P. P.
SAVANI SCHOOL
Garden City, Ankleshwar (Guj).
CERTIFICATE
This is to certify that the Investigatory Project on entitled
Wheatstone Bridge is a bonafide work done by Jesika K. of
class XII Session 2025-26 in partial fulfillment of CBSE’s SSCE
Examination 2025 and has been carried out under my direct
supervision and guidance. This report or a similar report on
the
topic has not been submitted for any other examination and
does not form a part of any other course undergone by the
candidate.
……………………… .....................................
Subject Teacher Signature of External Examiner
Name: Dr. Naveen jha Name:
……….…………………
Signature of Principal
Name: Mr. Subhash Kumar Nirman
Place:…………….... Date:…………….. School stamp :…………….
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
We have committed value time and given our efforts in
this project. However, it would not have been possible
without the kind support of many individual.
We would like to thank my PHYSICS teacher
Dr. Naveen Jha & Lab assistance Surya ma’am whose
valuable guidance has been the one that helped us to
complete this project and it is full proof of success. We
would like to extend our gratitude to our principal sir
[Link] Kumar Nirman who gave us golden
opportunity to do this project.
INDEX
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[Link] Background
[Link] of Experiment
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[Link] Setup
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[Link] Table
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[Link] Analysis
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WHEATSTONE
BRIDGE
Introduction
The Wheatstone Bridge is one of the most
significant and reliable electrical
instruments used for the precise
measurement of unknown resistances.
It operates on the principle of balancing
two legs of a bridge circuit to achieve a
condition where no current flows through
the galvanometer. This condition, known
as the “null point,” allows for extremely
accurate calculations.
.
Despite being a classical scientific device, the
Wheatstone Bridge continues to find
widespread application in laboratories,
industries, and sensor technologies due to its
simplicity, precision, and strong theoretical
foundation.
This project presents an in-depth study of the
structure, working principle, derivation,
meter-bridge application, sensitivity analysis,
sources of error, experimental observations,
calculations, results, and practical
applications of the Wheatstone Bridge.
Historical Background
The Wheatstone Bridge is commonly
attributed to Sir Charles Wheatstone, who
popularized the instrument. However, the
original concept was introduced earlier by
Samuel Hunter Christie in 1833. Wheatstone
refined and promoted the design, which led
to its extensive scientific adoption.
Over time, the bridge has become a
fundamental tool in electrical engineering
due to its ability to produce highly accurate
resistance measurements.
With advancements in technology, the
principle of the Wheatstone Bridge has been
incorporated into modern sensors such as
strain gauges, temperature-dependent
resistors (thermistors), pressure sensors, and
numerous industrial measuring instruments.
Aim of the Experiment
1. To determine the value of an unknown
resistor Rx using a Wheatstone bridge
(meter-bridge).
2. To analyze experimental error and
compare measured value with the
theoretical/known value.
3. To investigate how accuracy depends on
the known resistance and bridge balance
point.
A p p a r at u s
Meter bridge (1 m uniform resistance wire
with scale) OR a Wheatstone bridge
circuit on a breadboard
Galvanometer with key (or sensitive
multimeter as null detector)
Standard known resistances (several
decade or coil resistors e.g. 5–200 Ω)
Unknown resistor Rx (or set of resistors to
test)
Battery (1.5–9 V depending on
components) and connecting wires,
crocodile clips
Rheostat (optional, for stable supply)
Switch, key
Micrometer/scale (if you need fine length
measurement)
Digital multimeter (for verification)
Theory
A Wheatstone bridge consists of four
resistances arranged in a diamond with a
galvanometer between two opposite nodes.
When the bridge is balanced (no current
through the galvanometer), the ratio of
resistances in one leg equals the ratio in the
other:
Hence the unknown Rx is:
For the meter-bridge (a form of
Wheatstone bridge using uniform wire of
length 100 cm), let a known resistance R
be connected in one gap and unknown
R4 in the other. Let the balance point
divide the wire into segments of lengths
l1 and l2 (with l1+l2=100 cm). Because
the resistance is proportional to length
for a uniform wire:
Derivation:
Step 1: Set currents
Let:
Current in upper branch = I1
Current in lower branch = I2
Galvanometer current = Ig
At balance:
So the currents pass straight through
each branch.
Step 2: Voltage drops
Voltage drop across R1:
Voltage drop across R2:
Similarly:
Step 3: Equal potentials at B and D
At balance:
Step 4: Divide (1) by (2)
Meter-Bridge: Practical
Implementation
The meter-bridge is just a Wheatstone bridge
where the top two resistors are replaced by a
uniform wire of length 100 cm.
Resistance is proportional to length:
If the jockey touches at length l:
Left segment = l
Right segment = 100−l
Substitute into balance equation:
For unknown resistance:
Sensitivity of the Bridge
Sensitivity means how sharply the
galvanometer reacts to imbalance.
High sensitivity happens when:
All four resistances are of the same order
The balance point is near the center (~50
cm)
Galvanometer is sensitive
Wire is uniform
Jockey makes firm but gentle contact
Low sensitivity happens when:
Balance near 0–10 cm or 90–100 cm
One branch resistor is huge compared to
the other
Wire is corroded, non-uniform
Galvanometer is trash
A Wheatstone Bridge is most sensitive when:
• All four resistances are of similar magnitude
• The balance point lies near the center
(around 50 cm)
• A sensitive galvanometer is used
• The bridge wire is uniform and clean
Sensitivity decreases when the balance point
lies near the ends or when the resistors differ
greatly in magnitude.
E x p e r i m e n ta l S e t u p
The Wheatstone Bridge consists of four
resistors arranged in a closed loop (a diamond
shape), with a galvanometer connected
between the midpoints of the two opposite
branches. A battery or DC power source is
connected across the other two opposite
nodes.
Arms:
R1 and R2 form one pair of opposite arms.
R3 (known resistance) and Rx (unknown
resistance) form the second pair.
Galvanometer is connected between the
junction of R1–R3 and R2–Rx.
The bridge is considered balanced when the
galvanometer shows zero deflection.
Procedure
1. Connect the Wheatstone Bridge circuit
as per the diagram.
2. Insert the known resistances R1, R2, and
R3 in the respective arms.
3. Place the unknown resistance Rx in the
fourth arm.
4. Switch on the power supply.
5. Adjust resistances (if they are variable)
until the galvanometer shows zero
deflection.
6. Note the values of R1, R2, and R3 for
which the bridge is balanced.
7. Use the formula to calculate Rx.
8. Repeat for several sets of readings for
accuracy.
O b s e r vat i o n Ta b l e
R e s u lt
Based on the observations, the value of the
unknown resistance (Rx) is found to be
approximately 40 Ω.
E r r o r A n a ly s i s
Sources of Error
Length reading error:
Parallax, poor eyesight, shaky hands, your lab
partner breathing too hard.
Contact resistance:
Improper jockey pressure changes readings.
Wire non-uniformity:
Kinks, dents, dirt, oxidation.
Temperature changes:
Heating increases resistance.
Poor connections:
Loose screws add random resistance.
PRECAUTIONS
All connections in the Wheatstone
Bridge circuit should be tight and
free from rust or dust to avoid
unwanted resistance.
The connecting wires must be clean,
properly insulated, and of
appropriate length to prevent energy
loss.
The galvanometer should be handled
carefully and its zero adjustment
must be checked before starting the
experiment.
The key (switch) should be pressed
only while taking readings to prevent
heating of the resistors.
The resistance box plugs must be
fully inserted to ensure accurate
resistance values.
The unknown and known resistors
should be connected firmly in their
respective positions.
Observations should be taken only
when the galvanometer shows a
stable null point.
Read all measuring scales without
parallax error by keeping the eye
exactly in front of the reading mark.
Avoid touching the resistive
components with bare hands to
prevent temperature-induced
changes in resistance.
Repeat the experiment multiple times
and take the average value for better
accuracy
Graph
A p p l i c at i o n s o f W h e at s t o n e
Bridge
1. Measurement of Unknown Resistance
The primary application of the Wheatstone
bridge is to determine an unknown resistance
accurately.
When the bridge is balanced, the ratio of
known resistances gives the value of the
unknown resistance.
This is used in laboratories, electrical testing,
and calibration work because the method is
precise and reliable.
2. Strain Gauge Measurements
Strain gauges are sensors whose
resistance changes when they experience
mechanical strain.
By connecting them in a Wheatstone
bridge, extremely small changes in
resistance can be detected.
This is used in:
• structural monitoring
• mechanical engineering experiments
• stress analysis of materials
The bridge helps convert tiny resistance
changes into measurable voltage
differences
3. Temperature Measurement with
RTDs and Thermistors
Resistance Temperature Detectors (RTDs)
and thermistors change resistance based
on temperature.
Using a Wheatstone bridge increases
measurement accuracy by detecting small
resistance variations due to temperature
changes.
This is widely used in industrial
temperature sensors, environmental
monitoring, and scientific experiments.
4. Pressure and Force Sensors (Load
Cells)
Load cells and pressure sensors work using
strain gauges arranged in a Wheatstone
bridge.
When pressure or force is applied, the
resistance changes.
The bridge converts this into a voltage
output that represents the applied force.
Used in:
• weighing machines
• industrial pressure measurement
• medical devices
• automotive sensors
5. Light-Sensitive Measurements
Photoresistors (LDRs) change resistance
according to light intensity.
When placed in a Wheatstone bridge, even
small changes in light level can be measured
accurately.
Applications include automatic lighting
systems and optical sensors.
6. Quality Control and Testing of
Components
The Wheatstone bridge is used to check
whether manufactured resistors meet their
specifications.
It helps detect faults or deviations in
electrical components during production.
7. Detection of Cable Faults
Modified Wheatstone bridge circuits are
used to find faults or breaks in long cables.
The bridge helps determine the position of
the fault by analysing resistance variations
along the cable length.
8. Scientific Research and
Instrumentation
In experiments where tiny resistance
changes matter, the Wheatstone bridge is
used because of its high sensitivity and
accuracy.
This includes physics experiments, material
science research, and precision electrical
measurements.
A d va n ta g e s o f W h e at s t o n e
Bridge
High accuracy in measuring resistance
Can detect very small changes
Simple construction
Stable and reliable
Works well for sensor-based applications
L i m i tat i o n s o f W h e at s t o n e
Bridge
Needs a stable power supply
Not suitable for very high resistance
values
Has to be balanced for accurate results
Sensitive to temperature changes if
components are low-quality
Conclusion
The Wheatstone Bridge is a reliable setup for
determining unknown resistances
accurately. Using the meter-bridge, the
experiment verifies the proportionality of
resistance and length in a uniform wire. The
results demonstrate high precision when the
balance point is near the center and errors
are minimized.
Bibliography
Gupta, D.C.; Sharma, P.L. Electrical
Measurements and Instrumentation. Katson
Books.
Kularni, S. Basic Electronics. McGraw Hill
Education.
NCERT. Physics Textbook for Class XII, Part I
and II. National Council of Educational
Research and Training, New Delhi.
Arya Publications. Laboratory Manual of
Physics for Class XII.
Theraja, B.L. Electrical Technology. S. Chand
Publishing.
Doebelin, E.O. Measurement Systems:
Application and Design. McGraw Hill.
Online reference: Educational articles on
Wheatstone Bridge theory, applications, and
derivations.
THANK YOU