University of Mianwali
Department : physics
Semester : 1st ( reg )
Assignment : Science of global challenges
Submitted by: Muqadas Zahra
Roll no. : BPH – F25 -M02
Submitted to : Dr Tanzeela Batool
Topic : Photovoltaic solar panels
Date. : 20-11-2025
Photovoltaic ( PV) solar
panel
Introduction:
A photovoltaic (PV) solar panel is an advanced device that converts sunlight directly
into electrical energy through the photovoltaic effect. It consists of many
interconnected solar cells, usually made from silicon, a semiconductor material.
When sunlight falls on these cells, it energizes electrons and causes them to move,
producing a direct current (DC) of electricity.
PV panels are designed with protective layers, frames, and wiring to ensure
durability and efficient energy conversion. They operate silently, require minimal
maintenance, and generate electricity without releasing harmful gases. Because
they use an abundant natural resource—the sun—they are considered one of the
most promising and environmentally friendly energy technologies. Today,
photovoltaic solar panels are widely used in homes, commercial buildings,
agriculture, and even space applications as a reliable source of clean and renewable
power.
How photovoltaic Solar panels are made?
Photovoltaic solar panels are mainly made from silicon, which is purified and formed
into thin wafers. These wafers are then treated with chemicals to create positive
and negative layers so they can produce electricity when sunlight hits them. A thin
anti-reflective coating is added to help the cells absorb more light.
Next, metal contacts are printed on the surface to collect the electric current. Many
solar cells are then connected together and placed between protective layers, such
as glass on the front and a back sheet at the back. The whole structure is heated
and sealed (laminated), fitted into a strong aluminium frame, and wired through a
junction box.
Photovoltaic solar cells:
A photovoltaic (PV) solar cell is a small semiconductor device that converts sunlight
directly into electricity through the photovoltaic effect. When sunlight strikes the
cell, it excites electrons inside the material—usually silicon—causing them to move
and create an electric current. PV cells are the basic building blocks of solar panels
and are widely used for clean, renewable energy production.
How Photovoltaic Solar Cells Are Made
Purifying Silicon
PV cells are mostly made from silicon, which is purified to remove impurities and
made suitable for electricity generation.
1. Forming Silicon Wafers
Purified silicon is shaped into large blocks or ingots.
These are cut into thin wafers that will become individual solar cells.
2. Doping the Wafers
The wafers are treated with elements like phosphorus and boron to create positive
(p-type) and negative (n-type) layers.
This forms the p–n junction, which is essential for producing electricity.
3. Adding Anti-Reflective Coating
A thin coating is applied so the cell absorbs more sunlight instead of reflecting it.
4. Printing Metal Contacts
Fine metal grids are printed on the top and a metal layer is added on the back.
These contacts collect and carry the electric current.
5. Cell Testing and Assembly
Each cell is tested for quality, then connected with others to form a solar panel.
Construction and working of photovoltaic cell:
When n- type and p-type silicon semiconductors are joined a p-n junction is
formed. The electrons of n-type silicon semiconductor try to reach the p-type
silicon semiconductor creating a negatively charged layer.
Similarly the holes of the p-type silicon semiconductor try to reach the n-type
silicon semiconductor creating a positively charged layer. The region between
the two layers is known as depletion region of the semiconductor.
Sun light penetrates the top thin layer ( n layer) easily to reach the depletion
region due to the deficiency of charge in the depletion region it contains
neutral atoms.
Neutral atoms are broken when the photons from the sun light strike
the depletion layer. This Knocks the electrons from neutral atoms
leaving behind the holes then the electrons move towards the n-type
silicon semiconductor and holes move towards the p-type silicon
semiconductor due to electric field present in the depletion region. The
band gap is the minimum amount of energy required for a
electron to break free of its bound state. When the band gap
energy is met, the electron is excited into a free state, and can
therefore participate in conduction.
If you can connect the n-type and p-type silicon semiconductor with a
metallic wire, the electrons will travel from the n-type to the p-type silicon
semiconductor and flow around the circuit.
Overall diagram of photovoltaic solar panel consisting of
solar cells