-

~ ~ 1 ~FACE
7 TO
4 FACE COMMUNICATION
VS.
TELEPHONIC COMMUNICATION
&
SENDING MEMOS
Structure
Objectives
Introduction
What is Communication?
34.2.1 Some definitions of communication
34.2.2 The process of communication
34.2.3 Elements of communication
34.2.4 The role of the decoder
34.2.5 Macro functions of communication
Barriers to communication
The Importance of business communication
Different types of Communication
34.5.1 Written, oral and gestural
34.5.2 Downward, upward and horizontal communication
34.5.3 Formal and informal communication
Written vs. oral communication
Let Us Sum Up
Suggested Reading
Answers
End Unit questions

34.0 OBJECTIVES

In this unit we shall tell you about communication, its different types and its
I
importance in business contexts. We also talk about written communication versus
oral communication.

After you have gone through this unit you should be able to know the advantages and
disadvantages of these two media of communication in business contexts and when to
I
select an appropriate form of one of these two media for effective cornmunic~tionin
business transactions.
I
I

34.1 INTRODUCTION

In this unit we will introduce you to some basic concepts in communication, its
I importance in business organisations, different types of communications, different
forms to be used, and their comparative advantages and disadvantages.

34.2 WHAT IS COMMUNICATION?

Open the chapter on Communication in any book on Business Management and you
find that it begins with defining what communication is. This is also true of books on
Business Communication available at book shops. Of course, we all engage in
Business CommuniCII~iDn; communication with others right from our birth. When we interact with others we are
Oral Skills communicating with them. Right now I am communicating with you through this
unit and while you are reading it you, too, are in fact communicating with me through
this text.

34.2.1 Some Definitions of Communication

Before we look at some of the definitions, can you try and define this word
communication on the basis of your own experience? Better write down your
definition on a piece of paper. If you have your class-mates with you or if you are
working in a group, then you may like to discuss the word with others before putting
down your definition on a piece of paper. What is your definition? Compare it with
those given by others in your class.

Let us now see how the word communication has been defined by scholars and
researchers.

Homby's Oxford Advanced Learner's Dictionav of Current English gives the

meaning of this word as the act of passing on news, information, feelings; sharing or
exchanging news, etc.

"Communication is the process of passing information and understanding from one

person to another".
--Keith Davis

"Communication is a way that one organisation member shares meaning and

understanding with another."
--Koontz and O'Donnell

"Communication may broadly be defined as a process of meaningful interaction

among human beings. More specially, it is the process by which meanings are
perceived and understandings are reached among human beings".
--Delton E. McFarland

34.2.2 The Process of Communication

The following figure gives a simple model of the process of communication:-

decod~ng
SENDER RECEIVER
encoder Gecodcr
wrlter reader
Speaker spoken ltslener

Check Your Progress 1

Look at the figure given above and try to answer the following questions:

1. At least how many persons do you need for communication to take place'?

2. Can two ~ e o ~communicate

le if they do not share the same language?
 ,"
-, Face to Face
3. If your answer to 4 2 above is 'yes', then explain how they will communicate. Cornrnu~~icatio~~

4. A saint sitting with his eyes closed says he is communicating with God. Do
you think it is an example of communication? Give reasons for your answer.

5. A person was lost in his thoughts wit11 his eyes closed. When asked he said
that he was communicating with self. Would you term it as communication?
Discuss with others in your group or with your partner.

34.2.3 Elements of communication

. If we look at the figure given above we can derive the elements of communication as
follows:

1. Communication involves at least two persons: (a) The addresser and (b) the
addressee.
2. The topic: the contents of the message
3. The channel: the medium through which the message travels, e.g. letter,
telephone.
4. The code: the language of the message e.g. English, French, Hindi, etc.
5. The message form: the selection of particular grammar and lexical choices of
the message.
6. The setting: the social and physical setting.

Check Your Progress 2

Look at the figure once again. Can you write a paragraph now explaining the process
of communication? Try and put it down in your notebook.

On the left is the addresser. He can choose to write his message or equally well
speak it. So we can use the more general word encoder for him. The encoder has a
message. It may be news, an idea, a feeling. He wants to convey this message to
somebody. To make this possible he must first put it into words, i.e. he must encode
r it. Once it is encoded, it is available outside his mind as a text (written or spoken).
The text is accessible to the mind of another person who hears or reads it, that is, who
decodes the message the text contains. Once it is decoded, the message enters the
mind of the decoder and communication takes place.
b

34.2.4 The Role of the Decoder

The process of decoding by the addressee is not passive as some people think.
Hisher role is an active one. Language it is said does nc: L v e meaning; it has
potential for meaning and it is the decoder who is actively engaged in making
meaning on the basis of hisher background knowledge and the context of
' communication e.g. the knowledge of the subject, topic, addresser-addressee
relationship, knowledge of the code, the physical and social context, etc.

Let us consider the following utterance:

'Mr. Smith is not coming.'

The textual meaning of the sentence is not difficult; it is quite clear but do we know
what the speaker wants to convey? Is it a statement for our information? Is it a
warning for the hearer? We can understand this text only if we know what the
context is, i.e. who is the addresser; whom he is addressing; when, where and in what
context. Suppose the addresser is the Managing Director (MD) of a company; the
addressee is his Secretary; the MD utters these words on arriving in his office and
going through a fax message; Mr. Smith is a consultant with the foreign collaborators
Business Communication: of the company; and he was due to arrive that day for a meeting with the MD and
Oral Skills other officials of the company. If we possess this background knowledge, we will be
able to understand the meaning of the sentence uttered by the MD. This sentence can
now be called an utterance in this context. The secretary can interpret the utterauce
to mean: 'The meeting will have to be cancelled and the officials informed
accordingly. Arrangements such as sending the car to the airport, hotel reservation,
etc., if any, made for Mr. Smith, will have to be ca$celled', etc. etc.

When we make an utterance we always do something; we use language to perform

some function, e.g. to inform, warn, promise, persuade, etc. and the hearer or the
reader can derive the meaning of an utterance only through actively processing the
utterance in the context in which it is made.

Check Your Progress 3

Can you think of some of the functions of language? One can be to 'inform',
someone; or 'warn'. Think of some more functions and compare'your list with those
drawn up by others in ydur group.

34.2.5 Macro Functions of Communication

The macro functions of communication are listed below:

1. The emotive function: to communicate the inner states and emotions, e.g. oh
no!
2. The directive function: seeking to affect the behaviour of others, e.g. Close
the door, please.
3. The phatic function: opening the channel or checking that it is working, e.g.
Hello, is it Thomas Cooks? or Canyou hear me, Mrs. Gupta?
4. The poetic function: the particular form chosen is the essence of the
message.
5. The referential function: to carry information.
6. The metalinguistic function: focusing attention on the code itself, e.g. 'the
use of both will or shaN is correct in modern usage.'
7. The contextual function: creating a particular kind of context, e.g. Right!
Let3 start the meeting now.

Check Your Progress 4

Which of these functions are often performed in business situations? Give examples
to support your answer.
 Face to Face
34.3 BARRIERS TO COMMUNICATION Communication
I d

I It is said that communication can never be hundred per cent complete. Many factors
are involved and something can always go wrong with one or more of these. From
your own experience, make a list of some of the factors that can impede
communication.

Let us now consider some of these barriers:

a. Code, i.e. the addresser and the addressee may not share the same language
between them. The addresser is speaking in French and the addressee does
not know French.
b. Vacabulary: The market declined underpersistent bear hamntering. One who
is not familiar with the specialized vocabulary of the stock market may not ,
understand what is meant.
c. Concept: Schemas are cognitive constructs.
d. Background knowledge and shared assumptions e.g. a Victorian style
mansion.
e. Pronunciation, intonation, accent and stress in spoken language.
f. Culture specific communication.
g. Physical environment: Noise and other environmental disturbances or even
physical distance between the addresser and the addressee can impede
effective communication.
h. Affective factors: Personal factors, e.g. anxiety, fear, attitude, motivation,
beliefs, values, lack of mutual trust, lack of time or pressure of work, lack of
attention ,and personal rivalries.

Exercise 5

How can the barriers to communication be removed? Discuss with others in your
,I group or class.

34.4 THE IMPORTANCE OF COMMUNICATION IN

BUSINESS

In order to understand the importance of communication in business, we must first

understand the nature, organization, objective and functions of business firms.
Modem business houses are not simply sole proprietorship concerns or small
partnership firms. They are very complex business conglomerates, which have many
branches in different parts of the country and even in soine foreign countries. They
employ a large work force and have many departments to look after the various
aspects of business. These different departments may be located in different storeys
of a building, in different rooms on the same floor, or sometimes in different
buildings in a city. Although it consists of various departments, branches and many
employees at various levels of management, it must act like a living organism for
effective results. In spite of individual differences, all must think alike, move in the
same direction, with the same purpose and act in unison for achieving the common
goal.

Let us look at the organisation of company ABC given in the figure below:-
 Board of Directors

i
Busirress Communication:
Oral Skills Managin Director

General Manager

+
Manager
+
Manager
+
Manager
f
Manager
Personnel Finance Production Marketing

Quality Control
+
Marketing
T

+
Service and Main-
Engineer Officers tenance Engineers

Foreman Salesman Mechanics

How can all these employees at different levels act in unison if they do not
communicate with each other? Cornnlunication thus is the essence of good business
management.

Check Your Progress 5

Think of some of the advantages of communication in a business house at different
levels, i.e. board of directors; between the directors and the managers; among the
managers managing different departments; between the managers and the supervisory
staff; and between the supervisors and the workers.

34.5 DIFFERENT TYPES OF COMMUPIJICATION

Communication may be classified into several categories on the following bases:-

1. Expression: Written, oral and gestural

2. Flow: Internal (Vertical & Horizontal) and external
3. Relationship: Formal and informal

34.5.1 Various Media of Expression (Written, Oral & Gestural)

Communication can be achieved through various media, such as writing, speech,
gestures and actions. One can use written words or draw pictures or one can use
speech sounds. Speech is primary, writing secondary, that is, speech came first and
the writing system is developed later on. There may still be some languages which
are spoken but not written. Deaf and dumb use actions and gestures in order to
communicate with each other -- it is also a language, but they can communicate with
ordinary people only by using commonly understood actions and gestures e.g. asking
for water by cupping your hand near your mouth.

In business, communicating in writing is the most popular form of communication. It

can take various forms such as letters, circulars, office memorandums, telegrams, fax
 Face to Face
messages, newsletters, brochures, bulletins, reports, manuals, house journals, Communication
magazines, etc. You are already familiar with some of these.

This does not mean that oral communication is not used in business transactions.
Speech is also used and quite often. It takes the form of face-to-face interaction,
telephone conversations, lectures and talks, meetings and discussions, etc.

Expression through body language is known as gestural communication. Who is

not familiar with the nodding of the head from side to side to say no or up and down
to convey yes? Parents often use this means of communication with their children if
they tend to be naughty in the presence of guests and it is often used in business
situations as well in similar circumstances or when verbal communication is
impossible e.g. in the factory where the noise of machinery makes verbal
communication difficult.
b
Check Your Progress 6

Can you think of a situation when gestural communication would be more effective
than oral communication? What kind of messages can be communicated through
gestures? Give some examples from your own experience.

Pictures, charts, diagrams are also used either on their own or in combination with
written or oral communication for greater effect and better understanding Business
houses make use of them in their illustrated catalogues and brochures meant to
promote their product.

34.5.2 Downward, Upward & Horizontal Communication

Companies have to communicate with outside agencies and other companies,

government and private bodies, newspapers, advertisers, manufacturers of plant and
machinery, builders, suppliers of goods and services, clients and customers; etc. But
there is also the need to communicate within the company itself, e.g. communication
between a superior and a subordinate, i.e. from higher to lower levels of authority.
I This is an example of downward communication. There are also occasions when
, communication flows from a subordinate or subordinates to a higher authority. It
t
may be a r~port,suggestion, opinion or a charter of demands from the workers. We
call this upward cornrnunication. Both these are forms of vertical communications.

Communication between officers working at the same level of management is called

horizontal or lateral communication e.g. interaction between Manager (Production)
and Manager (Marketing). It involves exchange of ideas, information, opinions or
seeking clarifications, etc. between personnel of the same rank.

34.5.3 Formal & Informal Communications

In business, these two terms are used in a bit different sense than what we generally
understand by them. Communication done through the chain of demand is known as
fannal communication. It involves the transmission of official message in the formal
organisation structure. Such communication is planned and established by
management and clearly indicates the authority relationships involved and these
generally are in writing e.g. orders, decisions, instructions, etc.

Informal communication does not flow through the official channels of

communication. These arise out of the informa'tion relations and is also known as the
grapevine. It involves the spontaneous expression of reactions and ideas and is
sJsiness Communjca~ion: usually done orally e.g. rumour, gossip. Hence it may cany incomplete or incorrect
oral Skills information.
The wordsformal and informal are also used to indicate change in form and language
of communication according to change in relationship between the addresser and the
addressee and the context of situation. For example, you will use informal language
while talking to your brother at home. But if your brother also happens to be your
boss in office and a formal meeting is going on in office, you will address him in a
different way, i.e. in formal style.

34.6 WRITTEN VS. ORAL COMMUNICATION

When we speak of language as a tool for communication, we mean both spoken and
written forms of the language. Both these modes can be used for communication.
While they perform the same functions, their form and manner of use differ in many
respects. For example, one makes use of sounds, other of symbols. The speaker has
available to h i d e r the full range of voice quality effects, as well as facial
expressions, postural and gestural systems, but these paralinguistic features are
denied to the writer. The writer, on the other hand, has typographical variety at
hidher disposal. The speaker is face-to-face with the hearer while the writer writes
for an absent reader who may also be far away in space and time.

These different features have their own advantages and disadvantages. In oral
communication the speaker, being face-to-face with the hearer can monitor and match
the reactions of the hearer. At the same time dhe can simultaneously plan hidher
next utterance and fit it in the overall pattern of what s h e wants to say. She must
keep on talking during the period allotted to himiher; dhe must decide when to take
hidher turn, how to interrupt hidher interlocutor, how to hand over the turn - in fact
s h e must be in command of all the conversational skills. S h e has certain advantages
as well; dhe can observe hidher interlocutor and, if necessary, modify what dhe is
saying. Oral communication is quicker, more economical and more effective than
written communication. Doubts and misunderstandings can be cleared on the spot as
immediate reaction and response is available.

But it has certain disadvantages also. There are variations in spoken language and
also in the way it is delivered. These could be on account of geographical or social
and cultural differences. There are dialectical differences. accent differences and also
differences in the use of paralinguistic features and body language. Speech is less
organised than written language; it contains many incomplete sentences; often it
contains simply sequences of phrases. These features may easily create
misunderstandings. Oral communication is less reliable because it is not available in
future; it is also affected by the attitudes and personality, self-interest, beliefs, values
and prejudices of the sender as well as the receiver and also the time and
circumstances of the communication. Oral communication is also not suitable for
lengthy messages to be communicated to distant and widely scattered people.

Similarly the written mode gives the writer certain advantages as well as
disadvantages over the speaker. Since the writer is writing for an absent reader, dhe
may look oY7er, reflect, and edit what dhe has already written, with no fear of being
interrupted by hidher interlocutor; slhe can take hidher own time in choosing a
particular word, even looking it up in the dictionary, if necessary, reorder what dhe
has written, and even change hidher mind about what s h e has to say. S h e is under
no pressure to keep on writing; dhe can even destroy what dhe has written and throw
it into the dustbin without fear of offending the reader. But the writer has
disadvantages too: she has no access to immediate feedback and simply has to
imagine the reader's reactions. This non-reciprocal nature of written communication
makes it more difficult to learn.
Written communication ensures the transmission of information in a uniform manner Face to Face
and there is little risk of unauthorized alteration in the message. Since it is put in Communication
black and white, it provides a permanent record for future reference. Written
communication tends to be complete, precise and unambiguous. The message can be
repeated at regular intervals and lengthy messages can be sent to widely scattered
readers. But written communication is time-consuming, expensive and rigid and it
becomes difficult to maintain secrecy.

In the business world, face-to-face and telephone communications are generally

confirmed in writing by post particularly when the communication is with the world
outside. Why do you think is it necessary to do so? Discuss with others in your
group the comparative advantages and disadvantages of the telephonic mode of
communication over face-to-face interaction.

Check Your Progress 7

1. Which mode of communication would you adopt in the following cases:-

a) The message is very urgent.

b) The message is important and lengthy.
c) The message sent should be available in the records.
d) The information is to be sent to all employees in different branches.
e) You have to consult your boss, who is out of town, urgently and take
a quick decision.

2. a) How does telephone communication differ from face-to-face

communication? Are both these forms of oral communication?

b) You are the Marketing Manager of a firm. You want to hire a sales
supervisor. Which form of communication would you use to
communicate your requirement to the Manager (Personnel)? Would
you prefer to talk to him personally, over the phone, write a letter or
memo? Give reasons for your answer.

34.7 LET US SUM UP

In this unit we have tried to understand what communication is and defined it as the
process of meaninghl interaction between two or more persons with a view to
arriving at a common meaning and understanding. Communication can be achieved
through use of language, written or spoken, and gestures. There are different types of
communication and these are used on different occasions. Each of these mode of
communication has its own advantages and disadvantages. Communication may
involve repeated interactions or negotiations of meaning and the addresser and the
susiness ~orn,,,u,,ication~ addressee play active roles in this process. Effective communication in business is as
Oral Skills important as the blood circulating in the human body and hence managers do their
best to overcome all barriers to communication.

34.8 SUGGESTED READING

1. Brown, Gillian and George Yule. 1983. Discourse Analysis. Cambridge:

Cambridge University Press.
2. Newman, William H., Charles E. Summers and Kirby E. Warren. 1979. The
Process of Management. Delhi: Prentice Hall.
3. Halliday, M.A.K. 1989. Spoken and Written Language. Oxford. Oxford
University Press.
4. Hymes, Dell. 1962. 'The Ethnography of Speaking.' In J.A. Fishman (ed.).
1968. Readings in the Sociology of Language. The Hague. Mouton.

Answers

Check Your Progress 1

1. Two persons. 2. Yes. 3. Limited communication is possible through gestures. 4.

No. We'll not term it social communication. 5 , Same as 4.

34.9 END UNIT OUESTIONS

1. What is communication? Discuss its importance in business and industrial

world.
2. Explain the various forms of communication generally used in modem
business organisation.
3. Explain the advantages of face-to-face communication over written
communication.
4. Describe the bamers to communication. How can communication be made
effective?
5. Write short notes on (a) horizontal & vertical communications; and (b)
formal and informal communications.
6. Mr. Malhotra, Managing Director of ABC Distributors Ltd., New Delhi reads
the following advertisement one morning:

WANTED EXCLUSIVE DISTRIBUTORS

FOR
INDIGENOUSLY DEVELOPED MILK-CHOCOLATE DRINK

Leading Milk Producers' Cooperative with extensive sales of milk-products

wishes to introduce an indigenously - developed delicious milk-chocolate
drink. We are looking for a distributor with good financial backing and
excellent commercial experience in the consumer market. Write to the
Managing Director, P.O. Box 332, Dharamshala, H.P.

Mr. Malhotra is interested in getting this distributorship for his company and plans to
discuss the proposal with his general manager in the office. On reaching office he
peeps into his secretary's room who is already there and has the following
conversation:
MD: Malti.
PS: Good morning, sir. (In [Link] tend to use the first name and not 'sir' when Face to Face
they know the addressee very well). Communication
MD: Morning. Will you come to my office for a moment? ring along today's
paper with you.
PS: Which paper sir?
MD: Economic Times.
PS: O.K. sir.

What has been the advantage of this face-to-face communication between the
MD and his PS?
Would the conversation be different if he were to talk to her on telephone
(intercom)? Draft this interaction on intercom between the two.
Do you think he should have sent her a written communication? Draft this
communication. What would be the advantages/disadvantagesof this mode
of communication over (a) and (b) above.

Mr. Malhotra later on asks his PS to fix a meeting with the general manager
at 2.30 p.m. the same day so that he can discuss the proposition with him.

How should she communicate this to the GM? Draft it.

After discussion, MD wants GM to try for this business. How will the GM '
communicate with the advertiser? Try to draft this communication. Who do
you think ought to sign this communication?
What action will the addressee take when they receive the letter from AB.C?
You may like to decide the mode of communication to be used, the
addressee(@,and also prepare draft(s) for approval.
,,
UNIT 35 DIFFERENT TYPES OF FACE-TO-FACE
INTERACTIONS
Structure
Objectives
Introduction
Different Types of Face-to-Face Interactions
Conversations
Characteristics & Conventions of Conversation
35.4.1 Co-operative & Politeness Principles
35.4.2 Adjacency Pairs
35.4.3 Openings and Closings
35.4.4 Topic Development
35.4.5 Turn Taking
35.4.6 Repairs
Conversational Problems of Foreign Language Learners
Criteria for Assessing Conversational Skills
Some Language Functions and How to Perform them
Difference Between Conversation & Other Speech Events
Let Us Sum Up
Suggested Reading
Activities

35.0, OBJECTIVES

The aim of this unit is to introduce you to different types of face-to-face interactions,
particularly those often used in business communications, their characteristic
features, what is it that constitute communicative competence, and how to attain this
competence in the world of business.

35.1 INTRODUCTION

In unit 38 we have already introduced you to some basic concepts of communication,

its importance in the world of business, different types of business communications
and finally the difference between face-to-face communication and written
communication with particular reference to memos and telephonic communication.
In this unit we will explore different types of face-to-face interaction in which one
has often to engage in business transactions, such as conversation, e.g. social
interaction, performing various functions; and other speech events such as
discussions, debates, meetings, interviews, lectures, sales talk, etc.

35.2 DIFFERENT TYPES OF FACE-TO-FACE

INTERACTIONS

Brown & Yule (1983) use-only two terms to describe the major functions of
language. The function of language where the transfer of information is involved is
called transactional, and that function involved in expressing social relations and
personal attitudes is called interactional.
 Different Types of Face
(1) (a) A: There's no message for you. to Face Interactio~l
B: OK.
@> A: How are you?
B: Fine, thank you.

In the world of business one has to make use of language for performing both of
these functions. In business transactions, different situations may arise when one has
" to use language for different types of face-to-face interactions: (1) conversation for
establishing social contact, performing various functions such as introducing oneself
and others, making inquiries, giving and seeking information, giving instructions,
reporting conversations, giving the company's profile, describing persons, places and
processes, developing relationships, getting people to do things, offering help,
seeking help, apologizing, persuading, elaborating, arguing a point, explaining a
situation, comparing two products, negotiating business deals, asking for and giving
advice, etc. (2) participating in discussions, (3) taking part and conducting meetings
and interviews, (4) lecturing (5) demonstrating company's product, (6) talking about
where you work, describing simple and everyday operations, describing work and
business operations, describing office working conditions, consulting and report~ngto
superiors, asking for and giving advice, talking about problems at work, etc.

-
35.3 CONVERSATION

You are already aware of social interaction in business i.e. meeting and greeting
people in business, and developing a conversation. From your observation, can you
recall/derive some rules of face-to- face conversation? Do you think there are rules
for conversation in every language of the world which native speakers learn naturally
as part of their growing up in that society and follow these rules in their conversation
with other native speakers? Discuss this with others in your group.

. Human beings spend a large part of their lives engaging in conversation and for most
of us conversation is among our most significant and engrossing activities. We have
already described, in the previous unit, the importance of communication, particularly
face-to-face communication, in business organisations. Researchers from a great
many academic disciplines have looked at conversation as an object of inquiry and
come up with fascinating findings. Our understanding of how people conduct
conversations has been enriched by observations made by psychologists and linguists,
among others.

Before we describe the rules of conversation, let us be clear about the term
conversation. As Richards and Schmidt point out, the term conversation is used
somewhat ambiguously in current literature. It is used sometimes to refer to any
spoken encounter or interaction and sometimes, more restrictedly, to:

...talk occurring when a small number of participants come together

and settle into what they perceive to be a few moments cut off from
(or carried on to the side of) instrumental tasks; a period of idling felt
to be an end in itself, during which everyone is accorded the r~ghtto
talk as well as to listen and without reference to a fixed schedule;
everyone is accorded the status of someone whose overall evaluation
of the subject matter at hand ... is to be encouraged and treated with
respect; and no final agreement or synthesis is demanded, differences
of opinion to be treated as unprejudlcial to the continuing
relationship of the parties. (Goffman 1076)

All talk, it is pointed out, is rooted in its surroundings. But conversation in th;IS more
restricted sense is not very firmly rooted to the world as other kitids of utterances.
The activities which are directly governed by norms for the usr of speech arc terrned
I
As speech events, conversations can be contrasted with other types of
~ ~ ~ i ~ ~C~o~m m u n ~ ~ j o n : speech events.
Oral Skills speech events such as lectures, discussions, interviews, debates and meetings.

35.4 CHARACTERISTICS & CONVENTIONS OF

CONVERSATION
'35.4.1 The Cooperative & Politeness Principle

Conversation is more than merely the exchange of information. When people take
part in conversation, they bring to the conversational process shared assumptions and
expectations about what conversation is, how conversation develops, and the sort of
contribution they are each expected to make. When people engage in conversation
they share common principles of conversation that lead them to interpret each other's
utterances as contributing to conversation.

One of the assumptions we make when we take part in conversation is that if I ask
you a question, whatever you say will somehow be interpretable as constituting an
answer to my question. Consider the following example:

(2) A: Which generator did you buy?

B: It is aHonda.

Let us now consider the following:

(3) A: Which generator did you buy?

B: You could have killed it.

In this latter case the speaker B does not seem to have followed the principle
described above and hence the resulting exchange is uninterpretable.

The philosopher Grice has described four Maxims or Principles of Cooperative

Behaviour which speakers observe in conversation. These are:

1. Maxim of Quantity: Make your contribution just as informative as

required.
2. Maxim of Quality: Make your contribution one that is true.
3. Maxim of Relation: Make your contribution relevant.
4. Maxim of Manner: Avoid obscurity and ambiguity. Be brief and
orderly.

Conversation is more than a series of exchanges; it consists of exchanges which are

initiated and interpreted according to intuitively understood and socially acquired
rules and norms of conversational cooperation. These can in turn be manipulated to
create a wide range of meanings beyond the level expressed directly by the utterances
in the conversation themselves. Consider the following example:

(4) . A: It is very hot in here.

B: I'll open the window.

We can infer the meaning of B's response. The room is hot, probably because the
windows are closed, so if the window is opened cool fresh air will come in and cool
the rooin. B's response is thus quite relevant and interpretable.

Check Your Progress 1

1. What do you think can be the relationship between A & B?

 Find examples from your own mother-tongue when people say things in this Different Types of
2.
Face to Face
way, known as 'indirect speech acts.' Interaction
- We also know that the rules of conversational implicature, dependent on
manipulating the four maxims, can be used to express sarcasm, irony, criticism and a
range of other types of inferential meaning. Consider the following exchange:

(5) A: How is the food?

B: There is plenty to fill your belly.

B is manipulating the maxims of conversational implicature to suggest that the other

qualities of the food are not worth mentioning.

However, in business world the emphasis is on clarity of communication and indirect

f
spee h acts and manipulation of maxims are generally avoided.

The Lelevance of Grice's Maxims to conversation in a secondlforeign language is

dependent on the degree to which such maxims are universal or language specific. In
Indian culture, for example, even during an interview for a job candidates are very
- modest while talking about themselves and their achievements; while in the European
context the tendency is to display oneself to an extent which an Indian might term
'boakting, or 'bragging'. For them 'self praise is no recommendation'.

35.4.2 Adjacency Pairs

One way in which meanings are communicated and interpreted in conversation is

through the use of what have been called adjacencypairs. Adjacency pairs are
utterances produced by two successive speakers such that the second utterance is
identified as related to the fust as an expected follow-up. The two form a pair, the
first utterance constituting a fust pair part and the next utterance constituting a second
pair part. Adjacency pair is described as the basic structural unit in conversation.
Consider the following examples of adjacency pairs:

(6) (a) Greeting-Greeting A: Hi.

B: Hi.
(b)Compliment-Acceptance A: That's a nice hat.
B: Thanks.

The basic rule of adjacency pair operation is that when a speaker produces a
recognizable first pair part, s h e should stop talking and the conversational partner
should produce a recognizable second pair part. Adjacency pairs thus provide for
turn-taking, and also prescribe the type of talking that the next talker can do.

Check Your Progress 2

Supply appropriate adjacency pairs for the following:-

(7) Summons-Answer Mother: Johnny!

Johnny: .............
Farewell-Farewell A: O.K. See you.
B: ..............
Question-Answer Customer: Do you have fresh apples?
Shopkeeper: ...........
For some iidiacency pairs, there is much more freedcm for conversationalists
responding to Srqt pair parts, with several options available as seccnd pair parts:

(8), Complaint A: Who took away the keys of my car?

Apology B: S o q.
Blisiness Communication: Denial B: No, I didn't. It must have been Surindra.
Oral Skills Justify B: I needed them to bring the baby back from
School.
Excuse B: You shouldn't have left them here.
Challenge B: So what?

Check Your Progress 3

Produce appropriate second part adjacency pairs as shown in the brackets for the
following:

(9) Compliment A: That's a nice hat.

(Acceptance) B:
(Agreement) B:
(Rejection) B:
(Topic shift) B:
(Return) B:

35.4.3 Openings and Closings

Conversations, it is pointed out, do not simply begin and end. The openings and
closings of conversations and other types of speech events are organized and
[Link] transitions from a state of non-talk to talk or from talk to non-talk, require
engineered solutions. Openings and closings are problematic for the native speakers
as well and have to be learnt like other social behaviours. For non- native speakers it
is an area which needs special attention.

Openings and closings are speech event-specific. For a formal meeting, for example,
there is an initial summons (a memo, circular along with the agenda, etc.) We will
talk about this topic in some detail when we discuss below different types of face-to- :

face interaction.

A conversation is quite different from many other speech events in that it has no
specified setting, no time or place, no require roles other than 'persons' involved
(though some external roles such as boss/secretary may not be shed), no pre-specified
agenda, and a quorum of simply two or more. Like other speech activities, however,
conversations must be opened, and commonly this is done through the use of an
adjacency pair such as Greeting-Greeting, Request-Grant, Question-Answer, or
Statement-Response as in the following speech event:

Good morning.
Morning. Can I help you?
I want to see [Link].
Which [Link] do you want? We've two Bhatnagar in this
office.
Mr.Muku1 Bhatnagar. He's Director (Finance).
Do you have an appointment? I

I'm afraid not.

Let me check if he is free. You are Mr. ?
[Link]. Deepak Malhotra from ABC. ([Link] takes his
seat in the waiting room) After a few minutes ....
I'm sorry he's in a meeting.
When is the meeting likely to be over?
No idea. Can I take a message?
Will you tell him I came to see him?
I will, certainly
Thank you.
You're welcoln~
 Different Types of
35.4.4 Topic Development Face to Face
~nteraction
Another important dimension of conversational organization is the way topics are
selected for discussion within and the strategies used by the speakers to introduce
develop, or change topics within the conversation. Coherent conversations respect
norms concerning choice of topics, for example: in a business meeting members will
take turn to speak only on "the items on the agenda notified in advance and from
among these only on that item which is being discussed at the moment.

Topics may develop in a recognizable structure as, for example, the language of
buying and selling, court trial, doctor and patient conversation, etc.

Check Your Progress 4

Write a short conversation between a car dealer and a customer looking for a small
family car. Discuss in your group the structure of this conversation in the light of the
points made above.

35.4.5 Turn Taking

Conversation by definition involves two or more people. But the distribution of

talking among the participants is not merely random. It is governed by turn-taking
norms, conventions which determine who talks, when, and for how long. One who
talks too much and does not allow time for others, or one who contributes nothing to
the conversation arouse negative evaluations.

Rules for turn-taking differ according to the type of speech event . In the classroom,
for example. students generally raise a hand to take a turn to talk.

35.4.6 Repairs

The process of conversation involves monitoring to ensure that the intended messages
have been communicated and understood. This involves correction whenever it is
suspected that the message has not been received as intended. The term -repair refers
to the efforts by the speaker or the hearer to correct trouble spots in conversation.
Repairs may be initiated by either the speaker or the hearer:

(1 1) A: Mr. Malhotra isn't in his office.

B: Sorry!
A: [Link] is not in his office at the moment.

35.5 CONVERSATIONAL PROBLEMS OF

SECONDIFOREIGN LANGUAGE USERS

The maxims and rules for conversation differ from culture to culture and hence pose
problems for non-native speakers. There may be different conventions operating in
the mother tongue and target language. We have already hinted at some of the
problems while describing the maxims and rules above. Let us consider some more
problems and how we can overcome them.

Can you recall what we said above about non-native use of maxim of quantity. Non-
native speakers may provide less information than is expe'cted of them. Another
crucial problem could be to interpret the intended speech act appropriately. Consider
what is wrong with the following interaction:
Business Communication: (1 2) A: ~ ~ l l ~ !
Oral Skills B: ABC Distributors. Good Morning.
A: Can I speak to [Link]?
B: Yes, you can.

Evidently B has misunderstood A's question as a question rather than a request to

bring the named person to the phone. What do you think would be the right response?

Check Your Progress 5

Supply an appropriate response for the following:

(13) A: Would you mind'closing the door please?

B:

Adjacency pairs is another crucial area which poses problem. Questions, particularly
yedno type questions are not always Requests for information but may be requests
for action. The problem arises because you are taught to reply to yedno questions
with yes or no plus repetition of the verb or auxiliary used in the question, e.g.

(14) Customer: Do you have oranges?

Shopkeeper: Yes, I do.

The response may be grammatically correct but does it sound natural to you?
Practising only yedno plus repetition of the verblawiliary often leads to such short
stilted replies which while grammatically correct may be conversationally
inappropriate. What you need is a large stock of adjacency pairs and practice in using
them in a wide range of situations.

Think for a moment how the inquiry in your mother tongue would have been
responded to by the fruit-seller. What you require is to practice other adjacency I
pairs, such as Request-GrantIChdlenge, etc.:-

(15) Customer: Do you have oranges?

Fruit-seller: Here they're. How many do you want? All fresh and cheap,
too. The like of these you'll get nowhere in the market.

Native speakers often consider non-native speakers overly passive in conversation.

There are two reasons. One that nonnative speakers tend to provide only second pair
parts leaving all first pair parts to their interlocutor, answering questions with 'yes'
and 'no' e.g.

(1 6) A: What is your name?

B: Mohan. Mohan Srivastava. (silence follows)
A: Are you working with ABC company?
B: Yes.
(Again long stretch of silence)

This leads to non-native speaker initiating all questions which rarely happens in
natural social conversation. Instead of simply answering a question, you must learn
to answer a question, give some extra information and ask another question ak in the
customer-fruit seller's conversation given at (1 5) above.

Openings and closings are also problematic for foreign language learners. The
learner may not know what to say and hence may just transliterate from hidher own
mother tongue as in the following example:
 * Different Types of
(context: A custdmer comes into the store and seems to be looking for something.
Face to Face
The shop assistant comes to him to help him) Interaction

(17) Shop Assistant: What do you want, mister?

The customer does not seem to feel pleased and leaves the store.

What do you think has offended the customer? What should have the shop assistant
said to help the customer?

Another important and very difficult area for the secondjforeign language learner is
the topic development. Here you must practice nominating or introducing topics
about which you are prepared to speak. You ought to practice predicting questions;
elaborating topics, seeking clarifications, shifting topic, undertaking repairs through
words and gestures, and several other conversational skills. We will come back to
these skills in subsequent pages.

35.6 CRITERIA FOR ASSESSING CONVERSATIONAL

From the discussion given above, we can make a list of language elements one needs
pay attention to in order to assess one's communicative competence in face-to-face
interaction:

1. Lihguistic (a) Grammar, its range and accuracy

(b) Vocabulary, its range and accuracy
2. Pronunciation (a) Correct pronunciation of sounds
(b) Stress & Rhythm
(c) Intonation
(d) Linkinglassimilation

3. Fluency (a) Speed of talking

(b) Hesitations while talkinghefore talking

4. Conversational (a) How to begin conversation and wind up a

skills conversation.
(b) How to maintain a conversation; develop a
topic; shift topic; assimilate; check
comprehension; take up repair; take turn and
hand-over turn;perform various functions,
e.g. agree, disagree, apologize, persuade,
etc.; and maintain cohesion with own
utterances and also with those of the
interlocutor.

5. Socio-linguistic (a) Distinguishing between register and style

, skills (formal & informal)
(b) Use of cultural references

6. Non-verbal (a) Eye contact and body posture

features (b) Gestures and facial expressions

7. Content (a) Coherence of argument

(b) Relevance of ideas & arguments

If you want to be a good and effective conversationalist, you have to pay attention to
all these features in your interaction with others.
Business Communication: 35.7 SOME FUNCTIONS AND HOW TO PERFORM
Oral Skills
THEM

We append below some important language h c t i o n s and how to perform them. The
list is not exhaustive but it will enable you to practice commonly used formulaic
structures for performing certain functions. You should start with such adjacency
pairs as Greeting-Greeting which are closed sets, formulaic and hence can be learned
easily. Next you can move on to more open-ended pairs such as Complaint-
Apology/Denial/Excuse/JustifylChallengeas shown in example (8) given above and
other conversational skills described in 39.6.

35.8 DIFFERENCE BETWEEN CONVERSATION &

OTHER SPEECH EVENTS

Hymes uses the term speech event for activities that are directly governed by norms
for the use of speech. As speech events, conversations can be contrasted with other
types of speech events such as lectures, discussions, meetings, interviews, debates,
etc. We recognize each of these speech events as distinct by virtue of differences in
the number of participants who take part in them, as well as through differences in
the type and amount of talking expected of the participants, the setting,quorum, if
any, required, etc. Speech events, like conversations, as shown above, also have
identifiable rules for proper beginnings, middles and endings, violations of
which are noticed and frowned upon.

Openings and closings, as already said above, are speech event-specific. For many
speech events, there is an initial summons, e.g. a memolnotice calling for a meeting,
and participants assemble over time before the occasion actually begins. There may
be a specified setting (e.g. a hall, classroom) and the persons who assemble are
oriented to as specified category members (e.g. members of the club, union; students,
faculty at a college lecture). Some events, such as a formal meeting (e.g. the Annual
General Body Meeting of the company) require a specified number of participants
before the events may properly be seen as beginning, such as a quorum at a meeting.

Some speech events may not begin as soon as the required persons are present.
These may require formal markers before the event properly begins. When the
audience assemble for a lecture, there may be background noise and conversations
may be in progress at different comers in the room, but the lecture itself has not
properly begun until an authorized person uses some sort of attention-getter, saying
Right, or O.K. It is time to begin', etc.

We will be talking about interviews and'meetings in subsequent units when we will

illustrate in detail how these two specific speech events differ from conversation.
Here we propose to consider another feature in which lecture differs from
conversation.

While talking about the differences between spoken and written forms we said that
one of the differences between these two modes of communication is that writing is
an activity that is non-reciprocal in nature (see 38.6 in unit 38). Can you recall what
we meant by this term non-reciprocal Lecture, whether written or spoken fiom
notes, tends to be non-reciprocal in this sense. In other words there are no adjacency
pairs, no turn taking, no immediate verbal feed-back as we have in conversation
(though in the ciassroom lecture, the teacher might get feedback from expressions on
students faces, raising of hands, uneasy movements, etc. ) . So s h e has of necessity to
propel the communication on herhis own. This, however, does not mean that lecture
 ~ i f f e r e n tTypes of
(or written discourse) is not an interactive process of negotiation. It interactive but
Face to Face
1 this interaction is conducted by the speaker of here himself by enacting the roles of Interactiod'
speaker as well as of audience. Since there is no immediate reaction s h e has to
l anticipate what it is likely to happen and provide for any possible misunderstanding
and unclarity arising from the lack of shared knowledge.

In the words of Widdowson, the act of lecturing is the enactment of an exchange,

with the speaker taking on the roles of both interlocutors. But whereas in spoken
discourse (conversation) this process of negotiation is typically overt and reciprocal,
in lectures and written communication it is covert and non-reciprocal. Because of the
absence of immediate verbal reaction from herhis audience the speaker has a basic
conveyancing problem: S h e has certain message to impart and s/he has to prepare the
ground and set up conditions favourable to the reception of such information. She
does this by continually shifting herhis function from speaker to hearer, enacting the
interaction by playing the role of each interlocutor as in the following example:-
k'
Yesterday I spoke to you about Canada. Today I shall talk about Australia
which happens to be the next tosi.=. Australia is a land of contrasts. it is
geologically one of the oldest of la,lJ masses, yet it ranks as one of the
youngest of nations. It is half a world away from Europe, but its people are
largely of European descent and they follow a Western lifestyle.

If we look at the above text we find that the speaker makes an assertion in the first
sentence and the subsequent sentences are then said to support what he says in the
first sentence as if to answer the question of the listener, How can you say that? Can
you giveproof3 We can write this text as follows:

. Speaker :
Listener(s):
Australia is a land of contrasts.
How can you say that? Can you give some proof?
Speaker: It is geologically one of the oldest of land masses, yet it
ranks as one of the youngest of nations.
Listener(s): Can you give more examples?
Speaker: Yes. It is half a world away from Europe, but its people are
largely of European descent and they follow a Western
lifestyle.

Lecture, like written discourse, thus involves non-reciprocal interaction and the result
of this is a text. The audience must interpret this text to reconstitute the interaction as
it does not reveal the second person's (or the audiences) reactions which the speaker
(and the writer) anticipates by enacting the other participant's role. It is in this sense
that lecturing is covert and non-reciprocal and differs from conversation which is
f
overt and reciprocal.

35.9 LET US SUM UP

In this unit we have described different types of face-to-face interactions, particularly

those we often have to resort to in the world of business, described in some detail one
of these, i.e. conversation, its main features and how to develop it in real. business
situations. We have also described briefly some other types of face-to-face
interactions and how they differ from each other and from conversation.

35.10 SUGGESTED READING

Bauman, R. and [Link] (eds.) . 1974. Exploralioi~sin file Ethnography of

Speaking. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
 Communie.N.n: Brown, Gillian & George Yule. 1983. Teaching the Spoken language. ~ a r n b n d ~ e :
Oral Skills Cambridge University Press.

Goffman, E. 1976. 'Replies and Responses' Language in Society 5/3:257-3 13.

Goody, E.M. 1978. Quest:ions and Politeness: Strategies in Social Interaction.

Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

Psathas. G. (ed.) 1979. Everyday Language. Studies in Ethnomethodology. New

York: I~ington .

Schegloff, E.A. 1972a. 'Notes on Conversational Practice: Formulating Place' in

[Link] (ed.) Studies in Social Interaction. New York Free Press.

Schegloff, E.A. 1972b. 'Sequencing in Conversational Openings' in [Link]

[Link] (eds. ) Directions in Sociolinguistics: The Ethnography of Communication.
New York: Holt, Rinehart & Winston.

Schegloff, E.A. 1979. 'Identification and Recognition in Telephone Conversation

Openings' in G. Psathas 1979.

Widdowson, H.G. 1984. Explorations in Applied Linguistics 2. Oxford: Oxford Ilniversity

Press.

Check Your Progress 1

It can be anything where B would like to oblige A, e.g. guesthost, bosslsecretary,
wifehusband, etc.

Check Your Progress 2

- Coming mom.
- Bye. (So long).
- Yes. Brought three boxes only this morning. Here you are. See how
fresh they're. .
Check Your Progress 3
- Thank you.
- It's quite nice, isn't it?
- Well. I think it makes me look old.
- Vanita found it for me.
- Thanks. I like yours too.

Check Your Progress 4

- Not at all (Opening the door).

Activities

1. The letter written by ABC reaches the Himachal Milk Producers' Cooperative
Ltd., Dharamshala (Refer to Unit 38). Their MD is impressed by ABC's
profile. He speaks to ABC's MD, [Link], on telephone and invites hirn
to Dharamshala for further talks. Role play this telephone conversat~onwith
your class-fellowlpartner.
 Different Types of
i 2. Refer to ABC's proposal to negotiate a deal for distribution of milk-chocolate
drink developed, it is known by now, by Himachal Milk Producers'
Sace to Face
I~iteraction
Ii Cooperative (Unit 38). The employees of ABC have come to know about this
negotiation. Write a short conversation among some of the employees who
are talking about it while taking lunch in the office canteen.

3. [Link], MD of ABC will reach Dharamshala on the 16th by air and is

likely to stay there for two nights. You are HPMC's Representative assigned
the job to look after him. Attempt the following conversational tasks:

a) Go personally and book suitable accommodation for him. Your

partner can act as the Hotel's booking clerk.

b) On the 16th go to receive [Link] and put him at the hotel.

How will you open the conversation, keep it going while on way to
r hotel, entertain the guest at the hotel's restaurant, and close the
conversation?

C) You may like to draft other related communications, e.g. to ABC

about hotel accommodation, to and from hotel confirming booking,
arranging suitable venue for MD's meeting with Mr. Malhotra.
UNIT ~~GREETINGS
AT THE WORKPLACE
Structure

Objectives
Greeting and Asking after
Introducing Yourself and Others
Small Talk
Being Alert to Signals.
Leave-taking
Let Us Sum Up
Suggested Reading
Answers

36.0 OBJECTIVES

After studying this unit carefully, you will be able to:-

* Greet each other and interact more naturally in the work-place;

introduce yourself, your colleagues and guests more appropriately;
talk about subjects not connected with business;
indicate and respond to changing relationships appropriately; and
use appropriate leave-taking conventions.

36.1 GREETING AND ASKlNG AFTER

Entering into and maintaining social relationships is of great importance in spoken

communication. Every contact/encounter follows a set pattern and has similar
expressions. And, the expressions used reveal the relationship between the
interlocutors (or those engaged in conversation), their status, age, degree of intimacy
or distance, etc. The expressions can be divided into three categories:

INFORMAL - those used by friends, long time business associates,

teammates, etc.
NEUTRAL - those that can be used for a wide range of situations
- colleagues, clients, etc.
FORMAL - those appropriate for business; interacting with
strangers, seniors.

"Speak that I may see thee", said Shakespeare some four hundred years ago. It is as
true of spoken interaction today. The tone of the speaker, the degree of intimacy slhe
shares with the interlocutor is revealed in the expressions used. For instance, an
acquaintance which begins on a formal note may change to neutral in a couple of
meetings which in months or years turns informal. Therefore, it is important to be
attentive to the degree of formality and respond accordingly.

Starting a conversation - even if brief and meant only to establish contact - nonnally
involves two steps: greeting others and asking after their well-being. The fol-mulas
for these are fixed and usually carry no literal meaning. We say 'Good rnornjng' even
if it is not a good morning, and the answer to 'Now are you?' is normally 'Fine, thank
you' even if you are not feeling fine. The response to 'How do you do' is 'How do
you do'. Greetings are generally returned in the same form with a slightly diFferent
I intonation. It is well to remember that of well-being are not genuine
questions and require a fixed response: no one, except close friends really want to
Greetings at t l ~ e
Workplace

b o w about your troubles.

I
36.1.1 Greetings

Informal Neutral Formal

Hello! Mornine/Afiernoon/ Good morning!

,= ~vening!
Hi(everybody/ Good to see you (again)! Good afternoon (sir/ma'am)!
everyonemeha) ! How (very) nice to see you (from 12 noon to end of
(again)! working day)
rI Hi there (everybody/
everyone. Vikram)!
What a pleasure to see you! Good evening (gentlemen)!
(6 p.m. onwards)
I

Long time no see!

What a pleasant
surprise!
- - - - - - - - - -- - -

36.1.2 Res~onses(to greetings)

Informal Neutral Formal

Hi! Morning/Afternoon/ Good morning/afternood

Evening! evening, (sirlma'am)!

Hello!

Yeah, long time no see!

Where've you been?

36.1.3 Askine after

Informal Neutral Formal

--

How's life (treating How are you? How do you do?

you)?
J trust v d r e keeping well.

So what's new? How are you

keeping?

How's things? Ah, Mr. Biswas! Are

you well?

How are things Are you better now?

With you? (after someone has
been ill)
How're you doing?

How's it going?
-
Business Communication: 36.1.4 Responses (to asking after)
Oral Skills
Informal Neutral Formal

OK, thanks Fine, thanks. How do you do

(I'm) Very well, thank you.

So-so, thanks I'm fine, thank you, And (I'm) Very well indeed,
How are you? thank you.

Nothing much Quite well, thank you I'm in excellent health

to take about thank you.

Not (too) bad. All right, thanks.

Fine. How about you?

Fine. And you?

Samples

1 A Hello, Imran! How are you?

B Fine, thanks.

2. A What a pleasure to see you Mr. Wagle! How are you

keeping?
B Not bad. How about you? How's life treating you these days?

3. A Hi, Vikram! Coming to the English class?

B Oh, hello! Yeah.

4. A
B . Hello, Anju! Just the person I was looking for.
Hello, Sushil! What can I do for you?

5. A Good morning, Sir!

B Good morning, Vikram! I didn't see you at the conference

A . yesterday. Are you keeping well?

Yes sir, thank you very much. I had an appointment with a
client, sir.

6. A Hello, &ITS. Sharrna! How are you?

B I'm well, thank you doctor.

7. A Good morning, sir.

B Good morning, fi Singh! I trust you're keeping well?
A I'm very well indeed, thank you Mr. Chairman.

8. A Hello, Rani! Howke you doing?

B Fine. And you?

Check Your Progress 1

1. One morning in the office you meet the following people at the following
times and places. How will you greet them? How would they greet you and
what would be your response?
 Greetings at the

I Place '~ime Persons Workplace

-
Office lift 10 a.m. Your colleague Kakesh

Office lobby 12.00 noon Your boss

Cafeteria [Link] p.m. Peon

I
I*
At the parking lot

2.
6.00 p.m. Vice-president

A young employee greets the managing director of his company, whom he is

meeting for the second time, saying:
'Hi Rahul! Long time no see',

The managing director is not at all pleased. Why?

You have gone to see your uncle who has been admitted to a hospital. Your
uncle introduces you to Mr. Wagle, the patient on the next bed. You wish to
enquire politely after Mr. Wagle's health. Which of the following will you

(a) In good shape, are you?

I (b) How are you feeling now?
(c) HOW'Slife?
(d) I hope you're keeping well.
(e) Hey! How are you?
(f) Are you okay?
4. Match the response to the greeting in the following table:

I (i) Hi, Kiran! Long time no see.. (a)

(b)
Very well, thank you, sir.

I'm very well indeed, thank

(iii) Its great to see you again. (c) Hello, Rani! Everything all
right, I hope?

(iv) Hello, Mala! Just the person (d) Hello, Geeta! I've been I
was looking for. Staying at my aunt's for the
Izrt cnxrie of weeks.

! I (v) Hello, Mr. Gupta! And how are I (e) Fine, thanks. And how are
you keeping? - you doing?

L I

-
36.2 INTRODUCING
- -- .-
YOURSELF AND OTHERS --

It is always good to introduce people who do not or may not know each other, so that
misunderstandinns- may be avoided. Sometimes. when we are with strangers- or want
to start a conversation kith someone we don't know. we mav also need to introduce
. I _

ourselves. When introducing others, we must also provide information about the
person being introduced so that a conversation can be started. In more formal
Business Communication: situations, it is always the younger person who is presented to the older, the Inan to
Oral Skills the woman and the junior to the senior or superior. Men usually shake hands on
being introduced; women may or may not, the choice is theirs. The standard
greetings on introduction, 'How do you do', or 'Pleased to meet you', usually
accompanied by a handshake, are always answered with 'How do you do', and 1
'pleased to meet you', respectively. When addressing people by their first names we
do not use a title (Miss, Ms, Mrs, Mr). If you do want to add the title always use the
surname. So Girish Wagle will either be addressed as 'Girish' or 'Mr Wag!e', but
never as 'Mr Girish'.
36.2.1 Introducing Yourself I

Informal Neutral Formal

Hi! I'm Mukul Ray Hello, I'm Mukul Ray Good morning. I'm
I
Mukul Ray.
Hello, you must be Kiran How do you do? May I introduce
myself? I'm Mukul (shaking hands) I'm Mukul Ray,
My name is Mukul Regional Sales
Manager, Vishal
Enterprises.
Excuse me, you're Kiran,
aren't you? I'm Mukul
Excuse me, my name is
Mukul Ray.
I'd like to introduce
myself, I'm Mukul
Ray.
I
Aren't you Mukul? Excuse me. I don't think Allow me to 3I
I'm Kiran. Remember me? we've met before introduce myself,
My name is Mukul. I'm Mukul Ray. I
I
I'm afiaid I don't know/
remember your name.
I'm Mukul .
Good morning. This is/
I'm Mukul speaking
(on phone).

36.2.2 Introducing Others

Informal Neutral Formal

Kiran, meet Mukul This is Mukul Good morninp: Mr. Sahni.

May I introdu\e Mr. Lal,
our new Marketing
Manager?
-
I'd like you to meet
Mukul.
Kiran, this is Mukul Have you met/ Let me introduce our new
' Do you know Mukul? Marketing Manager,
Mr. Lal.
Kiran, Mukul It gives me great pleasure
Mukul, Kiran to introduce (to you) this
evening's guesuspeaker,
Mr. [Link]*
By the way, do you
know each other?
 Greetings at the
2. Res~ondineto Introductions wbrkplaoe

Infarrnal
--- - - - -.
- - Neutral Formal

Hi/Hello! How do you do? It's a great pleasure

to meet you.

Hello, how do you do? Nice meeting you. Delighted to meet

you.
I
,
Hi/Hello, I'm Kiran Pleased to meet you. I'm very glad to
meet you.

E Yes, I'mfit is. I've been eager to

meet vou.

Yes, I am. I'm Kiran.

Nice meeting you.

I'm not Kiran. I'm Kavita

I'm Meena. Good to

meet you.

Samples

1. A: Good morning. How do you do. You're Ashok Raj, aren't you?
B: Yes, good morning. You are Neha Bajaj, right?

2. A: Pardon me, your name is Meera, isn't it?

B: Yes it is. Have we met before?

3. A: Excuse me. I don't think we've met before. I'm Meera.

B: No, we haven't. I'm Kiran. Glad to meet you.
1
4. A. Hello. Is that Meera speaking? I'm Kiran. How are you? Haven't
heard from you in ages.
L 5. A: Hello, is that the Maya Book Depot? May I speak to Mr. Natarajan,
please? I'm Meera La1 meaking.

6. A: Goodmorning, class. Let me introduce myself. I'm [Link], the

new English teacher.

7. A: Ladies and gentlemen, this evening I would like to introduce to you

the Chairman of Vishal Enterprises, Mr. S.C. Shukla. Mr. Shukla will
talk to us about marketing strategies.
\

Check Your Progress 2

1. Complete the dialogue.

Mukul: Hey, Sumit. Have you met Manik before?

Sumit: ..................................................
Manik: How do you do?
Kiran: Meera, this is Divya Divya, Meera.
Business Communication: Meera: Hello, how are you?
Oral Skills Divya: Fine, thanks, How are you?
Is Kiran's introduction formal or informal? Say why.
2. After a talk, you are introduced to the chief guest, Mr. Naresh Kumar
Pandey. Which of the following would you choose to address him with:
a) Hello, Naresh!
b) Hi, Mr. Pandey!
c) How do you do, Mr. Pandey?
d) Pleased to meet you, Mr. Pandey.
e) It's an honour to meet you, Mr. Pandey.
Give reasons why you would reject the other responses.
3. When would you say this:

'Allow me to introduce Mr. Abid Ali, President, Rotary Club.'

(a) to your friend at a party in his house?

(b) to another member of the Rotary Club who is attending the Rotary
Club
meeting for the first time?
(c) to a friend you meet at the airport where you have gone to receive
Mr. Ali?

4. You overhear a conversation between Mr. Bhatia, Mrs. Ahmed and Mr.
Takahashi, a professor from Japan. Mr. Takahashi is saying, 'Pleased to
meet you, Mrs. Ahmed'. What had Mr. Bhatia said to Mr. Takahashi and
what will Mrs. Ahmed say to him?

36.3 SMALL TALK

Social behaviour is an important aspect of dealing with people face-to-face. Though

there are national standards for appropriate behaviour, some general rules are
universally followed.

It is important to be able to talk about things that are not connected with business
with clients and colleagues. They help build up a warm friendly relationship and you
get to know each other better. Generally, people engage in small talk just after
having exchanged greetings and asking after. One usually talks about journey,
weather, family, common friends, etc. Similarly, before ending the conversation and
bidding good-bye, small talk about coffee/lunch~snacks,travel, etc. often occur. At a
party or lunch, the range of topics is wider.

The issue of what topics are suitable when talking to strangers, specially foreign
clients you want to impress, is rather complex and rather personal. It is best to avoid
politics, religion and family as they are too personal. It is safe to talk about holidays,
travel, traffic, public transport, tourist interests, etc. Indeed the purpose of a social
conversation with a new person is to discover what you have in common, so that you
can exchange experience. If the other person is older and senior to you, you might be
more deferential and ask him or her exploratory questions.

Sample

1. Girish: Ms. Nagpal ......er.. .....I'd like you to meet Mrs. Sharma.
Mrs. Sharma has just come down from our office in
Bangalore.
 Greetings at the
Ms. Nagpal: Good-morning, how do you do, Mrs. Sharma Workplace
Mrs. Sharma: How do you do, Ms. Nagpal. I've been looking forward to
meeting you.
Ms. Nagpal: Oh, Please call me Deepa.
Mrs. Sharma: And I'm Veena.
Ms. Nagpal: Well, Veena, did you have a good journey?
Mrs. Sharma: Oh, well, not too bad!
Ms. Nagpal: Why? What happened?
Mrs. Sharma: No, nothing much really.. .....you see, it wasn't a
direct flight, so the continual landing were
irritating.. ..

Mrs. Nagpal: Well, that's quite a lot of work done, don't you think?
Mrs. Sharma: We'll call it a day, shall we?
Ms. Nagpal: Yes, of course. Care to j o ~ nme for lunchl
Mrs. Sharma: Thank you very much Deepa. But no, not today.. ......I've an
appointment fixed up.
Ms. Nagpal: Never mind. What about some coffee before you leave?
Mrs. Sharma: No, thanks. I should be leaving.. ....

36.4 BEING ALERT TO SIGNALS

Speakers send out signals in a variety of ways: sighing, clicking a pen, taping the
foot, looking at a watch, etc. These show the extent of concentration, mood, desire to
leave, etc. and an alert speaker will vespond to them immediately.

Sometimes the linguistic signals are more difficult to identifj. and one who is new to
these cultural conventions is not able to identify these signals; and therefore fails to
respond to them appropriately. For example, a long detailed narrative to casual
enquiries like 'How are things at home? or 'Did you have a good journey' could be
grossly inappropriate, causing humour or embarrassment.

Statements like:
"Shall we get started?"
"NOWto business.. .. .".
"Right, let's get down to business, shall we?
"We won't finish by one if we aren't brisk", etc.
usually signal a switch from small talk to the task at hand. Similarly, clicking of the
tongue, looking at the door, other signs of disinterest or distraction signal a need of
break or closure. The switch can then be signaled with statements like:

"Shouldn't that do for now/today?"

"Don't you think we should call it a day?"
"I don't think I can continue with this much longer."
"I'd like to stretch my legs for a bit".
"Let's get some fresh air before we have another go at this problem."

You will notice that the signals are tentative and often comes as a suggestion. It
would appear high-handed, autocratic and rude to state or order what has to be done.
Instead a suggestion is made and more often than not, agreement follows. For

A: I don't think I can continue with this much longer.

B: Yes. of course. I'll be with you m a minute. Why don't you order the
lunch while I neaten this out.
Business Communicati4n: Check Your Progress 3
Oral Skills
1. Answer briefly:-

a) Whom do you greet at your work-place'! In which language - mother tongue,

Hindi or English? Make at least 3 comments on your patterns of greeting and
asking after?

b) Who don't you greet? Why? How does the person react to not being
greeted?

c) Do greetingslasking after, small talks, etc. play any useful role in business or
corporate life?

c) Which of these topics do you talk about during a first meeting with a
business associate? Which do you avoid?

sports travel films

politics music the weather
your family hobbies television
religion

e) Would your topic change if you were talking to:

a man a foreigner older than you

a woman junior to you from another town.

2. Listen to interviews, dialogues and discussions in films and over the

television. Notice how people signal topic switches in English. List at least
5 statements and the situation in which each has been used.

3. Write a short dialogue you have had with an important client from Germany.
He is in India for 3 days and you have to show him the workshops and meet
the production team.

SamDles
Excuse me, Mr. Sinha. Here is the report that you wanted.
Ah yes. Thank you, Mrs. D'Souza.
Er, I was wondering, sir, if I could leave an hour earlier today. My
son is rather ill and needs to be taken to the doctor.
Oh, what is the matter with him?
He's been running temperature for the past few days, and the doctor
has asked for certain tests to be done. I must pick up the reports
before the hospital closes at five o'clock today.
Well, all right. But do be on time tomorrow morning. I have some
important papers that I want typed urgently.
Thank you, sir. I will. Goodbye, Mr. Sinha!
Goodbye, Mrs. D'Souza!

Thanks for a really lovely evening, Meera. It was nice meeting old
friends again and the food was absolutely delicious.
I'm glad you enjoyed yourself Do drop in again, whenever you have
time.
Yes, I will. Good night, Meera, and thanks once again.
Good night and take care.

Does that solve your problem?

Yes, sir. You've been most kind.
 Greetings at the.
A: I'm glad to have been of help. Feel fkee to drop in again if there's Workplace
anything you need.
B: Thank you very much, Dr. Singh
A: Well, goodbye, Rakesh! I hope you are working hard for your exams.
B: Yes, I am, sir. Goodbye, sir! And thank you once again, sir.
A: Goodbye!

4) A: And that brings me to the end of my report. Thank you very much
gentlemen, for your attention. I am now ready to answer any
questions that you may have.

5) A: Anything else you'd like to discuss?

B: Well, I think that's all. Thank you for seeing me.
A: Good night
B: Good night sir!

6) A: That's the whistle for your train. Goodbye and take care of yourself.
B: Yes, I will. Don't forget to write and look after yourself too.
A: Yes, I will. Goodbye!
B: Goodbye!

(Dialogues adapted from Developing Language Skills - New Delhi: Spantech

Publishers, [Link]. 1991.)

36.6 LET US SUM UP

In this unit you have been introduced to the set patterns and expressions for greeting,
asking after, introducing yourself and others. Since entering and maintaining
relationship is essential to effective communication, expressions used indicate the
degree of intimacy, age and status of the speakers.

Informal expression are used amongst close friends, close associates, team-mates,
etc. Neutral expressions are those that can be used without giving offense and could
be suitable for both formal and informal situations.

Starting a conversation normally involves two steps: greeting and asking after. This
is followed by small talk -talking about subjects not connected with business.
Topics that are generally avoided especially on interactions with strangers are
religion, politics and your family. Generally one is engaged in such polite talk before
and after the main task at hand.

It is important to be alert to linguistic and paralinguistic signals. Changes or switches

in turn are signaled through tentative suggestion. It is considered impolite to issue
orders or commands.

Ending a conversation normally involves two steps: signaling close and actual leave
taking.

36.7 SUGGESTED BOOKS AND AUDIO-CASSETTES

-
Developing Language Skills Book I (Oral Communication & Reading
Comprehension, Writing Skills, and Workbook, New Delhi - Spantech Publishers
[Link]., 199 1.
 -
BIIsirressCommunication; New International Business English Leo Jones & Alexander, Cambridge:
Oral Skills Cambridge University Press, 1987. With audio - cassettes.

Answers

Check Your Progress 1

1. You: Good morning Rakesh. How are you?

Rakesh Good morning, fine thank you, Mr. Singh. -

2. You: Good afternoon, Sir

Boss: Good afternoon, Inderjit.
How are things going?
You: Fine, Sir. Thank you very much.

3. You: Good afternoon, Hari. How are you?

Hari: Fine, Sir. And thank you very much sir.

4. You: Good evening, sir. How do you do, sir?

V.P.: Good evening, Inderjit. How do you do?
And how's the family doing?
You: Fine, sir. Good night, sir.
V.P.: Good night.

2. The greetings used for MD have to be formal. Example. - "Good morning,

sir. Pleased to meet you."

4. - - - -
i d; ii b; iii e; iv c; v- a

Check Your Progress 2

1. How do you do Manik?

Formal. They have not used informal expression like 'long time no see'; etc.
2. (d) because (a) to (c) are too informal and (e) too formal
3. (b)
4. Mr. Bhatia: Good morning, Prof. Takehashi. Let me introduce Mrs. Ahmed,
a Senior member of our faculty to you.

[Link]: Pleased to meet you too, Prof. Takaheshi.

Check Your Progress 3

3. You should attempt to write from greeting - introducing yours - asking after -
-
small talk to work at hand. Have your own work place in mind while
writing the dialogue.
 UNIT 37 CONDUCTING AND PARTICIPATING IN
MEETINGS & DISCUSSIONS
Structure

37.0 Objectives
37.1 Introduction
37.2 Discussion
37.2.1 Definition of Discussion
37.2.2 Elements of Discussion
37.2.3 Discussion Versus Other Interactions
37.2.4 Preparing for a Discussion
37.2.5 Skills Required
37.2.6 How to Conduct a Discussion
37.3 Meetings
37.3.1 Types of Meetings
37.3.2 Preparations Before a Meeting
37.3.3 How to Conduct and Participate
37.3.4 Relevant Language Functions
37.4 Let Us Sum Up
37.5 ' Suggested Readings

Appendix

37.0 OBJECTIVES

The aim of this unit is to familiarize you with distinctive features of meetings and
discussion, how these two differ from conversation and other face-to-face interactions
such as debates, arguments, talks, lectures; their purpose and importance in business
contexts and how to conduct and participate in these two types of interactions.

37.1 INTRODUCTION
i
i In Unit 34 we introduced you to different types of business communication, their
importance and functions and in unit 35 we talked about different types of face-to-
[ face interactions and how a popular type of face-to-face interaction, viz. conversation,
b differs from other face-to-face interactions such as meetings, talks, lectures,
1 interviews, etc. We promised you in that unit to describe in detail the distinctive
I features of meetings and discussions in a subsequent unit. We intend to make good
that promise in this unit.

Meetings and discussions are important events in business contexts. Persons at

various levels have to meet and discuss important business matters with others within
the organisation as well as with the outside world. In unit 34, for example, Mr.
Malhotra, MD of ABC Distributors arranges to meet his GM and he also goes to meet
the MD of HMPC at Dharamshala when invited to do so. You must therefore
I
understand what the purpose and finctions of meetings and discussions are and what
is their usefulness in business, and how one conducts and participates in these
interactions.
I

37.2 DISCUSSION
37.2.1 Definition of Discussion
Discussion is a unique form of group interaction, where people join togtther in
addressing some question of common concern, something they need to understand,
Business Communica~ion: appreciate or decide. The term discussion is commonly confused both in academ~c
Oral Skills and everyday discourse. It is used as a rubric or umbrella term to embrace exchanges
otherwise termed conversation, argument, debate, and bull session and it also
stretches to include interview and negotiation and even lecture or an author's
treatment of some issue, activities which are not overtly interactive (see 39.8). But
none of these is discussion as we use the term here. Discussion has no other proper
name.

Discussion refers to one distinct form of group interaction, people talking back-and-
forth with one another. What they talk about is an issue, some topic that is in
question for them. They address to a question in common and they seek to resolve
together this question. Since it is their question and they need a good answer to it,
they want to hear divergent views on the matter and they are willing to change their
view for a better one, after scrutinizing all proposals as alternative candidates for
answering their question in some way satisfying to them. The people do this
together. Thcir talk consists of advancing and examining different proposals over the
issue. The proposals may be various understandings, facts, suggestions, opinions,
perspectives, experiences and the like. These are examined for their contribution
towards resolving the issue. As people talk and relate in this way, they begin to form
together new, more satisfLinganswers to their question.

37.2.2 Elements of Discussion

The elements of discussion can be derived from the definition of discussion given
above. Certain conditions have to be met in order for us to say that people are
engaged in a discussion of some issue. According to Dillon (1994) these are logical,
moral and intellectual conditions.

1. Logical Conditions

There are five logical conditions and they are quite basic. These are (I) people must
talk to one another, (2) listen to one another, (3) respond to one another, (4) When
they talk, they must severally be putting forward more than one point of view on the
subject, and (5) they must be intending to develop their understanding of the topic,
their knowledge andlor judgement regarding the matter under discussion.

2. Moral Dispositions

These are principles of conduct and form the moral culture of the group involved in
discussion. All those engaged in discussion must share these six assumptions to
some extent if they want to continue their discussion. These are:

i) Reasonableness. The participants are willing to listen to reason, to

accommodate interests and views on the evidence. They are not dogmatic,
immovably convinced of their own opinion.
ii) Peaceableness and Orderliness. The participants observe the rules of
conversation to facilitate exchange e.g. they do not interrupt of shout down
opinions they do not like; they speak one at a time.
iii) Truthfitlness. They deliberately speak what they believe to be true and they
are not silent, reticent or covert.
iv) Freedom. Participants are free to offer their opinions; they are not subject to
restraints, not afraid to speak fieely and sincerely because of pressure,
ridicule or embarrassment.
v) Equality. The participants have regard for the opinions of each member of the
group.
vi) Respect for Persons. Participants share a measure of reciprocal regard, some
relation of humanity and caring. They do not desire or act to make someone's
opinion prevail at all costs over others.
 Conducting &
3, Intellectual Qualities Participating in
Meetings &
The first two of the intellectual qualities listed below are epistemological foundations Disc,ssions
of discussion, reflecting a special attitude or stance towards knowledge and authority.
The other eight concern especially the cultivation of understanding in discussion.

i) Respect for opinions of others:

ii) Scepticism of authority: do not accept knowledge and beliefs just because
someone great has said so.
iii) Diversity: show concern that an appropriate variety of perspectives is made
available to the group.
iv) Responsiveness: concern that participants are sensitive, appreciative and
open-minded in response to the opinions of others.
Judiciousness: concern that members given proper hearing to views, and not
accept or reject views arbitrarily.
vi) Reflectiveness: concern that the members should be thoughtful, reflective and
searching in their self-awareness.
vii) Evidence: concern for reasons, evidence and argument.
viii) Clarity: concern for clarity and precision in the expression of meaning so that
others can understand the contribution.
ix) Conciseness: expressing substance in the minimum of words.
x) Consistency: concern for coherence and consistency in thought and
argument.

4. Openness Dimensions

Openness is a precondition of discussion. All aspects of discussion must be open.

Some of the possible aspects can be the subject matter, the participants' minds,
outcomes (i.e. the conclusion is not predictable or pre-determined). It is also
necessary that it is open to all participants and that there is no requirement that the
discussion come to a single conclusion.

37.2.3 Discussion vs. other Interactions

Let us see how discussion differs from other forms of group interaction, e.g.
conversation, debate, argument, and bull sessions.

Activity 1
1 Recall the features of conversation we described in unit 35 and write a few points on
how discussion differs from conversation.

Conversation has just one feature in common with discussion, that is in both forms of
interaction people are talking back and forth. Conversation differs from discussion in
all other respects. (You may like to consider the number of participants, membership
category, the setting, opening and closing, the topic, development of the topic, topic
shift, turn-taking, coherence with others' contribution, purpose, conclusion, etc.).

Activity 2

How does Discussion differ [Link] and Debates? Which points will you
keep in mind while answering this question?
1

I Conversation is a past time. it is not a disciplined and concerted talk, the talk shifts
from topic to topic, no one topic is focused upon or developed, the speaker need not
maintain coherence with the previous speaker, no conclusions are drawn, and the
conversation ends when interest is exhausted or attention is distracted. Arguments
and Debates are more effortful and sustained than conversations but they begin with
pre-formed positions and opinions and seek to defend them one against the other, in a
BusinessCommunication: contesting exchange ending in victory for one side, ox in a stand-off where the two
Oral Skills sides maintain their positions.

You may like to apply the elements of discussions we have listed above to test
whether a particular interaction is discussion or not. Can you recall some of these
principles?

One can take up any topic for discussion under any subject and at any level provided
the topic expresses group predicament and invites joint inquiry. A discussion
question invites joint inquiry, whereas other questions discourage it.

From the statements made above it is clear that a discussion question has to be an
i~terrogativesentence, not a word or phrase. Again a question formulated as yeslno
or eitherlor will not be suitable for discussion. We must also avoid topics which are
broad and ambiguous.

Check Your Progress 1

Read the following topics. Do you think they are good topics for discussion? Give
reasons for your answer.

a) Family Planning
b) Liberalization Policy
c) Trade Deficit
d) Do We Need Privatization of Higher Education?
e) Should We Go for Nuclear Energy or Fossil Fuels?
0 How Can we Improve our Economy?

How can you rewrite these topics so as to make them suitable for discussions?

37.2.4 Preparing for a Discussion

Discussions go better in a small group of five to ten members than in larger goups,
and better in groups that are composed by gender, age and ability so as to be cohesive
and successful. The group should have enough time available for an open discussion.
The members should be comfortably situated, seated closely as in a small circle for
ease of eye contact, normal tone of voice and unrestrained listening, all in a quiet and
pleasant room, free of all distraction. A flexible seating arrangement is preferable to
fixed seats so that one can arrange seating according to needs of the group. The
surroundings should be fiee of distraction such as coming and going of crowd, late
comers, messengers, noise of bells, faculty fans or air conditioners, traffic, etc. which
may become barrier to communication. All electrical fixtures and fittings, such as
proper lighting, cooling, heating, power plugs for video-recording, use of
microphones, and machines and equipment, if any, should be checked well in time.

37.2.5 Skills Required

All that the participants need is a disposition to discuss. A range of skills e.g.
communication skills involved in discussion, the interaction skills, the cognitive and
social skills is also required but not as prerequisites. Participants acquire these skills
as they engage in discussions. We have already listed above other traits and attitudes
such as open-mindedness, etc. without which fruitful discussion is not possible.

What about the leader? Does s h e need to have any special skill or talent? All that
the leader, too, needs is a natural disposition in favour of discussion and other
attitudes allied with discussion. S h e must have faith in democracy and steking
solution to the question through democratic process. Beside leadership skills, s h e
needs to have emotional self-control, patience, tolerance, intellectual versatility,
readiness for mutual understanding, and a willingness to give up authority. Slhe can
 be one of the participants but s h e has to play various roles of being an organizer,
leader, participant. observer, teacher, facilitator of discussion, etc. Participating in
Meetillgs 8:
37.2.6 How to Conduct a Discussion Discussions

The leader's behaviour in discussion has to be far less didactic, directive, controlling
1 and instructional, and more suited to exemplifying and facilitating the discussion.
Once the question for discussion has been framed, s h e ought to write this down,
putting it into a single interrogative sentence. This should be displayed prominently
b on the chalkboard and also read out aloud and s h e must make sure that every
participant has understood what the question is. If necessary, s h e should explain lt.

The participants must also try to address themselves to the question. Unfortunately,
what generally happens is that instead of addressing themselves to the question, the
very first speaker may start with suggesting an answer or solution. This may lead the
participants astray from the discussion as the next speaker is likely to criticize
himher or otherwise depart from the first speaker, usually by stating a different
solution. Can you realize what is going wrong with our discussion? Think for a
moment and share yor views with your partner in the class.

The whole thing is in danger of becoming an acrimonious debate, or an argument,

with subsequent speakers taking this or that side. It is in such a situation that the
leader has to step in and bring the participants back to the question.

In general the leader does not ask questions, whether to initiate or to sustain an
exchange or to respond to a contribution. Instead s h e he uses various statements,
questions, view points made by the participants to propel the discussion. S h e sees to
it that the discussion is not dominated by just one or two participants but that even the
shy and quiet ones are given equal opportunity to participate in the process. Some
other functions of the leader are:

1. Locating: Where are we now? The group may need a clear understanding of
its present line of thinking.
2. Summarizing: What have we accomplished so far? The points that have been
agreed upon.
3. Opening: What shall we do next? A smooth transition fiom one aspect of the
question to the next, and so on.
4. Tracking: Saving the discussion from getting astray.
5. Pacing: Spending time where we need it most, e.g. 'Could we take a closer
look at this one idea?
i
The leader has also to discourage misbehaviour. There are countless ways of
misbehaving in a discussion: shouting down opinion they dislike; interrupting the
speaker and not allowing himher to complete hisker contribution; violate
reasonableness by refusing to listen to reason; insisting onesticking to one's ground
even in the face of evidence to the contrary; showing layalty to institution, person, or
faith instead of to the purposes of inquiry; agreeing to a point without believing in it.
Generally anything that violates the spirit of free and open discussion is misbehaviour
and must be discouraged.

While describing below the functions of the chairperson presiding over a meeting we
will be talking again about this point and will also list there some useful language
items used to perform these functions.

Another function of the leader is to conclude the discussion. Towards the end the
leader must act to draw the discussion to a close. Here s h e has to perform two major
acts: to summarize the discussion held so far and to identify the question remaining.
A record of this discussion is then prepared by himher for future reference.
~ ~Communica~iorr:
, ~ HOW
i to participate
~ ~in a discussion
~ will be taken up when we deal below with how to
~
Oral Skills participate in a meeting.

37.2.7 Why Discussions?

There is a general antipathy to discussion. Discussion is widely regarded as a wa$e

of time, time-consuming, unpredictable in process, and uncertain of outcome as much
as unsure of success. But however difficult and useless it might appear at first, it is
very useful both for the management and its employees. Discussion enhances
individuals' personal and professional growth; it teaches them to think and work as a
team; it gives them a sense of participation in management; the decision once takcn
by them after discussion is their own decision and enthuse them with motivation and
a sense of commitment to achieve ; they become aware of the goal to be achieved to
achieve it; they become aware of the goal to be achieved which has been fixed by
them and not imposed from above (i.e. management); and last not least, it trains the
junior staff in business matters and decision taking. The management, too, gains a lot
as such discussions help it get maximum ideas in minimum possible time.

37.3 MEETINGS
-
37.3.1 Types of Meetings

Business meetings can be with an individual or with a group of individuals either

within the organisation or outside the organisation. Meetings can also be between the
management and its employees or their representatives or the employees union. In
addition to these, there are meetings of the Board of Directors of the Company,
Annual General Body Meetings of the Shareholders of the Company under the
Companies' Act. meetings can also be requisitioned as per the rules given in the
Memorandum and the Article of Association. There can alsc be provision for
emergency meetings, extraordinary general body meeting, etc.

Appointments for meetings with individuals or group of individuals can be made in

advance according to the convenience of the two parties or one can meet on the spur
of the moment if convenient but it is preferable to make prior appointments for
meetings requiring presence of more than one individual and those requiring
negotiations of complex nature. Statutory meetings have to be arranged and
conducted in accordance with the Constitution, Partnership Agreement or the
Memorandum and Article of Association registered with the Registrar of Companies,
etc.

Check Your Progress 2

The President of Employees Union of ABC Distributors wants to have a meeting of
the union representatives with the MD next Monday regarding their demands. So he
meets the PA for an appointment. The MD is not free on Monday but he is free on
Tuesday. The MD agrees to meet the representatives of the cnion at 11 a.m. Write
this short interaction as it may be exchanged among the three of them.

37.3.2 Preparations Before a Meeting

Activity

You have already done a unit on preparing an agenda for a meeting (See Block 7).
What points are kept in mind before a meeting is fixed?

The organizers will have to make some preparations before fixing a meeting. They
have to consider what type of meeting it is, who all are going to attend it, where and
when, what is on the Agenda (items to be discussed or considered). Only wheg all
 Conducting &
these issues are clear will they send a notice well in time (sometimes there is Participating
provision for a minimum period of the notice) calling for the meeting. in Meetings &
Discussions
A meeting involving only a few individuals e.g. with union representatives can be
held in one's office; a meeting of the Board of Directors can be held in the Board
RoodConference Room of the Company but a suitable conference hall having
necessary facilities will have to be arranged for an Annual General Body meeting of
shareholders (AGM).

What facilities would you look for in the hall before you book it for the meeting?

Check Your Progress 3

ABC Distributors Ltd., New Delhi, propose to hold the seventh AGM of the company
in the second week of June 1996 in Delhi. You are the Company Secretary
responsible to arrange this meeting. Make a list of all the steps you will take in order
that the meeting can be held. Draft all the communications ~nvolved.

Activity

Read the following Notice for a meeting and discuss it with your partner to find out
as many ways as you can in which it differs from the notice'agenda you have learnt to
draw up in unit 30.

NOTICE TO THE SHAREHOLDERS

NOTICE IS HEREBY GIVEN that the Seventh Annual General meeting of ABC
Distributors Ltd. will be held on Friday, 181h~ u n e1996, at 1 1.00 a.m. at Aga Khan
Hall, Bhagwan Das Road, New Delhi to transact the following business:

ORDINARY BUSINESS

1. To receive and adopt the audited Balance Sheet as at 3 1. March 1996 and the
Profit and Loss Account for the year ended on that date, together with the
Reports of the Directors and the Auditors thereon.
2. To declare a Dividend.
3. To appoint a Director in place of .....

SPECIAL BUSINESS

4. To consider and if thought fit, to pass, with or without modifications, the

following Special Resolution:

"RESOLVED that Article 163 of the Articles of Association of the Company be

deleted and substituted by the following Article:

NOTES

1. A member entitled to attend and vote at the meeting is entitled to ....

2. ...
Explanatory statement pursuant to Section 173 of the Companies Act, 1956:

Itern No. 4
The Articles of Association of the Company is required to be amended for the
following reasons:
BusinessCommrmica~ion: For operational convenience, the existing Article 163 is proposed to be substituted by
Oral Skills a new aLticle 163 as per Resolution No.4.

None of the Directors of the Company is concerned or interested in the Resolution

No.4.

A Company may, by a Special Resolution alter its Articles as provided in sub-section

(i) of Section 3 1 of the Companies Act, 1956. Accordingly Resolution No.4 has been
proposed as a Special Resolution.

The Resolution set out in item no.4 may be considered accordingly and the Board of
Directors recommend the same for your approval.

By order of the Board of'Directors

Sd.
XYZ
Company Secretary
Delhi
11 April 12996

, 37.3.3 How to Conduct a Meeting

We have already mentioned above some of the functions of the leader in a group
discussion. The functions of thechairperson of a meeting are more or less the same.
These functions can be identified under three heads: controlling, co-operating, and
participating. Each of these requires specific kinds of language and language skills.

CONTROLLING

Meetings can sometime become very noisy and even [Link] hence for smooth
conduct of a meeting we always need someone to control its proceedings. In formal
meetings this is the function of the chairperson who may be so appointed (e.g. the
chairperson of the Board of Directors) or in hidher absence some other senior
off~cerlmembercan be designated to chair a particular meeting. The chairperson has
to conduct the proceedings of the meeting as per the rules laid down in the
constitution of the body; Memorandum of Association; Companies' Act or any other
act applicable to the organization; and also the Agenda and the notice already sent.
The members may arrive at the venue before time and keep talking or conversing but
the meeting proper begins only at the appointed time when the chairperson calls it to
order. The meeting can be attended only by authorised members; there may be a
quorum; members are required to sign to mark their presence; and apologies for
absence may be recorded. Proceedings/Minutes of the meeting are recorded for
future reference.

To control the proceedings of the meeting the chairperson has to ensure that (1) the
agenda, if there is one, is strictly followed; (2) the speakers make their contribution in
some order (they may signal their intention to speak or sihe may ask those who want
to speak to send chits bearing their name if it happens to be a large gathering e.g.
general body meeting); (3) the speakers address the chair; (4) the points of view are
balanced and everyone gets a fair chance to make hisiher contribution freely and
openly (keep a check on dominating speakers); (5) disruptive influences are
recognized and dealt with appropriately (the style of the language used is not
objectionable); (6) members operate within time limits. It is also the chairperson's
role to point out the development and to summarize key aspects of the discussion on a
particular item.
 COOPERATING Conducting &
Participating
Can you recall the cooperative principles we stated in an earlier unit? The aim is to in Meetings &
create a sense of cooperation through language and behaviour in order to achieve a Discussions
mutually desirable objective. The use of language of clarifying is an important aspect
of cooperating. If a speaker notices that other members have not understood the point
s h e is making, then slhe stops to clarify, restate, rephrase the point.

/ Following rituals and routines is also part of cooperating. Rituals include:

welcoming, introducing and being introduced, small talk before the meeting proper
) . starts, formal thanks, and saying goodbye. Routines are commonly accepted
I procedures for doing things which are highly predictable. For example, fbr starting a
meeting there is the five-point routine:
i
I 1. calling attention
2. signaling the start
' 3. giving background information
4. stating purpose
5. inviting the first speaker

Some other examples of routines are taking turns to speak, avoid interrupting while
others are speaking, being relevant, closing meetings, sticking to time limit, etc.

PARTICIPATING

The most essential skill involved in successful participating in meetings and

discussions is patient listening. In their enthusiasm to put forward their point of view
and show disagreement members often forget this important skill. Meetings and
L discussions can proceed smoothly only if members not only express what they have
to say but also understand and respond to the transaction of others.

37.3.4 Relevant Language Functions

A chairperson can be effective only if he or she has proficiency in the language. We

give below a list of the language functions which a good chairperson will have to
perform to play hisher role of controlling, cooperating and participating in a meeting:

a) Language Functionsfor Controlling

- opening the meeting [e.g."I declare this meeting open" (formal),
"Right, Let's get started" (informal)]
- nominating topics for discussion
- rejecting topics
- asking people to speak
- keeping people on the subject
- postponing a topic
- coming back to a topic
- referring to time
- summarizing, restating, or rephrasing
- concluding
- closing the meeting.

b) Language Functions relating to Cooperating

Following rituals and routines

- clarifLing ('What I mean to say is ...')
- checking ('You mean he'll not be sent. Will he?'; 'Do you
followlunderstand me?')
- rephrasing or restating to make a point clear ('In other words.. .';)
L
Busrness Communicarion: - asking for explanations
Oral Skills - concluding ('So, can we all agree that ...'; 'O.K. I think that is all.')
- showing understanding
- confirming
- dealing with lack of cooperation

Ability to use question forms, especially tag questions, check questions, and
statement questions will be required. ('You need more time, is that right?, 'I
see, so what you mean is.. .')

c) Language Functions relating to Participating

negotiating procedure
setting out facts and figures
expressing opinions
supporting an argument
agreeing, disagreeing
expressing reservation
adding new points
balancing points of view
expressing advantagesldisadvantages
making suggestions
evading, postponing, ignoring
interrupting
promising.

A key parameter in the choice of language will be diplomacy versus

forcefulness: e.g. 'Could I suggest.. .', or 'I' am not sure if others go along
with you on this issue' as against 'I don't agree', or 'That's not acceptable'.

37.4 LET US SUM UP

In this unit we have described in some detail distinctive features of 'discussion' and
'meetings' and how these two interactions differ from other face-to-face interactions,
particularly conversation. We have also given you procedures and also the language
functions to be performed for conducting and participating in these types of
interactions.

37.5 SUGGESTED READINGS

Bridges, D. 1979. Education, Democracy and Discussion. Windsor: NFER.

Reprinted 1988 by University Press of America.

Dillon, James T. 1994. Discussion. International Encyclopedia of Education, 2"dedn.

Oxford: Elsevier Science Ltd.

Dillon, James T. 1994. Using Discussion in Classrooms. Buckingham: Open

University Press.

Ellis, Mark and Christine Johnson. 1994. Teaching Business English. Oxford:
Oxford University Press.

Francis, E. 1986. Learning to Discuss. Edinburgh: Moray House College.

 Conducting &
McBurney, J. and K. Hance. 1950 Discussion in Human Affairs. New York: Participating
Harper. in Meetings &
Discussions
Maier, N. 1963. Problem-solving Disucssions and Conferences: ~ e a d e r s h i ~
Methods and Skills. New York: McGraw-Hill.

0' Driscoll, N. and A. Pilbeam. 1987. Meetings and Discussion. Essex: Longman.

~hillips,G., D. pedersen, and J. Wood. 1979. Group Discussion: A Practical Guide

to Participation and Leadership. Boston, M.A.: Houghton Mimin.

Pilbeam, A., P.0' Connor, and F. Scott-Barratt. 1992. Negotiating. Essex: Longman.

Scheidel, T. and L. Crowell. 1979. Discussing and Deciding: A Desk Book for
Group Leaders and members. New York: Macmillan.

Activity

1. The MD of ABC Distributors calls for a meeting of his oficers to discuss

ways and means of promoting the new product. The officers invited are GM,
Marketing Manager, Finance Officer, Personnel Manager, PRO, and MD's
secret&. (Who else you think should be present?). Role play this
discussion in your group. (Hints: Some of the suggestions can be: brand
name, outlets, appointment of distributorddealers, advertise, announce prizes,
financial and human resources needed, budget for different heads, packing,
etc. You can add to this list from your own experience). Each of the
individual in the group will then do the activity that comes to his share. For
example, if it is decided to appoint additional work force then draft
advertisement for those posts, etc.

2. Role-play management's meeting with union representatives (see exercise 5)

called to consider their demand for increase in wages and bonus in view of
the new business the company is acquiring. Also perform all the activities as
decided in the meeting, including drafting minutes of the meeting. (Note:
t This exercise will also involve 'negotiating' skills).

APPENDIX 1
I. SOME USEFUL EXPRESSIONS FOR PERFORMING CERTAIN
FUNCTIONS:-

Expressing regret:
It's a pity ) we didn't Ifonly we'd .....
What a pity ) I'm very sorry, but I'm
afraid.. ..
Expressing surprise:
Oh! Oh, no! Good God!
Really! Good Heavens!
What! Well, this is a surprise!
Impossible! Incredible!
I can'z believe it! You must be joking!

Reminding:
Do you remember.. . Surely you remember.. ..
You do remember.. ...don't you? Have you forgotten. ...?
What about the .....? You haven't forgotten,
have you?
Birslness Cornlmuni@allbtf:
Oral Skills Apologizing: \
T'm very/terribly/awfully sorry. Sorry about that.
Please forgive/excuse me for ... I do apologize for ...
f d like to apologize for ... Please accept my sincere
I really must apologize for ... apologies for ...

Responses to Apologies:

Itls/That's O.K. Forget [Link] problem.

Let's forget it. Never mind.
It's not your fault. Please don'z worry.
It's perfectly alright. There's no need to.
It (really) doesn'z matter (at all)

Asking for information:

Do you know anything about.. . I'd like to know ...

Have you got any idea about ... Sorry to trouble you, but ...
Got any idea about.. . Would you be kind enough to ..
Cadcould you tell me ... I wonder if you could ...
Excuse me, D'you h o w ... I hope you don't mind my asking ...

Responses to requestsfor infa~mation:

Yeah! sure. Why not?

Sorry., I don't know. Sorry, no idealI've no idea.
Yes, of course. Sure.
I'm not sure, but .... I'm sorry; I don'z know.
I'm a h i d , I don't know. I shall be delighted to.
Definitely/Certainly/Gladly.

Introducing yourseu/rour colleague:

Hello, I'm Mukul Bhatnagar.

May I introduce myself? I'm Mukul. Mukul Bhatnagar.
Allow me to introduce my colleague here. She's Mrs. Anita Bhardwaj.
Excuse me. I don't think we've met before. My name is .....

Responding to introductions:

How do you do? Nice meeting you.

Pleased to meet you. Delighted to meet you.
It's a great pleasure to I'm very glad to meet you.
It's a great pleasure to meet you.

Getting Things Done:

Could you please.. .? Would you mind.. .

Would you be so kind as to ... Would you~willyou please.. .
I'd like you to ....

Suggesting: Shall we ...... .? I suggest that .......

Youcould ...... Would you care to ..........
7
We might as well. ....

Responding to suggestions:

That would be very nice. That's a good idea.

Yes I will, with pleasure That sounds greatffine. C~nducting&
Thank you, but.. .. I wish I could, but .... Participating
in Meetings &
D/scvssions
Imposing conditions:

Certainly, providedlif.. .. On condition that ....

By all means, but ... Only if ....

n. SOME USEFUL EXPRESSIONS IN FACE-TO-FACE

INTERACTIONS:

Opening: ..
Excuse me, .; Listen, Did I tell you .; ..
Hello, how are you?
Turn-taking: Yes, but ....; Well yes, but ...; Sorry to interrupt but ...;
Could I make a point?

Holding a turn: Anyway, you know.. .; I mean.. .

Passing a turn: What do you think?; Tag questions.
Repair: .
What I really meant was . .; Sorry, can you
repeat? Pardon; Say again, please.
Assimilate: In short; In other words.. .
Check: Do you follow me?; Understand?; Are you with me?
Foreclesing: Well, I don't want to hold you for long;
You may be getting late; I have an appointment.
Closing: Bye, bye; See you; Have a nice weekend.

Paying attention/showinginterest:

Really!Nhat?/Oh no!/How interesting!iI see;/Indeed!iIs that so?

UNIT 38 CONDUCTING AND FACITW
INTERVIEWS
Structure

Objectives
Introduction
Aims of InterviewdTests
What Do Interviews Seek to Test?
Types of TestsAnterviews
Preparations Before Conducting an Interviews
Interview Structure
How to Face Interviews?
Let Us Sum Up
Answers

38.0 OBJECTIVES

We have been talking of face-to-face interactions. We have already described some

of these in units 38 and 39. There is another form of face-to-face interaction, viz.
interview. Interview is defined as a meeting with somebody for discussion or
conference as, for example, between employer and applicants for jobs, or a meeting
of a newspaper reporter with somebody whose views are requested. In this unit we
shall talk about this form of interaction and show you how to conduct interviews and
how to face interviews in business.

38.1 INTRODUCTION

We are living in a competitive world and the competition is getting stiff and more
stiff every day. We have to compete at every step of your life right from birth. When
you are just a toddler you may have to compete for a seat in the nursery section of a
"good" school. At this age you have perhaps no idea of this word 'interview' and
hence there is no anxiety or fear on your face - you are too young to realize the
situation. And if you were then found crying, it was not because of fear of interview
but because of some sort of discomfort or because of the strange and unfamiliar
situation you found yourself in. But the anxiety must have been there writ large on
the faces of your parents who themselves were perhaps required to appear for an
interview.

Facing an interview can be an uphill task even for the experienced ones. It can be
quite nerve-racking for young students aspiring for a professional career after their
studies are over. The problem is complicated by the multiplicity and variety of tests
and interviews and the scope for subjectivity in the whole process.

The first reaction in most cases, at least on the part of the interviewees, when an
interview letter is received, is to wrack their brains and look for a connection. The
right connection may sometimes help some but the majority of candidates have no
option but to brace themselves up to face the music in all earnest.

38.2 AIMS OF INTERVIEWSITESTS

There are three types of tests and interviews. One for entrance to higher level
professional and technical courses, e.g. engineering, medical, vocational courses such
 Conducting &
as Master Degree in Business Administratlon, Computer Applicat~onsand soon. Facing Interviews
Second, there could be tests and interviews for pre-service training, e.g. trainee
engineers, for service in the armed forces. There may be interviews for jobs at all
levels such as clerical, junior management and senior level managers. The candidates
may have to appear for an interview but sometimes they are requlred first to appear
and qualify in a written test before they are called for an interview andfor group
discussion. Sometimes they may just be requested to come for what is termed as a
'walk-in' interview.

The aim of holding tests and interviews is to screen applicants and select the most
suitable ones for the intended purpos6; it is in a way a filtering process and hence
there may be no question of fail or pass as such.

Newspapers reporters, too, make appointments to interview persons whose views,

etc. they wish to take down and publish for the information of their readers. Such
interviews are also common in the world of business where companies' executives
give interviews on various matters, e.g. their new ventures, or foreign collaborations,
modernization, diversification, mergers, etc.

38.3 WHAT DO INTERVIEWS SEEK TO TEST?

Interviews and tests seek to screen candidates and find out whether they are suitable
for the job or the course they are out going to pursue. These are devised to test their
physical and mental traits: build and appearance, physical fitness, (any physical
disability or weakness which might obstruct their performance of the task for which
they are being recruited), general intelligence, logical ability, general awareness as a
member of the society in which they live, their personality, aptitude for the job, their
ability to lead and work with others, their ability to cope with general and specific
problems, etc.

38.4 TYPES OF TESTS

There are different types of test and good tests are carefully devised to serve the
purpose of testing. These are: Achievement Tests, Aptitude Tests, General
Intelligence Tests, Diagnostic Tests, Personality Tests.

38.5 PREPARATIONS BEFORE CONDUCTING AN

INTERVIEW
Before the interview is held, one must ensure that all necessary steps for smooth
conduct of the interview have been taken. Some of these steps are: have the
interview letters been dispatched well in time at the candidates' postal address; the
venue and the time of interview stated clearly. Have you requested the candidates to
confirm if they are coming? Have they confirmed, if so, how many of them are
actually coming? Who are the interviewers; have they been informed and have they
confirmed their presence? Do you have someone else ready if one of the members of
the interview board is unable to make it? Has the interview board been constituted
according to rules (if there are any in this regard)? In which order have the
candidates been called? Have all of them been called at the same time or have they
been given spaced timings? Have you got enough copies of the list of the candidates
who have been called for the interview? It is also advisable to have their written
applications handy in a file and also make a resume of their [Link] have a few
copies of this made as each member of the interview board may need a copy. Blank
~us&a~~s~~ommuni&: sheets of papers, @pencils, erasers, assessment guides/instructions may be placed
Oral SMUs in the room for use by the members. Secretarial helplattendants to record attendance,
attend to candidates' needs and queries, accompany the candidates to the interview
room, etc. must be arranged.

On the day of the interview, make sure that someone looks after the arrangements for
seating the candidates at a comfortable place and for marking their presence as they
come along. Accounts office has also to be informed if the candidates have to be
paid travelling costs, etc.

Check the room where the interview is to be conducted. Is it within easy reach from
where the candidates are seated Is it fiee h m disturbance-factory noise, traffic on
the road outside, coming and going of other employees in the passage outside the
d m , canteen, telephone, noisy fandair-conditioners, etc. are likely to prove
communication barriers. What abdut the furniture, the seating arrangement, the
distance between the interviewers and the interviewee, electrical installations, fittings
and fixtures, audio recorder (if the interview is to be recorded), heatingicooling
s y s w h e c k all these for their smooth working. Recording equipment should be
unobtrusive and kept away fiom a ticking clock, table bell, etc. Avoid very bright
light overhead.

Check Your Progress 1

1. Make a list of things you will do and the order in which you will do them
before holding an intMew for the posts of sales persons.

2. Make a list of items you have to take into the interview room before starting
an interview.

3. Make a list of things you will do in the four or five minutes befm each
individual interview.

38.6 INTERVIEW STRUCTURE

Interviews are generally structured somewhat as follows:

The Chairman or his nominee on the board begins by asking for general information
which in fact has already been given in the application form. Questions showing
personal concern may also be put e.g. (if the candidate is an outstation candidate):
When did you come to Delhi? Did you have a comfortable journey?, etc. The aim is
to settle the candidate and make him/her feel relaxed.

The next stage of the interview is conducted by the subject expert, e.g. Marketing
Manager (if the candidate has applied for a marketing job). This is a preliminary
probe into what the candidate already knows about the job. Questions are asked to
test his/her theoretical knowledge, ability (already gained, if dhe has practical
experience) to handle the job and related day-to-day problems encountered, hidher
intelligence and aptitude, hidher personality and suitability for the job. In the next
stage of the intewiew, an attempt is made to find the ceiling of candidates' abilities.
This is the climax. In the last phase, the interview is wound up smoothly to come to a
close.

The real purpose of the intewiew is to seek information that cannot be sought through
the written application. We must pause and think what this information or detail is.
Questions must be fiamed carehlly to elicit these details. Yes/No type questions
should be avoided as they do not elicit much from the candidate. It is also necessary
to subordinate one's personality and build up the candidate's confidence. Paying
attention to what slhe says, encouraging himher to say more, prompting himher here
 Cbnducting &
and there, and allowing h i d e r to put questions, if dhe has any, are some of the Facing Interviews
ways of getting the best from the candidate. Do nothing that might drive h i d e r into
hidher protective shell. Jeering, laughing, showing lack of interest in what dhe says,
showing surprise, or criticizing himlher directly or indirectly, will inhibit the
applicant.

Consider the following interaction between the candidate, who has applied for a post
of a school principal and the interviewers:

Candidate: (On amivingin the room). Good morning.

Chairman: Good morning. Take a seat, please.
(The candidate takes his seat)
..
You're Mr.. ....
Candidate: Mr. Singh. Ashwini Kumar Singh.
Chairman: Mr. Singh, tell us in brief about your higher
education.
Candidate: I did my B.A. (Hons.) in English fiom Delhi
University in 1964 and M.A. (English) fiom the
same university in 1967. My [Link] is from
Regional College of Education, Bhopal.
Chairman: Are you working at present?.
Candidate: Yes sir, I am Vice-principal of DAV School since
1990.
Chairman: Why do you want to leave that job?
Candidate: I'm happy there and the management also
appreciates my work. I applied here in your school
because the position here is that of a principal and
your school happens to be one of the most
progressive schools in this city.

(At this stage the chainnan hands over the questioning to the man sitting next to him).

Read the interaction given above and discuss with others in yo& group the purpose of
this talk between the candidate and the chainnan when all this information is
available in the written application of the candidate.

Face-to-face interviews are generally structured and consist of four phases. Phase 1
is known as 'Settling the candidate' and is generally initiated by the Chairperson of
the Board or hidher deputy. Questions asked are of a general nature, e.g. the identity'
of the candidate, his /her personal and family details, education, present position, etc.
The aim is to settle the candidate, make himher feel comfortable and to set the tone
for the next phase of the interview.

The transition from phase 1 to phase 2 is smooth. In this phase the candidate is
encouraged to speak fieely; certain clarifications might be sought regarding hidher
C.V. and it might take the form of cross-examination.

Listen to the following conversation to see how the interview proceeds further:-

Interviewer: Mr. Singh, you said you did your B.A. (Hons.) in 1964 and
your M.A. in 1967. Was your M.A. a three-year course?

Candidate: It was'nt a three-year course. In fact, after graduation I had

to seek employment for a year for personal reasons.

Interviewer: Oh, I see. Why did you leave that job?

Business Communication: Candidate: It was a salesman's job and I wanted to be a teacher..
Oral Skills
Interviewer: Mr. Singh, you have been a vice-principal for about six years
now. What sort of duties do you have to perform in the
school?

Candidate: I have to do both teaching and administration. I teach

English to senior secondary students and also look after
admissions, accounts and staff salary bills (In fact, I am the
drawing and disbursing officer of the school); I also
supervise sports, examinations, and petty purchases. I am
responsible for the administration of the school when the
principal is on leave.

(At his stage this interviewer signals that he has no more to ask and hands
overfurther questioning to the person sitting beside him).

Activity

Which aspects of the candidate's C.V. are being focused upon in the above extract?
Why? Discuss with others in the group.

In the next phase the candidate is provoked to justify hidher suitability for the job for
which dhe has applied, questions may be asked to even trap himher to contradict
himherself. Subject specific questions may be asked to make an initial assessment of
the candidate's suitability.

This phase is continued to stretch the candidate and find hidher 'ceiling'. S h e may be
given a task or problem to solve, role-play, deal with a simulated situation-the aim is
to find out histher present worth and fbture potential v i s - h i s the job.

Now listen to the following extract to see the direction the interview takes:

, Interviewer: Mr. Singh, what arc the qualities of a good principal?

Candidate: He or she should be a good scholar and a good administrator.
Interviewer: Can you explain these two terms 'a good scholar' and 'a good
administrator'?
Candidate: S h e ought to have at least an M.A. in a school subject and a
teaching degree and also enough administrative experience
in a reputed school.
Interviewer: Mr. Singh, you have not explained what you mean by 'a good
administrator'.
Candidate: (The candidate says many things, but it seems that he is
unable to defne the term).

(At this stage the questioning is taken over by the next person).

Interviewer: Mr. Singh, there is tendency among teachers not to take their
classes regularly. What will you do if you find one such
teacher in your school?
Candidate: I'll take action against him.
Interviewer: What action will you take?
Candidate: 1'11 ask him to explain why he has not been meeting his class
regularly.
Interviewer: What if he still does not mend himself?
Candidate: I'll report him to the principal.

(At this stage, the questioning is resumed by the previous member of the
board).
 Conducting &
Interviewer: Mr. Singh, in a recent incident, a principal found some three
teachers gossiping in the school lawns. When he requested
-
Facing Interviews

them to go to their classes, they shouted at him and abused

him. What would you have done in such a situation?
Candidate: I don't think teachers would ever behave like that with their
principal.
Interviewer: What would you do if they do?
Candidate: ........
I
I
Activity

I
'
Which skills of the candidate are being tested in the above extract? How? Discuss
with others in your class.

The last phase of the interview is the concluding phase. By now the interview board
members have made an assessment of the candidate's suitability. Care is take to see
that the conclusion is not abrupt.

Interviewer: O.K. Mr. Singh. Thank you for showing interest in the job
and coming for this interview. We will soon let you know
the results by post.

38.7 HOW TO FACE INTERVIEWS

Thanks to growing professionalism, interviews are now conducted, at least in large

organisations, by qualified experts. It is not possible to lay down any hard and fast
prescriptive about what to do and what not to do at such interviews because
interviews, too, are conducted by human beings, though on the other side of the table,
and not by machines. Moreover, there is lot of scope for subjectivism and hence
error of judgment might occur. Sometimes, the members of the board may be under a
some sort'of pressure to select persons on considerations other than merit. However,
in spite of all these facts it is better to take a systematic approach to face an interview.

Read the interview letter carefully. Note down the date, time and the venue of the
interview and mark it in your diary of calendar of appointments. Send a reply
confirming if you are going (it is advisable to send a letter even if you are not
attending the interview). Book your passage ticket well in advance for outstation
interviews. Keep all the documents asked for, original certificatesldegrees and their
copies, photographs, interview letter, etc. well arranged in a file folder. Do you know
the place of interview, if not locate it a day before the interview. Dress nicely in
comfortable clothes, start well before time to reach the venue at least 30 minutes
before the appointed time (traveling may take more time in the morning traffic rush
hours). For outstation interviews try to reach a day before the interview. Feel
relaxed, continue your usual chores as fear and anxiety mar performance.

Face-to-face interview is another form of face-to-face interaction and we have

already described in details the rules for such interactions. Can you recall some of
the rules of face-to-face interaction?

Show interest in what the interviewer says, be attentive to what s h e asks so that you
do not have to say, I beg your pardon, etc. Do not interrupt, speak only when the
entire question is over and then take your turn. Do you remember the term 'turn-
' taking'?
i1
I
'I Be relevant, and brief but to the point, don'z speak too low or too loud, speak
,normally so that you are audible to all the members of the board and speak clearly
Business Communkation: with proper stress on words you intend to emphasise. Keep your cool even
Oral Skills provoked and be polite in your interaction with those on the other side of

One important strategy in facing interviews is to anticipate questions and prefict

what the interviewers might ask so that when they ask it, it does not come as
surprise to you.

38.8 LET US SUM UP

In this unit we have given you some practical hints on how to conduct and face
interviews. For example, for conducting interviews some of the hints we have given
are: conduct the interview in a quiet location; use a small room or a comer in,a larger
one; avoid very bright light; check electrical fittings and fixtures; remove distracting
objects; keep papers and materials neatly organised on the table or desk; and sit in a
relaxed, friendly position. Similarly, we have also given some very useful hints for
facing interviews.

Answers

Check Your Progress 1

Answers to exercises 1 and 2 are contained in the unit.

3. The members of the interview board can have 3 to 4 minutes between each
individual interview. During this interval, they can exchange notes on their
individual assessment of the candidate just interviewed, enter hidher scores
under different heads on their respective assessment sheets, go over briefly
through the C.V. of the next candidate, and check if the recording tape need to
be changed.
 I

UNIT 39 BUSINESS PRESENTATIONS

Structure

39.0 Objectives
39.1 Introduction: What is a business presentation?
39.2 Stages in a Presentation
39.3 Effective Language Use in Presentations
39.4 Presenting Graphs and Tables
39.5 Let Us Sum Up
39.6 Key Words
39.7 Suggested Reading

39.0 OBJECTIVES

The aim of this unit is to introduce and practice the techniques of making effective
presentations. We will help you to become familiar with the basics of good
presentation ind understand its stages: introducing the topic, organising and
sequencing the information to be presented, choosing the appropriate language and
tone, particularly the use of connecting words and phrases. Visual material, such as a
diagram, a graph or a table is often an essential part of a presentation and helps to
illustrate the topic, as well as to draw relevant conclusions. We will discuss some
ways to present material of this kind.

The exercises given in this unit will help you to make effective business
presentations. Try to do these exercises. You may also take up topics of your own
interest and try to present information on them.

39.1 INTRODUCTION: WHAT IS A BUSINESS

PRESENTATION?

A presentation is a means of imparting some information, in a fairly organised and

systematic manner. A business presentation may be that of a product, a service,
sales, company performance and future plans, etc.

Whether spoken or written, the information in a presentation has to be clear and well-
organised. It must be comprehensibleto the audience. This means that there should
be clear signals to the audience to show how one idea leads to another and the choice
of words should be exact. The information given should be relevant and to the point.
There should be no digressions.

A simple presentation may deal only with one or two main ideas. However, most
presentations consist of complex activities, depending on the topic. These may
consist of the following elements:

a) Defining and describing the subject

b) Analysing the situation or topic, and the available evidence e.g. the state of
the company.
c) Interpreting consequences and implications, talking about various
possibilities.
d) Making suggestions and recommendations.
e) Clarifying doubts and answering questions on the subject.
Business Communication:
Oral SkiUs The following is an example of a short presentation in which several of the above
activities take place:

This is a report on car production by various companies in Description

Britain. In 1974 British car makers output was 2m units a year.
In 1980, the output of the four main producers: Ford, British
Leyland, Vauxhall and Talkot was about 900,000 units a year. Analysis
However, productivity and standards of workmanship are far
lower in Britain than in the rest of Europe. This means that Implication
some companies, such as Ford, may move 'productionfiom
Britain to other courtries. It follows that not only will workers Consequences
in Ford lose their jobs but so will workers working For Ford's
suppliers.

Ellis O'Driswll,
Pilbeam Adapted
fiom Professional
English London,
Longman, 1984.

Check Your Progress 1

Prepare a presentation on the following topic:
Your Company

Give the following information in your presentation:

1. When the company was founded.

2. What products/services it manufacturedprovides
3. The types of customers/clientele it has
4. Its location
5. Number of employees
6. Annual turnover
7. The company's main strengths and achievements
8. The recent trends and developments in the company
9. The company's future plans.

39.2 STAGES IN A PRESENTATION

There are three broad stages in a presentation:

a) Beginning
b) Body of the presentation
c) Conclusion
U

a) In the beginning of the presentation the presenter greets the audience. (Good
morning'. .., 'welcome' etc.). Then the presenter states the topic of the
presentation, simply and briefly. In doing this, the presenter may define any
term or concept that is new to the audience. This is an important point to
remember, since the audience can consist of business people or lay persons or
both. The presenter must be aware of the level of the audience. For instance,
a concept such as 'Quality Circles' may have to be defined if the audience is a
mixed one but may not require explanation to a group of people in an
industrial firm.
 Business
It is also important to put the audience at ease at the beginning of the
' Presentations
presentation by stating that questions may be asked and discussion can take
place. The-presentermay either ask: If you have any questions, please feel
free to intempt and I will do my best to answer them, or 'If you have any
questions or doubts, please keep them till the end of the presentation when
we can discuss them.'

Look at this introduction to a presentations:

1. Good morning, ladies and gentremen.. .

2. Welcome to this session ... .
3. Today I will be speaking about franchising.
4. I would like to begin by defining the concept of franchising.
Franchising is.. .
Which phrases tell the audience about the structure of the presentation?
..
These are: "I will be speaking about.. .', 'I will begin by .'

Alternative phrases which can be used in place of the above are:

'I will start by looking at.. .'

T o begin with, I will talk about.. .'
'What I want to talk about today is.. .'

In the body of the presentation, which is the main part of the presentation, the
most important aspect is the sequencing of ideas. For each idea, the
following sequence may help:

Give the main idea Explain related idea e.g.

Cause, reason, link Show its result, effect or implication.

If there are several important ideas, the presenter must clearly indicate the
order of sequencing in the beginning, such as:

First of all, we will discuss.. .

.
After that .. .
.
Finally. .

During the presentation, the presenter will need to use markers of sequence
such as:

Next.. .(the next idea)

Then we have (the next related idea)
Now I'd like to turn to ..(another idea)

~lternativesequencing words and phrases are:

To begin with .... Secondly ....Thirdly.. . After that

First of all ... What happens...Then. .. Following this
Firstly ... Next is. .. Next. ..

The first step is

The next stage is ... Finally

Other stages in the main part of the presentation may be: \

Turning to a new topic: The presenter can say:

.
'Now I will turn to . . ', 'We can go on to consider.. .'
Business Communication: Returning to a point: The presenter can say:
Oral Skills
'As mentioned earlier.. .', or 'Going back to my earlier point.. .' or 'Returning
briefly to the earlier idea.. .'

Look at the following extract from a presentation on market research:.

There are many reasons behind the increasing use of market research, both for
consumer and industrial products. Firstly, marketing departments need market
research in order to monitor technological change not only within their own industry
but also in the industries which use the product. Secondly, it is needed for more
accurate information about trends and changes in market demand. Another important
reason for using market research is to obtain more complete information on
competitors. The marketing department also needs to be able to assess potential in a
variety of areas including product development. Here, too, market research can help.
Finally, some companies are rarely aware of what is happening in their own markets
because these is no direct contact between producers and end users. Therefore,
market research can be used to bridge the information gap between producer and
customer.

Notice the sequencing markers such as 'firstly, secondly, finally ...'. Apart from
these markers, there are other devices to link the ideas within sentences and between
them. The first sentence introduces the topic: 'Reasons for market research'. The
reasons within each sentence a F given by means of linkers such as 'for', 'because', 'in
order to'. In the second sentence, two reasons are connected by use of the structure
'not only ... but also! ~ e t w e the
k sentences, the structure of ideas is shown by the
use of devices such as 'another', 'too' and 'also'. By these means, new ideas are
introduced. The last sentence shows a logical connection with the previous sentence.

c) Conclusions are presented at the end by summing up the ideas and thanking
the audience. The following phrases can be used:

1. With these remarks, I conclude this presentation.

2. To sum up ...
3. To summarize..
4. Thank you for being so attentive.
5. I wish to conclude by thanking you for your attention.

If question are to be answered, the presenter must wait for the audience to ask
questions and anticipate what kinds of questions they may be. Some answers should
already be prepared in anticipation. Sometimes the presenter may ne2d some
'thinking time' before the answer can be given. At this time, the following phrases
may be usell:

That's an interesting question'

'I'm glad you raised that point'
'Perhaps I explained that, let me put it in other words'
'Perhaps I can give you some details on that later'.

Check Your Progress 2

Arrange the items in the outline presentation given below in a logical sequence:

i) I will discuss the various factors that play a part in creating motivation.
ii) I shall start by looking at motivation, and why it is important.
iii) Finally, I shall suggest ways in which you can motivate yourself and others.
iv) Good morning, welcome to this session on motivation.
v) Please feel free to ask any questions you wish to ask me on this topic.
vi) I ?hall also explain how it is useful to be able to motivate people.
 c h e c k Your Progress 3 Business
t Presentations
I the main stages in the following presentation; you may underline the words
Mark
that mark these stages:

Let me explain the various steps that we go through before we make a new medical
product available to doctors and patients. First of all, a new substance is tested under
laboratory conditions to determine its possible side-effects. If the tests are successful,
the substance is then tested on volunteers. Subsequently, a licence is applied for from
I the government, so that the product can be evaluated by hospital specialists,
following specified procedures. Next, the information from trials is published in the +

! medical press. Following this, the accumulated data is presented to the Committee on
safety of Medicine. Then, after the licence is granted, the product is introduced and
j marketed.

39.3 EFFECTIVE LANGUAGE USE IN PRESENTATION

In the previous unit, we have seen how some words and phrases can be used as
makers to signal the stages of a presentation. Apart from these, there are other
language devices that can be used to make a presentation effective. The following
are some points to remember while making different kinds of statements in a
presentation:

1) Statements of contrast: These are made when some situation facts or ideas
are compared and contrasted with one another. For example, when
presenting the advantages compared with disadvantages of something the
\ presenter can say:
\ Though -------are the advantages, there are also disadvard ages:
Despite the advantages/disadvantages,there are ---------
On one hand-these are --------,on the other hand.. .
In contrast-to this, in comparison to this.. .
Even though-------- is the case, it is also true that -----
Nevertheless.. . (before a contrasting statement)
However ... (before a contrasting statement)
e.g. 'I don't type. However, I do use a terminal.'

2) Statements of addition: These are made when some facts or ideas are added
to ones already presented for example:

Furthermore.. .
In addition to ..........
Apart from this, there is also.. .
3) Statement of causeleffect: These are made when a relationship of cause or
effect is to be indicated between two facts or events. For example,

This is due to ---------

This is because of ------

4) Statement of result: This is made when some outcome is to be shown. For

example

So, this is --------

Therefore, this is-----
Thus, this is ---------
Business Conrmunication:
Oral Skills 5) Statement of attitude; This is made when the presenter whishes to indicate a
favourable or non-favourable attitude towards the subject for example:

Fortunately,. ..
Of great concern to us ...
Statement of emphasis: The use of emphasis is made when the presenter
wishes to give a greater or lesser impact to the statement. If the presenter
wishes to give stronger emphasis to the statement, words such as the
following will be used:

Certainly .... In fact .... Of course.. .

Undoubtedly.. . Indeed ...

These can be used to express strong agreement or disagreement, for example:

'I completely agreelsupport.. ., I am absolutely certain.. ., I totally disagree
If the emphasis is not to made as strong, the presenter can say: 'It
appears1Seems so.. ., ' 'Tentatively.. .'It might be claimed ...,'
'Agreeably.. .'

Statements of probability and possibility: These are usually made when

future events or developments are to be stated. The correct use of modals
along with adjectives or adverbs should be made. For example:

It will certainly happen.

It may probably happen
It is possible that they may/might/will.. .
It is unlikely /likely to happentchange
It is sure, it is expected, it is definite.. .
I doubt that there will be /can be.. .
It is bound to happentoccur

Statement of qualification: A statement may need some qualification of the

presenter has some reservations or doubts about the fact. If may be useful to
qualifjrthe facts by saying:

This is true up to a point, but.. .

It might be worth saying / fair to say
I'm not sure if this is entirely the case

Statement of hypothesis: This kind of statement may be made if there are

certain conditions or circumstances that need to be stated if some
event/developments are to take place. For example:

If we can supply ... we will get the contract

If we do not move into the market now, we will.. .
Unless we act quickly, we will lose.. .

Statement of Suggestion: When the presenter needs to make some

recommendation or suggestion in an acceptable way, the following
expressions may prove useful:

It would be helpful to understand.. .

It would be a good idea to ...
We may recommend that ...
Welyou should.. ., can.. .,ought to.. .
 Business
Apart from all these types of statements, there are some adjective phrases that Presentations
can 'colour' a presentation e.g. 'a splendid opportunity', 'a challenging
experience', 'a lucky break,' 'a big chance'.

Verbs are crucial in a presentation since they are used to signal actions. The
right verbs is instrumental in creating emphasis. For example, there is a lot
of difference in the following verbs, though they may seem to be similar:

1. Recommend
2. Advice
3. Suggest

If you check the dictionary to find out the exact shade of difference behvem
them, you will find that the first has the strongest degree of emphasis, the
I second has a less emphatic but still strong emphasis, and the third is least
emphatic,

Phrasal verbs are verbs with a preposition (also called a particle) and give
an idiomatic flavour to a statement for example: 'move on to the next item', '
'kept up the efforts' 'Take on the competition,' etc. These must be used
correctly to convey the intended meaning.

Check Your Progress 4

Look up the dictionary to find out the exact difference between the following sets of
verbs:

Demand/urge/request
Begin/commence/initiate
Illustrate/discuss/explore
Endorse/agree/accept

Check Your Progress 5

f
Fill in the blanks in these sentences with the best word:

1. I don't mind what you decide. Its -------you.

2. He'll fill you ---with all the information.
3. We're waiting for something to turn -----.
4. Let's move ----with our plans.
5. We'll take -----this issue later.

Check Your Progress 6

Connect the following sets of sentences to show result, contract, suggestion and
emphasis, using the suggested words in bracket etc.

1. a) Car dealers report lower sales of new cars.

b) Recent fall in demand for new cars.
c) Car manufactures cut prices (due to, as a result of this)

2. a) The interview went on very well.

b) I'll accept the job.
c) They'll offer me the job. (if, definitely, perhaps)

3. a) I will pick you up at the airport.

b) I don't have any appointments
c) We can go for a meal together. (certainly, then, if, probably)
Business Communication: 4. a) We were expecting them at seven.
Oral Skills
b) They didn't arrive till ten.
c) It was too late to go the play. (but, and, by, then)

39.4 PRESENTING GRAPHS AND TABLES

Graphs, tables and charts are a means of focusing attention on particdm facts e.g.
some relevant data or figures. They support and illustrate the points being explained
by the presenter. Some graphs may be explicit enough, but others may require some
explanation and elaboration.

When presenting, graphs and tables, the presenter directs the audiences attention to
the graph by saying:

Lets look at .. ..
In this graph, we can see.. .
We have some interesting facts here.. .

A graph depicts visible trends or developments that have taken place. Various words
and expressions can be used to describe these developments. Fo! instance, if the
graph shows an upward movement, it can be described in language as : a rise, an
increase, an improvement, a peak; to shoot up, to recover. If it shows a
downward movement, it can be described as : 'a fall, a decline, a deterioration, a
decrease; to plunge, to plummet, to drop. When the graph shows a level which
indicates no change, it can be described as: remained steady, stayed the same,
remained stable. In describing all these movements, the presenter can also use
words indicating the degree of the rise or fall e.g. rapid, rapidly; sudden, suddenly;
significant, significantly; substantial, slight, negligible, gradual, steady, sharp,
dramatic, unprecedented, etc.

A more complex graph would contain comparative statement of two or more

companies, developments, or positions. In this case, comparative statements such as
less than, more than, similar to, different from... etc. need to be made.

Look at the graph below which describes the position as regards 'sales' of a product.
Each development or trend can be described in appropriate words.
--

I
f rose ----
Sales I peaked out. ..
%Ies { went up
increased
-,:-,--A
I . "Z

slowly
steadily
/ fell This was due ta . .
dropped This was the result of. . .
Sales rapidly Sales slumped
rose quickly This caused. . .
decreased This led to. ..
suddenly plunged
gradually

Taken from :Barian Howe, wtfolio. Longman, 1989.

 --
~usiness.
Information may also be presented in the form of a table, as for instance: Presentations

Advertising on Television

[ Advantages Disadvantages

1. Combined impact of sight 1. Expensive

and sound (action)
2. Geographical flexibility 2. Timing difficult
3. Intimacy of appeal (relaxed) 3. Competing with other activitks
4. Prestige 4. Mass audience - non-selective
5. Newsworthy ('did you see x 5. Must be supported by wide
last night?') distribution
6. Frequent repetition 6. 'Expensive to produce

Taken from: Ellis, O'Dricoll and Pilbeam

Professional English Longman, 1984.
In comparing products and services, the differences between them need to be stated
clearly, for instance:
.
As compared to . .this is ...
The major difference between this and ----- is
The p d u c t can be compared with competitive products by using the phrases:
This product has the edge over.. . .
compares well with.. ..
performs better than.. ..
is ahead of.. ..
is superior to.. . .
Check Your Progress 7
Look at and present the information conveyed by the graph given below:

Total sales of
Air Cand~iloninJUnits

20
I
/
/
,cr--- :. --\ --------
/

Sales of IEI
Au Condinoning Units

39.5 LET US SUM UP

In this unit, we have discussed the techniques of effective business presentation,

' ' which include: the main stages of a presentation, the language to be used and the
Business Commu~ication: presentation of graphs and tables. You may practice these techniques yourself and
Oral Skills tape your presentation after preparing it. Then listen to it and you will be able to
judge how you have done.

39.6 KEY WORDS

I'

Definition:. To describe the chief features and qualities of an

object and idea.

Analysis: Breaking up of ideas into parts or components and

studying the features of each one.

Interpretation: Drawing meaning or understanding from available

facts.

Implication: Drawing out possibilities and conclusions from

available facts.

Sequencing: The linear order of items, one after another.

Linkage: The connection between ideas and sentences.

Tone: the quality of voice (high or low pitch) and degree of

emphasis given to parts of a sentence.

39.7 SUGGESTED READINGS

Ellis, O'Driscoll and Pilbeam. Professional English, London Longman, 1984.

Hollett, Carter, Lyon and Tamer In at the Deep End:Speaking
Hollett, V. Business Opportunities, Oxford. Oxford University Press, 1999.
Oxford Dictionary of Business English for Learners of English.

b ~ n s w e r to
s exercises

Check Your Progress 1 .

You may give details regarding the company in the following format:

The company was founded in ----------

It was set up to manufacture/provide ---------
For -------- (type and number of customers)
It is based in -------,its headquarters are in --------
The factory premises are in --------,the main office is ---------,with branch ofices in -
-------
There are -------..
employees working with the company at present. Its annual turnover
is -------
(you may compare earlier turnover with present one)
The company has achieved a high standing in the area of ----; it has a good
reputation among ------ ,Recently it has expanded into -------
The future of the company is bright, with further expansion and development being
anticipated.

Check Your Progress 2

iv. ii, i, vi, iii, v

 Check Your Progress 3 Busmess
Presentations
Introduction: first of all.. ., if.. ., subsequently.. ., Next ...,Following this.. ., Then,
after.. .

Check Your Progress 4

The dictionary will help you to understand the different degrees of emphasis and
shades of difference between these sets of verbs.

/
I

Check Your Progress 5

! 1. up to, 2. in, 3. up, 4. on, 5. up

I, Check Your Progress 6

(1) Car dealers report lower sales of new cars due to the recent fall in demand for
new cars and as a result of this, the care manufactures may reduce prices,
(2) The interview went off very well, I'll definitely accept the job if they offer it
to me.
(3) I will certainly pick you up at the airport if I don't have any appcintments and
then we can go for a meal together.
(4) We were expecting them at seven but they didn't amve till ten. By then, it
was too late to go the play.

Check Your Progress 7

The information in the graph may be presented as follows:

In this graph, we can see, (or: this graph presents) the total sales of air conditioning
units during the period 1960 to 1983 as compared to the sales of IEI Air conditioning
units. The sales rose from 1960 to 1965 after which they levelled off till 1970. Then
the sales increased steadily till 1975. From 1975 to about 1978, sales registered a
sharp increase to peak at 25,000 units. Subsequently there was a dramatic fall up till
1982, when they stabilised at the previous level of 1975, that is, about 18,000 units.
In comparisoii, the sales of IEL air conditioning units rose steadily to peak in 1978
, and levelled of subsequently. What we can understand from this is that sales of IEI
I air conditioning units have followed a similar path to the progress of total sales of air-
conditioning unit. We can also see that the highest point in the sales graph i.e. 25,000
units coincides with a high point in the sales of IEI units which are 15,000. This
means that IEI sales has a large share of the total sales of air-conditioning. The
present situation (after 1983) shows the sales figures of IEI coming very close to the
total sales. Which means IEI has almost cornered the market in sales of air-
conditioning units.