PHYSICS PROJECT

REPORT

Topic :
To Study the Variations in Current Flowing in a Circuit Containing an LDR
Due to:
(a) Variation in the Power of an Incandescent Lamp, Keeping the Distance
Fixed.
(b) Variation in the Distance of the Incandescent Lamp, Keeping the Power
Fixed

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Contents
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[Link] SETUP.......................................................................................................11
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[Link] of Error.......................................................................................................................20

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 ACKNOWLEDGMENT
I feel proud to present my investigatory project in chemistry on the “To
Study the Variations in Current Flowing in a Circuit Containing an
LDR Due to: (a) Variation in the Power of an Incandescent Lamp,
Keeping the Distance Fixed. (b) Variation in the Distance of the
Incandescent Lamp, Keeping the Power Fixed “ This project would
not have been feasible without the proper rigorous guidance of Physics
teacher Miss Kavya who guided me throughout this project in every possible
way. An investigatory project involves various difficult lab experiments,
which have to obtain the observations and conclude the reports on a
meaningful note. These experiments are very critical and in the case of
failure may result in disastrous consequences.

Thereby, I would like to thanks lab assistant Mr. Sudharshan for guiding
me on a systematic basis and ensuring that in completed all my
experiments with ease.

Rigorous hard work has put in this project to ensure that it proves to be
the best. I hope that it proves to be the best. I hope that this project will prove to
be a breeding ground for the next generation of students and will guide
them in every possible way.
I am also thankful to my family and friends for their encouragement.
Finally, I appreciate the school administration for providing

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[Link]
A light-dependent resistor (LDR), also known as a photoresistor, is a passive electronic component
whose resistance decreases as the intensity of light falling on it increases. This unique property
makes LDRs invaluable in light-sensing and control circuits. They are commonly used in devices such
as streetlights, alarm systems, photographic equipment, and automatic brightness adjusters.

When exposed to light, photons strike the semiconductor material of the LDR, creating free charge
carriers that reduce its resistance. This characteristic allows the LDR to respond to varying light
conditions, making it an effective tool for detecting and measuring light intensity.

This project is designed to analyze the behavior of an LDR in two distinct scenarios:

Variation in Lamp Power: Here, the power of an incandescent lamp is varied while maintaining a
fixed distance between the lamp and the LDR. This helps to determine the relationship between the
lamp's power (which determines light intensity) and the current flowing through the circuit.

Variation in Distance: In this case, the lamp's power is kept constant, and the distance between the
lamp and the LDR is varied. This setup explores the effect of light intensity changes due to distance
on the LDR's resistance and the resulting current.

By conducting these experiments, we can gain insights into the fundamental principles of light
intensity, electrical resistance, and their practical applications in circuits involving LDRs.

Light-dependent resistors (LDRs), also known as photoresistors, are devices whose resistance varies
with the intensity of light falling on them. They are commonly used in light-sensing circuits, including
streetlights, photographic devices, and alarms. This project aims to explore how the current through
an LDR changes with variations in:

The power of the light source.

The distance of the light source from the LDR.

Types of photoresistor:

Intrinsic photoresistor: Intrinsic photoresistor use un-doped semiconductor materials including

silicon or germanium. Photons fall on the LDR excite electrons moving them from the valence band
to the conduction band. As a result, these electrons are free to conduct electricity. The lighter that
falls on the device, the more electrons are liberated and the greater the level of conductivity, and this
results in a lower level of resistance.

Extrinsic photoresistor: Extrinsic photoresistor are manufactured from semiconductor of material

doped with impurities. These impurities or dopants create a new energy band above the existing
valence band. As a result, electrons need less energy to transfer to the conduction band because of
smaller energy gap.

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LDR Symbol:
The LDR symbol user in circuits is based around the resistor circuit symbol, but shows the light, in the
form of arrows shining on it.

Circuit symbols used for light dependent resistor / photoresistor

ABSTRACT: -

The general purpose photoconductive cell is also known as LDR – light dependent resistor. It is a type
of semiconductor and its conductivity changes with proportional change in the intensity of light.
There are two common types of materials used to manufacture the photoconductive cells. They are
Cadmium Sulphide (CdS) and Cadmium Selenide (CdSe). Extrinsic devices have impurities added,
which have a ground state energy closer to the conduction band - since the electrons don't have as
far to jump, lower energy photons (i.e. longer wavelengths and lower frequencies) are sufficient to
trigger the device. Two of its earliest applications were as part of smoke and fire detection systems
and camera light meters. The structure is covered with glass sheet to protect it from moisture and
dust and allows only light to fall on it.

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[Link]
 To observe and analyze the relationship between the current flowing through the LDR and the
power of the incandescent lamp at a fixed distance.
 To investigate the effect of the distance of an incandescent lamp on the current flowing
through the LDR while keeping the lamp’s power constant.
 To study the effect of varying the power of an incandescent lamp on the current flowing
through a circuit containing an LDR, while keeping the distance between the lamp and the
LDR constant.
 To investigate the relationship between the distance of an incandescent lamp and the current
flowing through a circuit containing an LDR, while keeping the lamp's power fixed.
 To observe and analyze how the LDR responds to changes in light intensity due to varying
lamp power and distance, providing insights into its light-dependent resistance behavior.
 To understand the practical applications of LDRs in light-sensing circuits and their
dependence on environmental factors such as light source power and distance.

MATERIALS REQUIRED
1. Light-dependent resistor (LDR)
2. Incandescent lamps of different powers (e.g., 40W, 60W, 100W)
3. Variable DC power supply
4. Resistors
5. Multimeter (to measure current and voltage)
6. Connecting wires
7. Ruler or measuring tape (for distance measurement)
8. Stand to hold the lamp

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[Link]
When light strikes an LDR, it causes electrons to be excited from the valence band to the conduction
band. This increases the number of charge carriers in the LDR, which in turn decreases its resistance.
The relationship between the resistance of an LDR and the intensity of light is given by the following
equation:

R = R0 / (1 + kI)

where:

 R is the resistance of the LDR

 R0 is the dark resistance of the LDR
 k is a constant
 I is the intensity of light

The resistance of an LDR decreases with increasing light intensity. According to Ohm’s Law: where is
the current, is the voltage, and is the resistance.

For an LDR:

The intensity of light decreases with distance according to the inverse square law: where is the
intensity and is the distance of the light source from the LDR.

The operation of an LDR relies on the following principles:

An LDR is a light-sensitive device whose resistance decreases as the intensity of incident light
increases. This property makes it a key component in light-sensing applications. The operation of an
LDR can be explained using Ohm's Law and principles of light intensity:

1. Ohm's Law: Here, is the current, is the voltage across the circuit, and is the resistance of the
LDR. As light intensity increases, the resistance of the LDR decreases, resulting in higher
current through the circuit.
I=VRI = \frac{V}{R}I=RV
Here, III is the current, VVV is the voltage, and RRR is the resistance. As light intensity increases, the
LDR’s resistance decreases, increasing current flow.

2. Resistance and Light Intensity Relationship: The resistance of the LDR is inversely
proportional to the intensity of the light falling on it. Higher light intensity reduces the
resistance of the LDR, allowing more current to flow.
The LDR’s resistance is inversely proportional to light intensity. Brighter light results in lower
resistance.

3. Inverse Square Law of Light: The intensity of light from a point source diminishes with
distance according to the inverse square law: where is the distance from the light source. As
the lamp is moved farther from the LDR, the light intensity decreases, leading to an increase
in resistance and a decrease in current.
Light intensity diminishes with distance according to:
I∝1d2I \propto \frac{1}{d^2}I∝d21
where ddd is the distance from the light source

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By combining these principles, the behavior of the LDR circuit under varying conditions of light
power and distance can be analyzed and understood.

LDR and its characteristics

when light is incident on it, a photon is absorbed and thereby it excites an electron from valence
band into conduction band. Due to such new electrons coming up in conduction band area, the
electrical resistance of the device decreases. Thus the LDR or photo- conductive transducer has the
resistance which is the inverse function of radiation intensity.

λ0 = threshold wavelength, in meters

e = charge on one electron, in Coulombs Ew = work function of the metal used, in Ev

Here we must note that any radiation with wavelength greater than the value obtained in above
equation CANNOT PRODUCE any change in the resistance of this device. The band gap energy of
Cadmium Sulphide is 2.42eV and for Cadmium Selenide it is1.74eV. Due to such large energy gaps,
both the materials have extremely high resistivity at room temperature.

1. Characteristics of photoconductive cells

Now when the device is kept in darkness, its resistance is called as dark resistance. This resistance is
typically of the order of 1013 ohms. When light falls on it, its resistance decreases up to several kilo
ohms or even hundreds of ohms, depending on the intensity of light, falling on it. The spectral
response characteristics of two commercial cells were compared in our laboratory. And we found
that there is almost no response to the radiation of a wavelength which was shorter than 300nm. It
was very interesting to note that the Cadmium Sulphide cell has a peak response nearer or within
the green color of the spectrum within a range of 520nm. Thus it can be used nearer to the infra-red
region up to 750nm. It was found that the maximum response of Cadmium Sulphoselenide is in the
yellow-orange range at 615nm and also it can be used in the infra-red region up to about 970nm.

2. Sensitivity
The sensitivity of a photo detector is the relationship between the light falling on the device and the
resulting output signal. In the case of a photocell, one is dealing with the relationship between the
incident light and the corresponding resistance of the cell.

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[Link] Response

Like the human eye, the relative sensitivity of a photoconductive cell is dependent on the wavelength
(color) of the incident light. Each photoconductor material type has its own unique spectral response
curve or plot of the relative response of the photocell versus wavelength of light.

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[Link] SETUP
Circuit Diagram:

1. Connect the LDR in series with a resistor and a DC power supply.

2. Connect a multimeter in series to measure the current.
3. Place the incandescent lamp at a measured distance from the LDR.
Circuit Diagram: The experimental setup consists of an LDR connected in series with a resistor and a
DC power supply. A multimeter is included to measure the current in the circuit. The incandescent
lamp is positioned to illuminate the LDR at varying distances or with varying power. The setup is
arranged as follows:

1. Assembling the Circuit:

 Connect the LDR in series with a fixed resistor to form a voltage divider circuit.
 Connect the circuit to a variable DC power supply, ensuring the polarity is correct.
 Attach a multimeter in series to measure the current flowing through the circuit.
Alternatively, connect a voltmeter across the resistor to measure voltage drops for
calculating current indirectly.
2. Positioning the Lamp:
 Place an incandescent lamp on a stand to ensure stability during measurements.
 Use a ruler or measuring tape to maintain accurate distances between the LDR and the
lamp.
 Ensure that the LDR is directly exposed to the light source, and no other light sources
interfere with the experiment.
3. Ensuring Consistency:
 Keep the LDR and the lamp at the same height to ensure uniform exposure.
 Avoid shadows or obstructions between the lamp and the LDR.
4. Safety Precautions:
 Handle electrical components with care to avoid short circuits.
 Ensure that the incandescent lamp does not overheat and is operated within its specified
voltage.

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[Link]
Circuit Diagram: -
Procedure:
 Draw a diagram showing the scheme of the connections as shown in fig.
 Make the connections as given in the diagram. Arrange the incandescent lamp and LDR so that they
are in same straight line, and make sure that both are stable.
 To find the resistance, set the Multimeter to ohm section and select Suitable range and measure the
resistance of LDR with a bulb on.
 In Multimeter select the switch to microampere to get current.
 Switch on the bulb and take different readings with different power sources played at same distance.
 Now repeat these steps again with different power sources at different distances and repeat the
observations.

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 1. Set up the circuit as shown in the diagram below.

circuit diagram with LDR, incandescent lamp, power supply,

ammeter, voltmeter, resistor, and connecting wires
2 Set the power supply to a constant voltage.
3 Measure the current flowing through the circuit using the
ammeter.
4 Repeat steps 2 and 3 for different values of the power of the
incandescent lamp.
5 Repeat steps 2-4 for different distances between the lamp and
the LDR.

Part A: Variation with Lamp Power

1. Fix the distance between the LDR and the lamp (e.g., 20 cm).
2. Connect the circuit as per the diagram.
3. Turn on the first lamp (e.g., 40W) and record the current
reading.
4. Replace the lamp with one of higher power (e.g., 60W, 100W)
and record the corresponding current readings.
5. Repeat for all available lamp powers.
Part B: Variation with Distance

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 1. Select a single lamp of fixed power (e.g., 60W).
2. Position the lamp at an initial distance (e.g., 10 cm) from the
LDR.
3. Measure and record the current.
4. Increase the distance in steps (e.g., 10 cm increments) and
record the current at each step.
5. Repeat until a significant drop in current is observed.
Part A: Variation with Lamp Power
1. Set Up the Circuit:
o Assemble the circuit by connecting the LDR in series with
a fixed resistor and a DC power supply.
o Ensure all connections are secure and attach the
multimeter to measure current.
2. Position the Lamp:
o Fix the distance between the incandescent lamp and the
LDR to a constant value (e.g., 20 cm). Use a ruler or
measuring tape to measure the distance accurately.
o Place the lamp on a stand to maintain its position
throughout the experiment.
3. Conduct the Experiment:
o Turn on the first lamp (e.g., 40W) and allow it to stabilize
for a few seconds.
o Measure the current in the circuit using the multimeter
and record the value.
o Replace the 40W lamp with a lamp of higher power (e.g.,
60W), keeping the distance constant.

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 o Repeat the measurement process for all the available
lamp powers (e.g., 40W, 60W, 100W).
o Record all current readings in a table.
4. Ensure Consistency:
o Avoid any external light sources interfering with the LDR
during measurements.
o Ensure the LDR and lamp are at the same height for
uniform exposure.

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[Link]
The experiment has been conducted by using various sources with
different power ratings. Voltage of the battery= 6 V.

APPLICATIONS: -
Lead sulfide (PbS) and indium antimonide (InSb) LDRs are used for
the mid infrared spectral region. GeCu photoconductors are among
the best far infrared detectors available, and are used for infrared
astronomy and infrared spectroscopy.
Analog Applications
1.)
 · Camera Exposure Control
 · Auto Slide Focus - dual cell
 · Photocopy Machines - density of toner
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 · Colorimetric Test Equipment
 · Densitometer
 · Electronic Scales - dual cell
 · Automatic Gain Control – modulated light source
 · Automated Rear View Mirror

2.) Digital Applications

 · Automatic Headlight Dimmer
 · Night Light Control
 · Oil Burner Flame Out
 · Street Light Control
 · Position Sensor

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[Link] of Error

 The LDR may not be perpendicular to the source.

 Connections may be faulty.
 Experiment should be conducted in a dark room.
 Measurements should be taken accurately.

PRECAUTIONS
1. Ensure all electrical connections are secure to avoid short
circuits.
2. Keep the LDR and the lamp steady during measurements.
3. Avoid external light sources interfering with the readings.
4. Use the same LDR throughout the experiment for consistent
results.
APPLICATIONS
1. Automatic lighting systems
2. Light intensity measurement
3. Security systems

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 CONCLUSION

This study confirms that the current through an LDR circuit is directly
proportional to the light intensity falling on it. Higher power lamps
provide greater illumination, leading to increased current, while
increasing the distance between the lamp and the LDR reduces the
current.

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 BIBLIOGRAPHY
1. Physics Textbook for Class 12
2. Online resources on LDR applications
3. Manufacturer’s datasheet for the LDR

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