Intellect Model, all the mental abilities were organized along three
dimensional framework: Content, Operations, and Product. This model is represented as a ‘cube’
with each of the three dimensions occupying one side (5×6×6 = 180 specific abilities). Thus, there
are Theories of Intelligence 83 feature of intellectual task: the content dimension which includes
broad areas of information; the operations dimension which includes the operations or general
cognitive or mental activities, and the products dimension which contains results of applying
particular operations to specific contents. Thus this model is also called 3- dimensional model
represented in the form of a cube. The Contents Dimension The contents dimension includes the
broad areas of information to which human intellect operations are applied. Initially, these included
only four categories, later on auditory and visual were serated making it five content dimensions.
1)Visual – information perceived through seeing or the information arising from the stimulation of
retina in the form of an image. 2) Auditory – information perceived through hearing or information
arising from the stimulation of cochlea of the inner ear as a sound. (Figural: Information that is non-
verbal or pictorial, later divided into Visual and Auditory) 3) Symbolic – information perceived as
symbols or signs that stand for something else, has no meaning by themselves (Arabic numerals,
letters of an alphabet, musical and scientific notations). 4) Semantic – concerned with verbal
meaning and ideas.5) Behavioural – information perceived as acts or behaviour of people. 4.5.2 The
Operations Dimension As the name suggests, this consists of six operations or general intellectual
processes:1)Cognition – the ability to understand, comprehend, discover, and become awareof
[Link] Aptitude8 2) Memory recording – the ability to encode information.3)
Memory retention – the ability to recall information.4) Divergent production – the ability to
generate multiple solutions to a problem;creativity.5) Convergent production – the ability to deduce
a single solution to a problem; rule-following or problem-solving.6) Evaluation – the ability to
judge whether or not information is accurate, consistent or valid.4.5.3 The Products Dimension
The products dimension contains results of applying particular operations to specific contents.
There are six kinds of products in increasing complexity, they are:
1)Units – represents a single item of information or knowledge.
2)Classes – a set of items that share some common attributes.
3) Relations – represents a connection between items or variables; may be linked as opposites or in
associations, sequences, or analogies.
4) Systems – an organization of items or networks with interacting parts.
5)Transformations – changes perspectives, conversions, or mutations to knowledge; such as
reversing the order of letters in a word.
6) Implications – predictions, inferences, consequences, or anticipations of knowledge.
Each task accomplished by a person includes a particular type of content, mental operation and a
product. For example a test of recall on ‘the movements undertaken by Gandhiji during the freedom
struggle’ includes the ‘semantic’ aspect of content dimension as it involves information using words
or sentences, ‘memory’ is the process dimension and ‘relation’ of the sequence of events is the
product dimension. As there are 5 types of contents, 6 types of operations and 6 types of products,
resulting in 180 (5×6×6) types of distinct mental abilities among which more than 100 have been
empirically verified.
Guildford’s structure theory of intelligence has been criticised for being too [Link] the
practical point of view, Guildford’s factors are so narrow and specialised that they have little value
of prediction in vocational and educational guidance. Despite all these criticism, his theory is a
significant contribution to the field of research on intelligence.
CATTELL’S THEORY OF INTELLIGENCE
Raymond Cattell (March 20, 1905 - February 2, 1998) is a British psychologist who proposed that
two types of intelligence constitute the g (Cattell, 1971). These are fluid intelligence (gf) and
crystalized intelligence (gc). Fluid intelligence refers to the ability for abstract and logical thinking,
and does not require any prior knowledge. Thus it involves the ability to think and reason a stractly
and solve any new task or problem independent of any past knowledge or experience in it. It helps
one to analyze a novel problem, perceive the relationships and patterns that underlie the problem
and solve it using logic. Though grows rapidly during the early years of life, fluid intelligence tends
to decline during later years of life. It can be measured by tests of puzzle solving, block
Theories of Intelligence
designs and spatial visualization. The Cattell Culture Fair IQ tests, The Raven’s Progressive
Matrices are the measures of Gf. In contrast to the fluid intelligence (gf), which is more hereditary,
crystallized intelligence (gc) depends on past learning and experience; it is acquired. Thus, gc
increases with age and experience and gf declines gradually.
Crystallized intelligence refers to knowledge that one gains through learning, past experience,
acculturation and the ability to use that acquired knowledge. It is one’s life
time intellectual achievement and improves with age. More the knowledge and information you
gain, more the stronger it becomes. It can be measured through tests of general knowledge, use of
language (vocabulary) and a wide variety of acquired skills (Horn & Cattell,1967). Fluid
intelligence grows rapidly during the early years of life but crystallized intelligence grows
throughout the life span.

GARDNER’S THEORY OF MULTIPLE INTELLIGENCES

Howard Gardner (1983), an American Psychologist, proposed the theory of multiple intelligences.
There are multiple intelligences with autonomous intelligence capacities.” So, intelligence cannot
be viewed as a single entity. There are different types of intelligences which are independent of each
other. Further, people may have varied combinations of these intelligences. According to Gardner
(1999), intelligence is much more than IQ as high IQ in the absence of productivity does not equate
to [Link] initially proposed eight Intelligence and Aptitude types of intelligence which
later on he increased to nine. Thus Gardner views each individual as a unique combination of
various intelligences, hence we cannot say that one is more intelligent and another is less intelligent.
Each one of us is talented in unique ways. The utility and value of each type of intelligence is
culturally determined in the sense that individual’s intelligent performance is determined according
to the high desirability, usefulness and demands of society for particular types of intelligence. For
instance, one type of intelligence highly valued in a particular society may be of little significance
in another. Let us briefly discuss the nine types of intelligence as given by Gardner. Figure 4cF:
Gardner’s Theory of Multiple Intelligence's Linguistic Intelligence refers to the ability to use
language. It is the capacity to use spoken and written words in a skilled way. Individuals with high
verbal/linguistic intelligence are very good in using words and language to express themselves,
articulate things and create. They can use language fluently and flexibly and creatively. They can
learn various languages easily. Poets, writers, lawyers, journalists, teachers, politicians,
philosophers and speakers are very strong in this component of intelligence. Robert Frost, William
Wordsworth, William Shakespeare, Gulzar, R.K. Narayan, Chetan Bhagat are some people high on
linguistic intelligence. Logical-mathematical Intelligence is the ability to use logical reasoning and
mathematical ability. Individuals high on this intelligence have good abstract reasoning, critical
thinking, and good in dealing with numbers. This type of intelligence correlates well with the
traditional notion of intelligence. Scientists, engineers, physicist, economists are people with high
logical-mathematical intelligence. They are good in mathematics, calculations, numbers and
computer programming. Albert Einstein, Archimedes, C.V. Raman and Amartya Sen are examples
of people high in this area of intelligence.
Musical Intelligence is the ability to use rhythms, sounds and patterns to create, compose and
perform music. It involves sensitivity to music, and the ability to recognise and manipulate musical
patterns. People with high musical intelligence are likely to be singers, music composers,
instrumentalists and musicians. Yehudi Menhuin, Ludwig van Beethoven, Michael Jackson, W.A.
Mozart, [Link], Lata Mangeshkar, R.D. Burman, Zakir Hussain are some examples of
people with high musical intelligence.
Theories of Intelligence
Bodily-kinesthetic Intelligence is the ability to use and control one’s body movements and actions.
Dancers and sports persons are usually high in such intelligence. Further, it is also required in
surgery and crafts making as it involves skills and dexterity for fine motor movements. People with
high bodily-kinesthetic intelligence can become good athletes, actors, sports persons, acr bats, yoga
practitioners, surgeons, police officers and soldiers. Cricketers like Bradman, Tendulkar, dancer Pt.
Birju Maharaj, Sonal Mansingh, Sanjukta Panigrahi, Madhuri Dixit, Rekha, acrobat Rosa Maria
Ritcher, Olympic medallist P.T. Usha, Vijendra Singh demonstrate high bodily-kinaesthetic
intelligence.
Spatial Intelligence is the capacity to perceive, understand and use spatial and visual information
effectively. Such people are good in spatial orientation, forming visual images and patterns. They
can easily visualise the world with the mind’s eye, modify the surrounding based upon their
perception and recreate aspects of their visual experiences. They are good at remembering images,
figures, faces, fine details and visualise things from different angles. People with high visual/spatial
intelligence are likely to be architects, painters, interior designers, surgeons, pilots, drivers and
sailors. M. F. Husain, Amrita Sher-gil, Michael Angelo, Leonardo da Vinci and I.M. Pei are
examples of some people with good spatial intelligence.
Interpersonal Intelligence refers to the ability to understand others and social interactions. They can
understand the emotions and the perspectives of others and relate well to others. They are able to
establish good interpersonal relationships with others. They have good and effective communication
skills. They also show sensitivity and empathic understanding towards others. People with high
interpersonal intelligence tend to be social workers, managers, psychologists, nurses, counsellors,
politicians, leaders, teachers, reformers and spiritual gurus. Some examples of such people are
Mother Teresa, Mahatma Gandhi, Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan, Raja Rammohun Roy, Sri Sri Ravi
Shankar and Mata Amritanandamayee.
Intrapersonal Intelligence is the ability to understand oneself and know one’s thoughts, emotions,
feelings, motives and desires, and how these influence their behaviour. It includes awareness about
one’s strengths, limitations, goals and ambitions in life. Such intelligence includes one’s
introspective and self-reflective capacities. Such people are usually introverted, intuitive type, love
to work alone and are least affected by any external events. Various people-oriented careers require
intrapersonal intelligence, e.g., psychologists and spiritual leaders like Swami Vivekananda,
Ramakrishna Paramahansa and Sri Aurobindo. Philosophers and writers also have strong
intrapersonal intelligence.
Naturalistic Intelligence is the ability to recognize and understand the various patterns in nature. It
includes sensitivity to the nature with all its features including flora, fauna
and all the biodiversity. Gardner has added this eighth type of intelligence to his original seven
intelligences.
Such people appreciate the beauty of nature and the subtle aspects of nature. Hunters, farmers, bird
watchers, botanists, biologists, tourists and gardener are high in this aspect of intelligence. Charles
Darwin, a naturalist and best known for his contribution to the science of evolution with his book
‘On The Origin of Species’ is an example of a person with high naturalistic intelligence.
Existential Intelligence Gardner (1998) added existential intelligence as the ninth intelligence which
refers to the sensitivity and capacity to tackle deep questions beyond sensory data and about human
existence such as meaning of one’s life, why have we Intelligence and Aptitude come to this world,
why do we die, where do we go after death etc. It concerns the ‘big picture’ in life and the ultimate
truth of [Link] and philosophers are high on this aspect of intelligence. According to
Gardner, each of these “intelligences” has a specific set of observable and measurable abilities. The
first two abilities, i.e., linguistic and logical-mathematical intelligence, strongly contribute to the
performance in traditional school system and in the academic achievement; usually promoted more
in our societies. The next three intelligences, namely, bodily-kinaesthetic, musical and spatial
intelligence are usually associated with arts and is high among people like singers, musicians,
dancers, athletes, architects, designers, actors and others who make the world beautiful with these
capacities and skills. Our traditional school system usually ignores these intelligences, and thus
many children high on these capacities do not get enough scope to pursue their interest. Gardner’s
theory suggests that equal focus should be given to other intelligences and for optimal use of one’s
potentials. His theory is applied in an experimental program called project spectrum spanning from
1984 – 1993 by Gardner which aims at developing a comprehensive educational system where the
elementary school children get an opportunity to explore their strengths and weaknesses by being
assigned into different sections of specific intelligences. You can refer to the following link for
further details: [Link]/projects/project spectrum
STERNBERG’S TRIARCHIC THEORY OF
INTELLIGENCE
Among other theories of intelligence is a theory proposed by Robert Jeffery Sternberg (born in 8th
December, 1949), an American psychologist from Yale university. He is a new generation cognitive
psychologist who attempts to understand the cognitive processes involved in solving problems.
Sternberg defined human intelligence as the cognitive
ability to learn from experience, to reason well, to remember important information, and to cope
with the demands of daily living. Thus, it involves reasoning, problem solving ability, knowledge,
memory and successful adaptation to one’s surroundings (Sternberg, 2004). He viewed intelligence
as how well an individual deals with environmental changes throughout their life span.
Sternberg (1988a) formulated the ‘triarchic theory of intelligence’ which theorizes that there are
three types of intelligence such as (a) Componential or analytical intelligence, (b) Experiential or
creative intelligence, and (c) Contextual or practical intelligence.
TRIARCHIC THEORY
Componential
Subtheory
Metacomponents
Performance
Knowledge
acquisition
Experiential
Subtheory
Novelty
Automation
Contextual
Subtheory
Adaptation
Selection
Shaping
Figure 4dF: Sternberg’s Triarchic Theory
Theories of
Intelligence8 6
1)Componential or analytical intelligence refers to the ability to break down the problem into
components and analyze things for problem –solving. It refers to the internal mechanisms used in
problem solving. It reflects the traditional conceptualization of intelligence and relates more to the
academic achievement. It is also called as being ‘book smart’.They are good in problem solving and
abstract reasoning.
Analytical intelligence or academic problem solving skills consists of three components such as
metacomponents, performance components and knowledge acquisition components.
Metacomponents are the executive part which controls the other two components. They control and
monitor the cognitive processing. They tell the performance components what to do. Performance
components
help in performing a task or solving a problem. Thus it uses attention, coding , memory etc.
Knowledge acquisition components help in acquiring knowledge and uses different strategies for it.
Experiential or creative intelligence refers to new ways of problem solving by engaging in divergent
thinking. It uses prior knowledge and experience to come up with new ideas and solve problems. It
includes two components: Automation and novelty. Automation means some aspects of information
processing are automated, they do not require much attention, effort or energy. They can run parallel
to other processes. This enables the individual to use cognitive resources or coming up with novel/
new ideas.
3) Contextual or practical intelligence refers to the ability to use information to function effectively
in life. It is also known as ‘street smart’ or being high on ‘common sense’. It is the ability to
understand and deal with everyday situation and events successfully. It is the ability to adapt, adjust
and change depending on the contextual requirements. Thus they can handle real life problems.
It includes the components/subtheories of adaptation, shaping and selection. As Sternberg states,
“Intelligence is purposive adaptation to, shaping of, and selection of real-world environments
relevant to one’s life” (Sternberg, 1984). Adaptation takes place when one makes changes within
oneself to adjust to a new environment. For example, an intelligent person upgrades himself by
learning new technologies to improve his employability.
Shaping occurs when one changes one’s environment according to his requirement. For example,
the person may try to change the attitude of the employer or impress the selection committee.
Selection is done when a completely new environment is replaced with the older ineffective one.
For example, the person may do a new course and try for another field or migrate to a place where
there is better job opportunity. An important asset of this theory is to avoid defining intelligence in
terms of intelligence tests as in the case of analytical intelligence. Rather, contextual/practical
intelligence focuses on performance in the everyday world.
PASS THEORY OF INTELLIGENCE
The PASS theory of intelligence developed by J P Das et. al. (Das, Naglieri & Kirby, 1994)
follows an information processing approach. The PASS stands for Planning,Arousal-Attention,
Simultaneous and Successive processing. The theory is based on Luria’s (1973) conception of three
functional units of brain. The first unit is concernedwith cortical arousal and attention, and is
located in the brain stem and the reticular activating system. The second unit involves coding of
information, either simultaneousor successive coding/processing. Thus it deals with how we
receive, store and analyzethe information. Simultaneous processing of information is represented by
a holistic or comprehensive approach to processing of information. It is associated with the o cipital
and parietal lobe of the brain. Successive processing refers to processing of information in a
sequential way and is carried out by frontal-temporal part of the brain. The third
unit deals with planning which includes decision making, self monitoring, self regulation and
problem solving. It is broadly located in the prefrontal area of the brain. As you see in the Figure
4eF below, the individual first receives the input from the sensory organs, and the external
environment; the central processing mechanisms (the attention-arousal, simultaneous-successive
processing, and planning) are activated then and process the inputs; finally, after the information is
processed, it results in output. According to J P Das, all the four processing mechanisms operate in a
knowledge base which consists of the past experiences, learning, emotion, motivation of the
individual and the socio-cultural background of the individual.
Theories of
Intelligence
Figure 4eF: PASS Theory of J P Das
Thus the PASS model presents a comprehensive model of intelligence. It integrates the
neuropsychological aspects, cognitive and psychometric approaches to intelligence.
Further, it views intelligence in a contextual background through knowledge base. PASS theory has
identified processes involved in intellectual ability and provided various tests to measure
intelligence. The Das-Naglieri cognitive assessment system (CAS) is a comprehensive assessment
that includes tests to assess each of the four components of the PASS model. It also provides
remedial measures in case of processing difficulties. The PASS theory thus has given rise to
evidence-based intervention programmes such as PASS Reading Enhancement Programme (PREP)
and COGENT programme which aims at enhancing the cognitive processes.
4.10 CROSS CULTURAL CONCEPTION OF
INTELLIGENCE
Intelligence has been viewed and theorized in various ways, starting from unitary notion to multiple
intelligences. Majorly, it has been viewed as a decontextualized entity involving
logical thinking, abstract reasoning and problem solving. Cross-cultural studies have pointed out
cultural differences in the way intellectual abilities are reflected. You must have seen your local
grocery shop owner doing mathematics calculation so easily even if he has not gone to school.
Similarly, the rural and tribal cultures may not be very proficient in using paper and pencil as their
urban counterparts, and may exhibit expertise in oral or other medium of expression. Thus there are
cultural differences in the conceptualization and expression of intelligence. The western culture
views intelligence more in terms of abstraction and generalization; whereas the non-western
cultures relate intelligence more to the social context (e.g. Srivastava, 2013).
As Srivastava and Misra (1996) have pointed out, intelligence in the Indian context, is viewed in
terms of relations or sensitivity to the context rather than the context-free western notion of
intelligence. In their study, they reported that Indian notion of intelligence is multifaceted which
includes not only the cognitive competence, but also the emotional, social and entrepreneurial
competence (Srivastava & Misra, 2007). Cognitive competence includes aspects such as
planning, decision-making, sensitivity to context, reflection and communication. Emotional
competence includes features such as control of emotions, expressing kindness, patience,
adjustment, empathy, and honesty. Social competence involves attributes like obedience, helping
the needy, adherence to norms, respecting parents and elders etc. Finally, intellectual behaviour also
reflects entrepreneurial competence such as ability to do hard work, commitment, efficiency,
patience and discipline.
LET US SUM UP
Now we have learned about various theories of intelligence. Let us list the salient points in each of
the theories discussed.
Charles Spearman proposed the ‘Two Factor Theory of Intelligence’. He used factor analysis to find
out the two important factors of intelligence i.e., the general
‘g’ factor and specific‘s’ factor.
Thurstone suggested that intelligence is a composite of seven distinct primary mental abilities
(PMA).
Unlike Spearman, Guilford believed that intelligence is a combination of multiple intellectual
abilities. These are organized along three dimensions: operations, content,
and products.
Cattell (1971) proposed that two types of intelligence, fluid intelligence (gf) and crystalized
intelligence (gc) constitute the g . The theory of multiple intelligences proposed by Howard Gardner
(1983) views that intelligence consists of different abilities. It cannot be viewed as a single entity.
Gardner has proposed nine types of intelligences which are relatively independent
of each other. Sternberg formulated the ‘triarchic theory of intelligence’ which theorizes that
intelligent behaviour consists of three major components or subtheories such as
(a) componential or analytical intelligence, (b) contextual intelligence or the practical intelligence
and, (c) experiential or creative intelligence. The PASS model presents a comprehensive model of
intelligence integrating the neuropsychological aspects, cognitive and psychometric approaches to
intelligence in a contextual background through knowledge base. Indian notion of intelligence is
multifaceted which includes not only the cognitive competence, but also the emotional, social and
entrepreneurial competence.
LEARNING THEORY
Q: How do people learn?
A: Nobody really knows.
But there are 7 main theories in language learning: (1) Behaviourism; (2) Nativism/ Metalistics; (3)
Cognitivism; (4) Social Learning Theory; (5)
Social Constructivism; (6) Multiple Intelligences (MI); (7) Brain-Based Learning
BEHAVIOURISM
The main point in this theories are:
Learning is defined by the outward expression of new behaviors
Focuses solely on observable behaviors
A biological basis for learning
Learning is context-independent
Classical & Operant Conditioning
Reflexes (Pavlov’s Dogs)
Classical Conditioning – Pavlov
A stimulus is presented in order to get a response:
First Order Classical Conditioning:
S= Stimulus (bell)
US = Unconditioned Stimulus (food)
UR = Unconditioned Response (saliva)
CS = Conditioned Stimulus (bell)
CR = Conditioned Reponse (saliva)
Feedback/Reinforcement (Skinner’s Pigeon Box)
Operant Conditioning – Skinner. The response is made first, then reinforcement
[Link] in the classroom
Rewards and punishments
Responsibility for student learning rests squarely with the teacher Lecture-based, highly structured
Critique in behaviorism
Does not account for processes taking place in the mind that cannot be observed
Advocates for passive student learning in a teacher-centric environment
One size fits all Knowledge itself is given and absolute
Programmed instruction & teacher-proofing
NATIVISM
The nativist theory deals with the biological belief that language is an innate feature of the infant.
Researcher Noam Chomsky is a firm advocate for this theory. He came up with the idea of a
language organ, which is known as the Language Acquisition Device (LAD). Other researchers
have discredited Chomsky’s theories. Noam Chomsky is perhaps the best known and the most
influential linguist of the second half of the Twentieth Century. He has made a number of strong
claims about language: in particular, he suggests that language is an innate faculty - that is to say
that we are born with a set of rules about language in our heads which he refers to as the 'Universal
Grammar'. The universal grammar is the basis upon which all human languages build. If a Martian
linguist were to visit Earth, he would deduce from the evidence that there was only one language,
with a number of local variants. Chomsky gives a number of reasons why this should be so. Among
the most important of these reasons is the ease with which children acquire their mother tongue. He
claims that it would be little short of a miracle if children learnt their language in the same way that
they learn mathematics or how to ride a bicycle. This, he says, is because : Children are exposed to
very little correctly formed language. When people speak, they constantly interrupt themselves,
change their minds, make slips of the tongue and so on. Yet children manage to learn their language
all the same.
Children do not simply copy the language that they hear around them. They deduce rules from it,
which they can then use to produce sentences that they have never heard before. They do not learn a
repertoire of phrases and sayings, as the behaviourists believe, but a grammar that generates an
infinity of new sentences.
Limitations
Language does not develop as quickly as Nativist theorists predict. It is a more gradual process.
This theory also does not put into account the many different languages spoken throughout the
world.
COGNITIVISM
Grew in response to Behaviorism
Knowledge is stored cognitively as symbols
Learning is the process of connecting symbols in a meaningful & memorable way
Studies focused on the mental processes that facilitate symbol connection
Discovery Learning - Jerome Bruner
Bruner said anybody can learn anything at any age, provided it is stated in terms they can
understand.
Powerful Concepts (not isolated facts)
- Transfer to many different situations
- Only possible through Discovery Learning
- Confront the learner with problems and help them find solutions.
Do not present sequenced materials.
Meaningful Verbal Learning - David Ausubel
Advance Organizers:
New material is presented in a systematic way, and is connected to existing cognitive structures in a
meaningful way.
When learners have difficulty with new material, go back to the concrete anchors (Advance
Organizers). Provide a Discovery approach, and they’ll learn.
Cognitivism in the classroom
Inquiry-oriented projects opportunities for the testing of hypotheses
Curiosity encouraged
Staged scaffolding staged scaffolding: not based on ability or experience…based on developmental
stage (age most predominantly)
Critiques of cognitivism Like Behaviorism, knowledge itself is given and absolute
Input – Process – Output model is mechanistic and deterministic Does not account enough for
individuality
Little emphasis on affective characteristics Does not account enough for individuality and
differences in staged development Little emphasis on affective characteristics, especially motivation
SOCIAL LEARNING THEORY (SLT)
Grew out of Cognitivism
Bandura (1973)
Learning takes place through observation and sensorial experiences Imitation is the sincerest form
of flattery SLT is the basis of the movement against violence in media & video games
Imitation: Individuals adopt the modeled behavior more readily and completely if the person they
are observing is admired by the observer We more readily model behavior if it results in outcomes
we value or approve of Learning from models - Albert Bandura Attend to pertinent clues Code for
memory (store a visual image) Retain in memory Accurately reproduce the observed activity
Possess sufficient motivation to apply new learning
SOCIAL LEARNING THEORY (SLT)
Research indicates that the following factors influence the strength of learning from models:
How much power the model seems to have
How capable the model seems to be
How nurturing (caring) the model seems to be
How similar the learner perceives self and model
How many models the learner observes
Four interrelated processes establish and strengthen identification with the
model:
Children want to be like the model
Children believe they are like the model
Children experience emotions like those the model is feeling.
Children act like the model.
Through identification, children come to believe they have the same
characteristics as the model.
When they identify with a nurturant and competent model, children
feel pleased and proud.
When they identify with an inadequate model, children feel unhappy
and insecure.
SLT in the classroom
Collaborative learning and group work
Modeling responses and expectations
Opportunities to observe experts in action
Critiques of SLT
Does not take into account individuality, context, and experience as mediating factors
Suggests students learn best as passive receivers of sensory stimuli, as opposed to being active
learners
Emotions and motivation not considered important or connected to learning
Think of a laboratory environment, for instance. What’s more effective in your estimation, watching
the faculty member conducts the lab, or
you do it yourself?
SOCIAL CONSTRUCTIVISM
Grew out of and in response to Cognitivism, framed around
metacognition
Knowledge is actively constructed
Learning is…
A search for meaning by the learner
Contextualized
An inherently social activity
Dialogic and recursive
The responsibility of the learner
Lev Vygotsky
Social Learning
- Zone of Proximal Development
Knowledge is actively constructed by individuals in light of and in relation to our past experiences,
the context of learning, personal motivation, and our beliefs/attitudes/prior knowledge. Think of the
lab instead of just watching it being done, the student acts as the active agent conducting the lab,
with expert support leading them to the edge of their knowledge and beyond. Dialogic: central focus
is on written & spoken dialogue. Recursive: new learning is built upon prior learning…
scaffolding Social Constructivism in the classroom
Journaling
Experiential activities
Personal focus
Collaborative & cooperative learning
Critiques of Social Constructivism
Suggests that knowledge is neither given nor absolute
Often seen as less rigorous than traditional approaches to instruction
Does not fit well with traditional age grouping and rigid terms/semesters
Suggests that knowledge is neither given nor absolute, but is rather an
individual construct
Does not fit well with traditional age grouping and rigid terms/semesters
that do not provide a flexible timeframe for learning
MULTIPLE INTELLIGENCES (MI)
Grew out of Constructivism, framed around metacognition Gardner (1983 to present)
All people are born with nine intelligences: Enables students to leverage their strengths and
purposefully target and develop their weaknesses
Metacognition – simply put is learning about learning, but more realistically, it’s about knowing
who you are as a learner, and developing the capacity to leverage your strengths to your advantage
while purposefully addressing your weaknesses
MI in the classroom
Delivery of instruction via multiple mediums
Student-centered classroom
Authentic Assessment
Self-directed learning
critiques of MI
Lack of quantifiable evidence that MI exist
Lack of evidence that use of MI as a curricular and methodological
approach has any discernable impact on learning
Suggestive of a departure from core curricula and standards
BRAIN-BASED LEARNING (BBL)
Grew out of Neuroscience & Constructivism Souza, N. Caine & G. Caine, E. Jensen
(1980’s to present)
12 governing principles: (1) Brain is a parallel processor; (2) Whole body learning; (3) A search for
meaning; (4) Patterning; (5) Emotions are critical; (6) Processing of parts and wholes; (7) Focused
attention & peripheral perception; (8) Conscious & unconscious processes; (9) Several types of
memory; (10) Embedded learning sticks; (11) Challenge & threat; (12) Every brain is unique
BBL in the classroom
Opportunities for group learning
Regular environmental changes
A multi-sensory environment
Opportunities for self-expression and making personal connections to content
Community-based learning
critiques of BBL
Research conducted by neuroscientists, not teachers & educational researchers
Lack of understanding of the brain itself makes “brain-based” learning questionable
Individual principles have been scientifically questioned (left/right brain laterality)
HUMANIST
All students are intrinsically motivated to self actualize or learn Learning is dependent upon
meeting a hierarchy of needs (physiological, psychological and intellectual). Learning should be
reinforced

Discuss the salient features of sensation and perception.

Features of Sensation
1. PROJECTION:-Projection sensation to service of stimulation.
2. AFTER- image:-sensation persists in consciousness after cessation of stimulation.
3. ADAPT ACTION:-Continuous stimulation one gets used to it or ignores it.
4. LOCAL SIGNS:-Ability to recognize the point of application of stimulus.
5. CONTRAST:-Sensation is affected by events that proceeded to accompany it.
6. INTENSITY:-Dependent on the number of receptors stimulated and the rate of transmission.
Features of perception
Perception is an intellectual process-person selects the data from the environment organizes it and
obtains meaning from it.
2. Perception is a psychological process-The manner in which a person perceives the environment
that affects his behavior. Thus people’s actions, and emotions through there triggered by the
erception of their surroundings.
3. Perception is an intellectual psychological process because subjective processes and Different
people may perceive the environmental event differently.
GENES
Gene is the basic unit of heredity in a living organism. It holds the information to build and
maintain cells and pass genetic traits to offspring.
Genes are capable of self-duplication producing their own exact copies. Some genes can be either
dominant or recessive ex:-eye color.
A dominant gene shows a strong effect in either the homozygous or heterozygous condition. A
recessive gene shows its effect only in the homozygous condition.
2. INTEGRATED RESPONSES
Integrated Responses are those which intentionally and actively address ecosystem services and
human well-being simultaneously.
Integrated responses ideally involve all key stakeholders and span different institutional levels
Horizontally and vertically.
3. CHROMOSOMES:-
Chromosomes are thread-like structures located inside the nucleus of animal and plant cells
Chromosomes are organized structures of DNA and proteins that are found in cells.
It contains a single continuous piece of DNA, which contains many genes, regulatory elements and
Nucleotide.
Each cell normally contains 23 pairs of chromosomes.
Males and females differ in pair of chromosomes known as sex chromosomes.
Females have two x chromosomes (xx)in their cells.
Males have one x and y chromosome [xy] in their cells
4. IDENTICAL AND FRATERNAL TWINS.
Identical twins:-formed from one egg and one sperm which separates to create two fetuses.
Are always the same sex boy-girl twins cannot be identical.
Fraternal twins:-formed when the two eggs are released and fertilized by two sperm creating two
Fetuses. Maybe same-sex male/female.
5. GLANDS:-
Glands:-Glands play an imp, role in human behavior, they also assist in the digestion of food and
elimination of waste products. production and prolongation of emotional states and regulation of the
metabolism of the body.
They are two types of glands.
1. Duct glands.
2. Ducter or Endocrine glands.
DUCT GLANDS:-
Salivary glands
Gastric glands
Sweat glands
Lacrimal glands
Kidneys
Sex glands
LONG ESSAYS
Define perception. Discuss the organization of perception.
What are the factors influencing perception? Describe the relationship between sensation and
perception.
DEFINE LEARNING. explain operant conditioning given by Skinner.
Discuss the laws of learning. Explain the role of motivation and anxiety in the learning process.
Define learning: Describe learning by conditioning and its educational implication in nursing.
Explain laws learning: describe factors influencing our memory.
Define learning: what are the laws of learning? Explain the different types of learning quoting
studies wherever necessary.
What is memory? Explain techniques to improve memory.
What is forgetting? Explain theories of forgetting.
Define learning and explain efficient methods of memorizing.
Define thinking. Describe the process of concept formation.
What is intelligence? Explain different tools used for the measurement of IQ
Discuss the various intelligence tests and their use in a nursing situation

In avoidance-avoidance conflict, the individual is compelled to choose between:

Chap6
(a) One positive and one negative alternative
(b) Two negative alternatives
(c) Two positive alternatives
(d) Two negative alternatives and two positive alternatives
(e) None of the above
The relative strength of the drives of hunger, thirst and sex have been studied experimentally in the
white rat by: CHAP6
(a) Learning Method
(b) Obstruction Method
(c) Activity wheel
(d) The choice and Preference Method
(e) Questionnaire Method

A state of deep unconsciousness, with non- responsiveness to stimulation, is known

as: CHAP 6
(a) Coma
(b) Fixation
(c) Hypnotism
(d) Trauma