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LIFE PROCESSES
Characteristics of living organisms:
• Movement
• Growth
• Reproduction
• Respiration
• Response to external stimulus
On the basis of above characters, we can decide whether something is alive
or not.
Life processes: The basic functions performed by all living organisms to
maintain their life on earth is called life processes.
e.g.
1. Nutrition
2. Respiration
3. Transportation
4. Excretion

Nutrition
Nutrition is the process that involved the breaking of food inside the body and
converting them into small molecules that can be absorb by the body.

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Autotrophic nutrition: Organisms which can synthesize their own food from
inorganic substances are called autotrophs and the mode of nutrition is called
autotrophic nutrition.
Example: Plants, algae, some bacteria etc.
Autotrophs make their food by the process of photosynthesis.

Photosynthesis:
Photosynthesis is the process by which green plants make their own food from
carbon dioxide (CO2) and water (H2O) by using sunlight in the presence of
chlorophyll.

Steps of photosynthesis:
• Absorption of light energy by chlorophyll.
• Conversion of light energy to chemical energy and splitting of water
molecules into hydrogen and oxygen.
• Reduction of carbon dioxide to carbohydrates
Produced carbohydrates (glucose) which are not used immediately are stored
in the form of starch in plants.
Note:
• Photosynthesis is divided into two parts
• (a) Light reaction & (b) Dark reaction
Raw materials used during Photosynthesis:
• Carbon dioxide (CO2): Plants take carbon dioxide with the help of minute pores
present on the leaf surface called stomata.
• Water: Water used in photosynthesis is taken up from the soil by the roots of
plants. Other minerals like nitrogen, phosphorus, iron, magnesium are taken
up from the soil.
Note: Nitrogen is an essential element used in the synthesis of proteins and other
compounds. Nitrogen is taken up by the plants in the form of nitrates (NO3-) and
nitrites (NO2-).
Site of Photosynthesis: Photosynthesis occurs in chloroplast of leaf.
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Stomata: The stomata are minute pores present on leaf surface and are guarded by
two kidney-shaped guard cells.
Function of stomata:
• Exchange of gases like carbon dioxide and oxygen
• Transpiration: Removal of water vapour through stomata is called
transpiration.
Note: Exchange of gases occurs through root, stem and leaves.

Opening and closing of stomata:

The guard cells regulate the opening and closing of stomatal pore. The guard cells
swell when water flows into them as a result stomatal pore open. Similarly, the pore
closes when the guard cells losses water.

Fig: (a) Open and (b) Close stomatal pore

NOTE: Desert plants take in carbon dioxide at night mainly to reduce water loss.
This is because of a special type of photosynthesis they use called CAM (Crassulacean
Acid Metabolism).
• During the day, the temperature in
deserts is very high, and if the plant
opens its stomata to take in carbon
dioxide, a lot of water would evaporate.
So, to save water, desert plants keep
their stomata closed during the day and
open them at night when it’s cooler. At
night, they take in carbon dioxide and
store it in the form of organic acid
(Oxaloacetic Acid, Malic Acid).
• During the day time malic acid
decomposes to give PEP and CO2 which is
used in photosynthesis.

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Heterotrophic Nutrition
The mode of nutrition in which an organism takes food from another organism is
called heterotrophic nutrition. Heterotrophic nutrition can be further divided into
three types – saprophytic nutrition, holozoic nutrition, and parasitic.

• Saprophytic Nutrition: In saprophytic nutrition, the organism feed on dead

decaying matter. They secrete digestive juices on the food. The food is digested
outside the body. The digested food is then ingested by the organism. All the
decomposers follow saprophytic nutrition. Example: Fungi, earthworms, some
bacteria etc.
• Holozoic Nutrition: In holozoic nutrition, the digestion happens inside the body of
the organism. i.e., after the food is ingested. Most of the animals follow this mode of
nutrition. e.g. amoeba, paramecium, animals etc.
• Parasitic Nutrition: The organism which lives inside or outside another organism
(host) and derives nutrition from it is known as parasites and this type of mode of
nutrition is called parasitic nutrition. Example: Cuscuta (a plant), lice, tick etc.

NUTRITION IN AMOEBA: Amoeba is a unicellular animal which follows the holozoic

mode of nutrition. The cell membrane of amoeba keeps on protruding into pseudopodia.
Amoeba surrounds a food particle with pseudopodia
and makes a food vacuole. The food vacuole contains
food particle and water. Digestive enzymes are
secreted in the food vacuole and digestion takes
place. After that, digested food is absorbed from the
food vacuole. Finally, the food vacuole moves near the
cell membrane and undigested food is expelled out via
contractile vacuole.

Steps of Holozoic Nutrition:

• Ingestion: The process of taking in the food is called ingestion.

• Digestion: The process of breaking complex food substances into simple molecules is
called digestion. Simple molecules, thus obtained, can be absorbed by the body.
• Absorption: The process of absorption of digested food is called absorption.
• Assimilation: The process of utilization of digested food, for energy and for growth
and repair is called assimilation.
• Egestion: The process of removing undigested food from the body is called egestion.

Note: Paramecium obtains its food by the help of cilia.

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NUTRITION IN HUMAN BEINGS: Human beings are complex animals, which

have a complex digestive system. The human digestive system is composed of an
alimentary canal and some accessory glands. The alimentary canal is divided into several
parts, like oesophagus, stomach, small intestine, large intestine, rectum and anus. Salivary
gland, liver and pancreas are the accessory glands which lie outside the alimentary canal.

HUMAN DIGESTIVE SYSTEM:

The human digestive system comprises of the alimentary
canal and associated digestive glands.

• Alimentary Canal: It comprises of mouth,

oesophagus, stomach, small intestine and large
intestine.
• Associated Glands: Main associated glands are
a) Salivary gland
b) Gastric Glands
c) Liver
d) Pancreas
e) Intestinal glands

MOUTH OR BUCCAL CAVITY:

• The mouth has teeth and tongue. Salivary glands are also present in the mouth.
• The tongue has gustatory receptors which perceive the sense of taste.
• The tongue helps in turning over the food so that saliva can be properly mixed in it.
• Teeth help in breaking down the food into smaller particles so that, swallowing of
food becomes easier.

Salivary glands: There are 3 pairs of salivary glands. It secrete saliva. Saliva makes the
food slippery which makes it easy to swallow the food. Saliva also contains the enzyme
salivary amylase or ptyalin and Lysozyme. Salivary amylase digests starch and converts it
into simple sugar, (maltose). Salivary amylase act on pH 6.8

Oesophagus: Taking food from mouth to stomach by Peristaltic movement (Rhythmic

contraction of muscles of the lining of the alimentary canal to push the food forward.)

Stomach: Stomach is a J-shaped muscular bag-like organ. Highly muscular walls of the
stomach help in churning the food.

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• The wall of stomach secrets gastric juice. Gastric

juice contains Hydrochloric acid (HCl), a protein
digesting enzyme called Pepsin and Mucus.
• The Hydrochloric acid kills the germs which may be
present in food and it makes the medium inside the
stomach as acidic. The acidic medium is necessary
for gastric enzymes to work.
• The enzyme pepsin, secreted in the stomach, does partial digestion of protein.
• The mucus, secreted by the walls of the stomach saves the inner lining of the
stomach from getting damaged from hydrochloric acid.

Liver: Liver is the largest gland in the human body. The liver manufactures bile, which
gets stored in the gall bladder. From the gall bladder, bile is released when required.

Bile Juice: It makes the food alkaline. It

contains bile salts and some pigments. Bile salts
help in emulsification of fats.

Emulsification: Breaking down of large fat

molecules into small globules is called
emulsification of fat.

Pancreas: Pancreas is situated below the stomach. It secretes pancreatic juice which
contains many digestive enzymes like Trypsin (protein digesting enzyme), Lipase (Fat
digesting enzyme).

Small Intestine: It is a highly coiled tube-like structure. The small intestine is longer
than the large intestine but its lumen is smaller than that of the large intestine. The small
intestine is divided into three parts, like duodenum, jejunum and ileum.

Bile juice and pancreatic juice are secreted into the duodenum of small intestine
by hepatopancreatic duct, where they digest the proteins, fats, carbohydrates into simple
forms. Lastly the Intestinal juice secreted by wall of intestine digest --- carbohydrates into
glucose, protein into amino acid and Fats into fatty
acids & glycerol.

In other parts of small intestine only absorption of

digested food takes place by the help of small finger
like projection called villi. Villi increase the surface
area of easy absorption of food.

Large Intestine: Large intestine is smaller than

the small intestine. Undigested food goes into the large intestine. Large Intestine absorb
excess of water and salt are absorbed by the walls of the large intestine. After that, the
undigested food goes to the rectum, from where it is expelled out through the anus.
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RESPIRATION:
Respiration: The process by which a living being utilises the food to get energy, is
called respiration. Respiration is an oxidation reaction in which carbohydrate is
oxidized to produce energy. Mitochondria is the site of respiration and the energy
released is stored in the form of ATP (adenosine triphosphate). ATP is stored in
mitochondria and is released as per need.
Steps of respiration:
• Breaking down of glucose into pyruvate: This step happens in the
cytoplasm. Glucose molecule is broken down into pyruvic acid. One Glucose
molecule is composed of 6C-atom, while pyruvic acid is composed of 3C-atoms.
• Fate of Pyruvic Acid: Further breaking down of pyruvic acid takes place in
mitochondria and the molecules formed depend on the type of respiration in a
particular organism. Respiration is of two types, viz. aerobic respiration and
anaerobic respiration.

Types of Respiration:
• Aerobic respiration: This type of respiration happens in the presence of
oxygen. Pyruvic acid is converted into carbon dioxide. Energy is released and
water molecule is also formed at the end of this process.
• Anaerobic respiration: This type of respiration happens in the absence of
oxygen. Pyruvic acid is either converted into ethyl alcohol or lactic acid. Ethyl
alcohol is usually formed in case of anaerobic respiration in microbes, like
yeast or bacteria. Lactic acid is formed in some microbes as well as in the
muscle cells.

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Note: When someone runs too fast, he may experience throbbing pain in the leg muscles.
This happens because of anaerobic respiration taking place in the muscles. During
running, the energy demand from the muscle cells increases. This is compensated by
anaerobic respiration and lactic acid is formed in the process. The deposition of lactic acid
causes pain in the leg muscles. The pain subsides after taking rest for some time.

It takes place in the presence It takes place in the absence of oxygen

of oxygen
Occurs in mitochondria Occurs in cytoplasm
End products are energy, CO2 End products are energy, alcohol or lactic acid
and water
More amount of energy is Less amount of energy is released
released
Slow process Fast process

HUMAN RESPIRATORY SYSTEM:

The human respiratory system is composed of a pair of lungs. These are attached to a
system of tubes which open on the outside through the nostrils.
Following are the main structures in the human respiratory system:
• Nostrils: There are two nostrils which
converge to form a nasal passage. The
inner lining of the nostrils is lined by hair
and remains wet due to mucus
secretion. The mucus and the hair help
in filtering the dust particles out from
inhaled air. Further, air is warmed up
when it enters the nasal passage.
• Pharynx: It is a tube-like structure
which continues after the nasal
passage.
• Larynx: This part comes after the
pharynx. This is also called voice box.
• Trachea: This is composed of
incomplete rings of cartilage.
Cartilaginous rings prevent the
collapse of trachea in the absence of
air.
• Bronchi: A pair of bronchi comes out
from the trachea, with one bronchus going to each lung.
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• Bronchioles: A bronchus divides into branches and sub-branches inside the

lung.
• Alveoli: These are air sacs at the end of bronchioles. The alveolus is composed
of a very thin membrane and is the place where blood capillaries open. This is
alveolus, where the oxygen mixes with the blood and carbon dioxide exits from
the blood. The exchange of gases, in alveoli, takes place due to the pressure
differential.
Breathing Mechanism:
• The breathing mechanism of lungs is controlled
by the diaphragm and the intercostal muscles.
• The diaphragm is a membrane which separates
the thoracic chamber from the abdominal
cavity.
• When the diaphragm moves down, the lungs
expand and the air is inhaled.
• When the diaphragm moves up, the lungs
contract and air are exhaled.

TRANSPORTATION:
Transportation in Human Beings: The circulatory system is responsible for
transport of various substances in human
beings. It is composed of the heart,
arteries, veins and blood capillaries.
Heart: Heart is a muscular organ, which
is composed of cardiac muscles. It is so
small that, it can fit inside an adult’s fist.
The heart is a pumping organ which
pumps the blood. The human heart is
composed of four chambers, viz. right
atrium, right ventricle, left ventricle and left atrium.
• Systole: Contraction of cardiac muscles is called systole.
• Diastole: Relaxation of cardiac muscles is called diastole.
Arteries: These are deep seated thick-walled blood vessels which carry oxygenated
blood from the heart to different organs. Pulmonary arteries are exceptions because

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they carry deoxygenated blood from the heart to lungs, where oxygenation of blood
takes place.
Veins: These are superficial thin-walled blood vessels which carry deoxygenated
blood from different organs to the heart, pulmonary veins are exceptions because
they carry oxygenated blood from lungs to the heart. Valves are present in veins to
prevent back flow of blood.
Capillaries: These are the blood vessels which have single-celled walls.
Blood: Blood is a connective tissue which plays the role of the carrier for various
substances in the body. Blood is composed of 1. Plasma 2. Blood cells
Blood plasma: Blood plasma is a pale yellow coloured liquid which is mostly
composed of water(90-92%). Blood plasma forms the matrix of blood.
Bloods cells: There are two types of blood cells, viz. Red Blood Cells (RBCs) and White
Blood Cells (WBCs).
(a) Red Blood Corpuscles (RBCs): These are of red colour because of the presence of
haemoglobin which is a pigment. Haemoglobin readily combines with oxygen and
carbon dioxide. The transport of oxygen happens through haemoglobin in the form
of oxygaemoglobin. Some part of carbon dioxide is also transported through
haemoglobin in the form of carbamino haemoglobin.
(b) White Blood Corpuscles (WBCs): These are of pale white colour. They play
important role in the immunity. It fights against pathogens
(c) Platelets: Platelets are responsible for blood coagulation. Blood coagulation is a
defense mechanism which prevents excess loss of blood, in case of an injury.
Lymph: Lymph is similar to blood but RBCs are absent in lymph.

• Lymph is formed from the fluid which leaks from blood capillaries and goes to the
intercellular space in the tissues. This fluid is collected through lymph vessels and
finally return to the blood capillaries.
• Lymph also plays an important role in the immune system.
• Lymph is a colourless fluid escape from the blood capillaries into the intercellular
spaces contain less proteins than blood.
• Lymph flows from the tissues to the heart assisting in transportation and destroying
germs.

DOUBLE CIRCULATION: The heart pumps the deoxygenated blood to the lung
through pulmonary artery where it gets oxygenated. Oxygenated blood returns back
to heart by pulmonary vein. This is known as pulmonary circulation.
Now the oxygenated blood form the heart is transported to different
parts of the body through systemic artery where blood gets deoxygenated and

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returns back to heart by systemic vein. This is known as systemic circulation. Since,
the blood passes twice through the heart making one complete circulation. That’s
why it is known as double circulation
The heart beats about 72 times per minute in a normal adult.

TRANSPORTATION IN PLANTS: Plants have specialized vascular tissues for

transportation of substances. There are two types of vascular tissues in plants.

XYLEM:

• Xylem is responsible for transportation of water and minerals.

• It is composed of tracheid, xylem vessels, xylem parenchyma and xylem fibre.
Tracheid and xylem vessels are the conducting elements.
• The xylem makes a continuous tube in plants which runs from roots to stem and right
up to the veins of leaves.
• Carries water and minerals from the roots to the other part of the plant.

PHLOEM:

• Phloem is responsible for transportation of food. Transport of food in plants happens

because of utilization of energy. (Glucose is converted to sucrose for translocation)
• Phloem is composed of sieve tubes, companion cells, phloem parenchyma and
phloem fibres. Sieve tubes are the conducting elements in phloem.
• Carries product of photosynthesis from leaves to other part of the plant.

Ascent of sap: The upward movement of water and minerals from roots to
different plant parts is called ascent of sap.
Root pressure: The walls of cells of root hairs are very thin. Water from soil enters
the root hairs because of osmosis. Root pressure is responsible for movement of
water up to the base of the stem.

Transpirational pull: Loss of water vapour through stomata and lenticels, in plants, is
called transpiration. Transpiration through stomata creates vacuum which creates a
suction, called transpiration pull. The transpiration pulls sucks the water column from the
xylem tubes and thus, water is able to rise to great heights in even the tallest plants.

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EXCRETION:

HUMAN EXCRETORY SYSTEM:

• A pair of kidneys.
• A urinary bladder.
• A pair of the ureter.
• A urethra.

Kidney: Kidney is a bean-shaped organ which lies near the vertebral column in the
abdominal cavity. The kidney is composed of many filtering units, called nephrons. Nephron
is called the functional unit of kidney.

Nephron:

• It is composed of a tangled mess of tubes and a filtering part, called glomerulus.

• The glomerulus is a network of blood capillaries to which renal artery is attached.
• The artery which takes blood to the glomerulus is called afferent arteriole and the
one receiving blood from the glomerulus is called efferent arteriole.
• The glomerulus is enclosed in a capsule like portion, called bowman’s capsule. The
bowman’s capsule extends into a fine tube which is highly coiled.
• Tubes from various nephrons converge into collecting duct, which finally goes to the
ureter.

Urine formation in the kidney: The urine formation involves three steps:

• Glomerular filtration: Nitrogenous wastes(urea), glucose, water, amino acid filter

from the blood into bowman’s capsule of the nephron.
• Tubular reabsorption: Now, useful substances from the filtrate are reabsorbed back
by capillaries surrounding the nephron.
• Secretion: Extra water, salts are secreted into the tubule which opens up into the
collecting duct and then into the ureter.

Urine produced in the kidneys passes through the ureters into the urinary bladder where it
is stored until it is released through the urethra.

Haemodialysis: The process of purifying blood by an artificial kidney. It is meant for

kidney failure patient.

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Excretion in Plants:
• Plant excretes their gaseous waste (CO2 & O2) by transpiration.
• Other wastes may be stored in leaves, bark etc. which fall off from the plant.
• Plants excrete some waste into the soil around them by the help of roots.
• Gums, resin → In old xylem

NCERT CORNER:
1. The kidneys in human beings are a part of the system for
a) nutrition.
b) respiration.
c) excretion.
d) transportation.
Ans: (c) In human beings, the kidneys are a part of the system for excretion.
2: The xylem in plants is responsible for
a) transport of water.
b) transport of food.
c) transport of amino acids.
d) transport of oxygen.
Ans: (a) In a plant, the xylem is responsible for transport of water.
3. The autotrophic mode of nutrition requires
a) carbon dioxide and water.
b) chlorophyll.
c) sunlight.
d) all of the above.
Ans: (d) The autotrophic mode of nutrition requires carbon dioxide, water,
chlorophyll and sunlight.
4. The breakdown of pyruvate to give carbon dioxide, water and energy takes place in
a) cytoplasm.
b) mitochondria.
c) chloroplast.
d) nucleus.
Ans: (b) The breakdown of pyruvate to give carbon dioxide, water and energy
takes place in mitochondria.

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5. How are fats digested in our bodies? Where does this process take place?
Ans: Fats are present in the form of large globules in the small intestine. The small
intestine gets the secretions in the form of bile juice and pancreatic juice respectively
from the liver and the pancreas. The bile salts (from the liver) break down the large
fat globules into smaller globules so that the pancreatic enzymes can easily act on
them. Finally intestinal enzyme act on fat to convert it into fatty acid and glycerol.
It takes place in the small intestine.
6: What is the role of saliva in the digestion of food?
Ans: Saliva is secreted by the salivary glands. It makes the food soft for easy
swallowing. It contains a digestive enzyme called salivary amylase, which breaks
down starch into simple sugar.
7: What are the necessary conditions for autotrophic nutrition and what are its
byproducts?
Ans: Autotrophic nutrition takes place through the process of photosynthesis. Carbon
dioxide, water, chlorophyll pigment, and sunlight are the necessary conditions
required for autotrophic nutrition. Carbohydrates (food) and O2 are the byproducts
of photosynthesis.

8: What are the differences between aerobic and anaerobic respiration? Name some
organisms that use the anaerobic mode of respiration.
Ans: Difference between Aerobic respiration and Anaerobic respiration:

Anaerobic respiration is shown by yeast, human muscle cell and some

bacteria.
9: How are the alveoli designed to maximize the exchange of gases?
Ans: The alveoli are the small balloon-like structures present in the lungs. The walls of
the alveoli consist of extensive network of blood vessels. Each lung contains 300−350

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million alveoli. When the alveolar surface spread out covers about 80 m2 area. This
large surface area makes the gaseous exchange more efficient.
10: What would be the consequences of a deficiency of haemoglobin in our
bodies?
Ans: Haemoglobin is the respiratory pigment that transports oxygen to the body cells
for cellular respiration. Therefore, deficiency of haemoglobin in blood can affect the
oxygen supplying capacity of blood. This can lead to deficiency of oxygen in the body
cells. It can also lead to a disease called anaemia.
11: Describe double circulation in human beings. Why is it necessary?
Ans: The heart pumps the deoxygenated blood to the lung through pulmonary artery
where it gets oxygenated. Oxygenated blood returns back to heart by pulmonary
vein. This is known as pulmonary circulation.
Now the oxygenated blood form the heart is transported to different parts of
the body through systemic artery where blood gets deoxygenated and returns back
to heart by systemic vein. This is known as systemic circulation. Since, the blood
passes twice through the heart making one complete circulation. That’s why it is
known as double circulation.
Warm blooded animal requires more O2 for more respiration for production of more
energy to maintain their body temperature and the separation of oxygenated and de-
oxygenated blood allows a more efficient supply of oxygen to the body cells. This is
why double circulation is necessary.
12. What are the differences between the transport of materials in xylem and
phloem?
Ans:
Xylem Phloem
Xylem conducts water and Phloem conducts prepared food
dissolved minerals from roots to material from leaves to other parts
leaves and other parts. of plant in dissolved form.
The transport of water and Transport of food material takes
minerals takes place through place through sieve tubes with the
vessels and tracheid. help of companion cells.
Xylem shows unidirectional Phloem shows bidirectional
movement. movement.

13. Compare the functioning of alveoli in the lungs and nephrons in the kidneys with
respect to their structure and functioning.
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Alveoli Nephron
Alveoli are functional unit of lungs. Nephrons are functional unit of kidney.

Alveoli provide a wide surface for The surface area of a nephron is not
gaseous exchange much more.

The exchange of O2 and CO2 takes Filtration of blood occurs as a result of

place through the network of this filtration urine is formed.
capillaries in alveoli.

Intext Questions
1. Why is diffusion insufficient to meet the oxygen requirements of multicellular organisms
like humans?
Ans: In multi-cellular organisms, all the cells may not be in direct contact with the
surrounding environment. Therefore, every cell of the body will not get oxygen as per need
by the process of diffusion from the environment. Thus, simple diffusion will not meet the
oxygen requirements of all the cells.
2. What processes would you consider essential for maintaining life?
Ans: Life processes such as nutrition, respiration, transportation, excretion, etc. are
essential for maintaining life.
3. Where do plants get each of the raw materials required for photosynthesis?
Ans: Plant get raw material form the following source
• Carbon dioxide: Plants get carbon dioxide from the atmosphere through stomata.
• Water: Plants absorb water from the soil through roots and transport to leaves.
• Sunlight: Plants get sunlight from the sun.
• Chlorophyll: It is present in chloroplast found in green leaves and green parts of
plants.
4. What are the differences between autotrophic nutrition and heterotrophic nutrition?
Ans:

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5. What is the role of the acid in our stomach?

Ans: Role of acid in our stomach is:
• To make acidic medium which is necessary for the activation of the enzyme pepsin.
• To kill bacteria which the food may contain.

6. What is the function of digestive enzymes?

Ans: The food we eat is complex in nature, i.e. it contains complex molecules.
Digestive enzymes break down these complex molecules into smaller simpler
molecules so that they can be absorbed by the walls of the intestine.
7. How is the small intestine designed to absorb digested food?
Ans: The inner lining of the small intestine has numerous finger-like projections called
villi. Villi increase the surface area of absorption of food. The villi are richly supplied
with blood vessels which take the absorbed food, and transport to each and every
cell of the body.
8. What advantage over an aquatic organism does a terrestrial organism have with
regard to obtaining oxygen for respiration?
Ans: Terrestrial organisms breathe by using atmospheric oxygen, whereas aquatic
organisms take oxygen dissolved in water. The oxygen level is high in the atmosphere
when compared to oxygen in the water. Hence, aquatic organisms need to breathe
faster to get the required oxygen then the terrestrial organism.
9. What are the different ways in which glucose is oxidised to provide energy in
various organisms?
Ans: In the cytoplasm, Glucose is first broken down into two 3 carbon compounds
called pyruvate by the process known as Glycolysis. Further breakdown takes place in
different organisms by different processes.
Aerobic respiration: In aerobic respiration break down of pyruvate takes place in
presence of oxygen to give rise to carbon dioxide and water. The release of energy in
aerobic respiration is much more than in anaerobic respiration.
Anaerobic respiration: The anaerobic respiration in yeast produces ethanol, carbon
dioxide and energy. When there is lack of oxygen especially during physical exercise,
in our muscles, pyruvate is converted into lactic acid and energy. The energy
produced during anaerobic respiration is less than the aerobic respiration.

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10. How is oxygen and carbon dioxide transported in human beings?

Ans: (i) Transport of oxygen: Haemoglobin present in the blood takes up the oxygen
from the air in the lungs. It carries the oxygen to tissues which are deficient in oxygen
before releasing it.
(ii) Transport of carbon dioxide: Carbon dioxide is mostly transported from body
tissues in the dissolved form in our blood plasma to lungs. Here it diffuses from blood
to air in the lungs.
The exchange of gases takes place between the alveoli of the lungs and
the surrounding blood capillaries by a process called diffusion.
11. How are the lungs designed in human beings to maximize the area for exchange
of gases?
Ans: Within the lungs, the trachea divides into smaller and smaller tubes, called
bronchi which in turn form bronchioles. The bronchioles terminate in balloon-like
structures, called alveoli. The alveoli present in the lungs provide maximum surface
for exchange of gases. The alveoli have very thin walls and contain an extensive
network of blood vessels to facilitate exchange of gases.
12. What are the components of the transport system in human beings? What are
the functions of these components?
Ans: The transport system (circulatory system) in human beings mainly consists of
heart, blood and blood vessels.
• Function of heart: The heart receives deoxygenated blood from the body parts and
pumps it to lungs for enriching with oxygen. It receives purified blood from lungs and
pumps it around the body.

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• Function of blood: Blood transports oxygen, carbon dioxide, digested food, hormones
and nitrogenous waste like urea. It also protects the body from diseases and
regulates the body temperature.
• Function of blood vessels: The blood pushed by the heart flows through the blood
vessels (arteries, veins and capillaries) and also comes back to the heart through
them
13. Why is it necessary to separate oxygenated and deoxygenated blood in mammals
and birds?
Ans: Separation of oxygenated and deoxygenated blood allows good supply of
oxygen to the body. This system is useful in animals that have high energy
requirement. Mammals and birds constantly need oxygen to get energy to maintain
their body temperature constant.
14. What are the components of the transport system in highly organised plants?
Ans: In highly organised plants there are two conducting tissues xylem and phloem.
• Xylem consists of vessels, tracheid and other xylem tissues. The interconnected
vessels and tracheid form a continuous system of water conducting channels
reaching all parts of the plant. Xylem carries water and minerals.
• Phloem conducts soluble products of photosynthesis from leaves to different parts of
the plant body.
15. How are water and minerals transported in plants?
Ans: The components of xylem tissue (tracheids and vessels) of roots, stems and
leaves are interconnected to form a continuous system of water conducting channels
that reaches all parts of the plant. Transpiration creates a suction pressure, as a
result of which water is forced into the xylem cells of the roots. Then there is a steady
movement of water from the root xylem to all the plant parts through the
interconnected water – conducting channels.
16. How is food transported in plants?
Ans: Phloem transports food materials from the leaves to different parts of the plant
body. The transportation of food in phloem is achieved by utilizing energy from ATP.
As a result of this, the osmotic pressure in the tissue increases causing water to move
into it. This pressure moves the material in the phloem to the tissues which have less
pressure. This is helpful in moving materials according to the needs of the plant. For
example, the food material, such as sucrose, is transported into the phloem tissue
using ATP energy.

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17. Describe the structure and functions of nephrons.

Ans: Structure of nephron:
• Each nephron is composed of two parts. First
one is a cup-shaped bag at its upper end which
is called Bowman’s capsule.
• The Bowman’s capsule contains a bundle of
blood capillaries which is called glomerulus.
• One end of the glomerulus is attached to the
renal artery which brings the impure blood
containing the urea waste into it. These
impurities are filtered.
• The other part of the nephron is coiled. In this
part, the substances like sugar (glucose),
amino acid, ions and excess water which are
required by the body, are reabsorbed.
• The substance remained in the nephron is
mainly urine containing dissolved urea in water which is expelled from the body
through urethra from time to time.
Function of nephron:
• Filtration of blood takes place in Bowman’s capsule from the capillaries of
glomerulus. The filtrate passes into the tubular part of the nephron. This filtrate
contains glucose, amino acids, urea, uric acid, salts and water.
• As the filtrate flows along the tubule, useful substances such as glucose, amino acids,
salts and water are selectively reabsorbed into the blood by capillaries surrounding
the nephron tubule.
• The filtrate which remained after reabsorption is called urine. Urine contains
dissolved nitrogenous waste like urea and uric acid, excess salts and water. Urine is
collected from nephrons to carry it to the ureter from where it passes into urinary
bladder.
18. What are the methods used by plants to get rid of excretory products?
Ans: Plant use different methods to get rid of excretory products
• The plants get rid of gaseous products-through stomata in leaves and lenticels in
stems.
• The plants get rid of stored solid and liquid waste by the shedding off leaves, peeling
off bark and felling off fruits.
• The plants get rid of wastes by secreting them in the form of gums and resins.
• Plants also excrete some waste substances into the soil around them.

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19. How is the amount of urine produced regulated?

Ans: The amount of urine produced depends on the amount of excess water and
dissolved waste present in the body. Other factors may be the environment and the
ADH hormone, which regulates the production of urine.
Inside Questions and Answers:
1. Define nutrition? What are the different modes of nutrition?
Ans: Nutrition is the process of intake, as well as utilization of nutrients by an
organism. The different modes of nutrition are saprophytic nutrition, parasitic
nutrition and holozoic nutrition.
2. What is the mode of nutrition in fungi?
Ans: Saprophytic nutrition is the mode of nutrition that is seen in fungi.
3. Name the pigment, which can absorb solar energy.
Ans: Chlorophyll is the pigment, which can absorb solar energy.
4. Name the two stages in photosynthesis.
Ans: The two stages in photosynthesis are
a) Light reaction and b) Dark reaction.
5. Name the factors, which affect photosynthesis.
Ans: The factors which affect photosynthesis, are light, water, temperature,
humidity, age of the leaf and carbon dioxide.

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